[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 173

ALTERNATING CURRENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
 Understand and describe time period, frequency, the peak and root mean square values
of an alternating current and voltage.
 Know and use the relationship for the sinusoidal wave.

 Understand the flow of A.C. trough resistors, capacitors and inductors.

 Understand how phase lags and leads in the circuit.

 Apply the knowledge to calculate the reactances of capacitors and inductors.

 Describe impedance as vector summation of resistances.

 Know and use the formulae of A.C. power to solve the problems.

 Understand the function of resonant circuits.

 Appreciate the principle of metal detectors used for security checks.

 Describe the three phase A.C. supply.

 Know the production, transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves.

Q.1 Define alternating current. Also explain time period and waveform of alternating
current.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 174

Alternating current (A.C) is that which is produced by a

voltage source whose polarity keeps on reversing with time. A + I
Here the terminal A of the source is positive with respect to o-T/2 R
terminal B and it remains so during a time interval O to T/2. At T/2
the terminals change their polarity such that A becomes negative B
and B positive during time T/2  T. As a result of this change of
polarity the direction of current flow in the circuit also changes.
Time Period A
The time interval „T‟ during which the voltage source T/2-T
I R
changes its polarity once is known as period T of alternating
current or voltage. The relation between frequency „f‟ and time B +
period „T‟ is given as
1
f = T

Waveform of Alternating Voltage vo

The most common source of alternating voltage is an A.C 0

generator which has been described such that the output voltage V T/4 T/2 3T/4 T t

of A.C generator at any instant is given by -vo

(a)
V = Vo sin t
vo
2
= Vo sin T  t A B C D E
t
0 /2  3/2
-vo
Here T is the period of rotation of coil of generator and Vo (b)
be maximum value of voltage. V changes with time „t‟.
To draw the graph we take the values of V with time t in
the following
(i) At t = 0 
2
V = Vo sin T = Vo sin 0
Voltage of curre t
n

Positive Peak
V = Vo  0 = 0  sin 0 = 0 rms

(ii) At t = T/4  3/2 2

/2  t
2 T
V = Vo sin T  4
Negative Peak
  Cycle
= Vo sin 2 = Vo  1  sin 2 = 1 Vrms = 0.7 Vo
Irms = 0.7 Io
V = Vo
(iii) At t = T/2 
2 T
V = Vo sin T  2
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 175
= Vo sin  = Vo  0  sin  = 0
V = 0
(iv) At t = 3T/4 
2 3T
V = Vo sin T  4

3 3
= Vo sin 2 = Vo  1  sin 2 = 1

V = Vo
(v) At t = T 
2
V = Vo sin T
T
= Vo sin 2 = Vo  0  sin 2 = 0
V = 0
The variation of V with time „t‟ and angle „‟ is shown in the figure which is the waveform of
alternating voltage which is a sine curve. The output voltage of A.C generator varies sinusoidally.
Note: The main reason for the world wide use of A.C. is that it can be transmitted to long distance and
at a very low cost.
Instantaneous Value
The value of voltage or current that exists in a circuit at any instant of time „t‟ measured from
some reference point is known as its instantaneous value.
V = Vo sin t
2
= Vo sin T  t

= Vo sin 2ft
Peak Value
It is the highest value reached
o by the voltage or current in one cycle. It is denoted by V .

Peak to Peak Value

The sum of the positive and negative peak values (p-p) known as peak to peak value of voltage
from figure it is „2Vo‟.
Q.2 What is the root mean square value of alternating current?
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (rms) VALUE
If we connect an ordinary D.C. ammeter to measure A.C. it V
2
o
would measure its value as average over a cycle. The average value 2
1 2 Io
of A.C. current and voltage over a cycle is zero, but the power 2Vo

delivered during a cycle is not zero because power is I2R and value Vrms
12
of I2 is positive even for negative value of „I‟. The average value of Irms
2Io
I2 is not zero and is called the mean square current. The alternating t
current or voltage is actually measured by square root of its mean
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 176
square value known as “root mean square (rms) value”.
Its expression is written as
2
Vo Vo
Vrms = = = 0.7 Vo
2 2
Similarly,
2
Io Io
Irms = = = 0.7 Io
2 2
Most of the alternating current and voltage maters are calibrated to rest rms values.
Q.3 Define phase of A.C.
PHASE OF A.C.
The relation for the instantaneous value of alternating voltage is given by
V = Vo sin t
= Vo sin 
Here angle „‟ which specifies the instantaneous value of the v
o

alternating voltage or current is known as its phase.

B C D E
0
A   3
 
2
Here the phase at the points A, B, C, D and E in the figure is 0, -v 2 2 =t
/2, , 3/2 and 2 respectively.
o

Q.4 Define phase lag and phase head.

PHASE LAG AND PHASE LEAD

In practice, the phase difference between two
alternating quantities is more important than their 1
absolute phases. Figure shows two waveforms 1 and
2. The phase angles of the waveform 1 at the points A
0 /2 B  C 3/2 D 2 E
3/2 /2  3/2 2 
A, B, C, D and E have been shown above the axis 0
and those
2 of waveform 2 below the axis. At the point
B, the phase of 1 is /2 and that of 2 is 0. Similarly it
can be seen that at each point the phase of waveform
2 is less than the phase of waveform 1 by an angle of
/2. We say that A.C 2 is lagging behind A.C 1 by
an angle of /2. It means that at each instant, the
phase of A.C 2 is less than the phase of A.C 1 by 1
/2. Similarly it can be seen in figure, that the phase
at each point of the waveform of A.C 2 is greater 0 /2 B  C 3/2 D 2 E
A 
/2 3/2 5/2 
than that of waveform 1 by an angle /2. In this
2

case, it is said that A.C 2 is leading the A.C 1 by /2. 2

It means that at each instant of time, the phase of
A.C 2 is greater than that of 1 by /2.
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 177

Vector Representation of an Alternating Quantity

V
A sinusoidally alternating voltage or current can be graphically
represented by a counter clockwise rotating vector provided it satisfies I
O   2
the following conditions: 2

(i) Its length on a certain scale represents the peak or rms (a)
value of the alternating quantity. V

(ii) It is in the horizontal position at the instant when the

alternating quantity is zero and is increasing positively. 90°or /2 rad
O
(b) I
(iii) The angular frequency of the rotating vector is the same
as the angular frequency  of the alternating quantity.

Figure (a) shows a sinusoidal voltage waveform leading an alternating current waveform by /2.
The same fact has been shown vectorially in figure (b). Here vector OI represents the peak or rms value
of the current which is taken as the reference quantity. Similarly OV represents the rms or peak value of
the alternating voltage which is leading the current by 90. Both vectors are supposed to be rotating in
the counter clockwise direction at the angular frequency  of the two alternating quantities. Figure (b)
shows the position of voltage and current vector at t = 0.
A.C. CIRCUITS
The basic circuit element in a D.C. circuit is a resistor (R)
V
which controls the current or voltage and the relationship between them
is given by Ohm‟s law that is V = IR. I
2
In A.C. circuits, in addition to resistor R, two new circuit O

elements namely INDUCTOR (L), and CAPACITOR (C) become
relevant. The current and voltages in A.C. circuits are controlled by
three elements R, L and C. We would study the response of an A.C
circuit when it is excited by an alternating voltage.
Q.5 Describe A.C through a resistor.
A.C. THROUGH A RESISTOR
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 178
Here a resistor „R‟ is connected with A.C. source. The potential A
difference across the terminals A and B of resistor at any time „t‟ will be
V = Vo sin t V
where „Vo‟ be the peak value of alternating voltage. The current „I‟ R
flowing through the resistor is given by ohm‟s law
Vo
I = R sin t
(a ) B
I = Io sin t
where „I is instantaneous value and Io the peak value. The voltage and V
current both are sine functions which vary with time. It means when I
voltage rises the current also rises, both pass the maximum and
minimum values at the same instant. In purely resistive A.C. circuit t
instantaneous values of voltage and current are in phase. This
behaviour is shown graphically in figure.
  (b)
Also V and I vectors are drawn parallel because there is no

phase different between them. The instantaneous power in the V
resistance is given as
P = I2R (c) 
2
I
V
or P = VI = R

It is very important to noted that this equation holds only when current and voltage are in phase.
Q.6 Describe A.C. through a capacitor.
A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR
Alternating current can flow through a resistor, but it is not
obvious that how it can flow through a capacitor. This can be
demonstrated by the circuit shown in figure. A low power bulb is V C
connected in series with a 1 F capacitor to supply mains through a
switch. When the switch is closed, the bulb lights up showing that the
S
current is flowing through the capacitor. Direct current cannot flow
through a capacitor continuously because of the presence of an insulating
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 179
medium between the plates of the capacitor. Now let us see how does Increasing
+q
A.C flows through a capacitor. The current flows because the capacitor V I C
plates are continuously charged, discharged and charged the other way -q
Increasing
round by the alternating voltage (Figure a). The basic relation between
the charge q on a capacitor and the voltage V across its plates i.e., q = Decreasing
CV holds at every instant. If V = Vo sin t is the applied alternating V I C
+q
-q
voltage, the charge on the capacitor at any instant will be given by Decreasing
q = CV = CVo sin t  (1) (a)
Since C, Vo are constants, it is obvious that q will vary the same A E
way as applied voltage i.e., V and q are in phase (Figure b). P V T
q
The current I is the rate of change of  with time i.e.,
N B S F
q O
I D t
I =
t
R
So the value of I at any instant is the corresponding slope of the C
q  t curve. At O when q = 0, the slope is maximum, so I is then a (b)
maximum. From O to A, slope of the q  t curve decreases to zero. So I I
is zero at N. From A to B the slope of the q  t curve is negative and so
O
I is negative from N to R. In this way the curve PNRST gives the 90 V
variation of current with time. (c)
Referring to the figure (b) it can be seen that the phase at O is zero and the phase at the upper
maximum is /2. So in figure (b) the phase of V at O is zero but the current at this point is maximum so
its phase is /2. Thus, the current is leading the applied voltage by 90 or /2. Now consider the points
A and N. The phase of alternating voltage at A is /2 but the phase of current at N is. Again the
current is leading the voltage by 90 or /2. Similarly by comparing the phase at the pair of points
(B, R), (C, S) and (D, T) it can be seen that at all these points the current leads the voltage by 90 or /2.
This is vectorially represented in figure (c).
Reactance of a capacitor is a measure of the opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of
A.C. It is usually represented by XC. Its value is given by
Vrms
XC = I  (2)
rms
where Vrms is the rms value of the alternating voltage across the capacitor and Irms is the rms value of
current passing through the capacitor. The unit of reactance is ohm. In case of capacitor
1 1
XC = =  (3)
2fC C
According to eq. (3), a certain capacitor will have a large reactance at low frequency. So the
magnitude of the opposition offered by it will be large and the current in the circuit will be small. On the
other hand at high frequency, the reactance will be low and the high frequency current through the same
capacitor will be large.
Q.7 Define reactance of a capacitor.
REACTANCE OF CAPACITOR
It is the measure of the opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of A.C. It is denoted by “XC”.
Vrms
XC = I
rms
where Vrms is rms value of the alternating voltage across the capacitor and Irms is the rms value of current
passing through the capacitor.
 [CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 180
1 1
XC = =
2fC C
The unit of reactance is ohm ().
At low frequency the reactance will be high and current through the capacitor will be lower. On
the other hand at high frequency the reactance will be low.

Q.8 Describe A.C. through an inductor.

A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR
An inductor is usually in the form of a coil or a solenoid wound I =Iosin t
from a thick wire so that it has a large value of self inductance and has L
a negligible resistance. We have already seen how self inductance
opposes changes of current. So when an alternating source of voltage is
applied across an inductor, it must oppose the flow of A.C which is
(a)
continuously changing figure. Let us assume that the resistance of the
P T
coil is negligible. We can simplify the theory by considering first, the A
current and then finding the potential difference across the inductor Vo Io D V
which will cause this current. Suppose the current is I = Io sin 2ft. If L O Q B S
I
is the inductance of the coil, the changing current sets up a back emf in C
the coil of magnitude. R
(b)

I 
L = L V
t
To maintain the current, the applied voltage must be equal to 90O 
I
the back e.m.f. The applied voltage across the coil must, therefore, be
(c)
equal to
I
V = L
t
I
Since L is a constant, V is proportional to . Figure (b) shows
t
I/t is given
how bythethe
current I varies with time. The value of
slope of the I  t curve at the various instants of time. At O, the value
of the slope is maximum, so the maximum value of V equal to V o
occurs at O and is represented by OP (Figure b). From O to A the slope
of I  t graph decreases to zero so the voltage decreases form Vo to zero
at Q. From A to B, the slope of the I  t graph is negative, so the
voltage curve goes from Q to R. In this way the voltage is represented
by the curve PQRST corresponding to current curve OABCD. By
comparing the phases of the pair of points (O, P), (A, Q), (B, R), (C, S)
and (D, T), it can be seen that the phase of the current is always less
than the phase of voltage by 90 or /2 i.e., current lags behind the
applied voltage by 90 or /2 or the applied voltage leads the current by
90 or /2. This is vectorially shown in figure (c) inductive reactance is Inductors are made in many sizes
a measure of the opposition offered by the inductance coil to the flow to perform a wide variety of
of A.C. It is usually denoted by XL. functions in business and industry.
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 181
Vrms
XL = I  (1)
rms

If Vrms is rms value of the alternating voltage across an inductance and Irms, the rms value of the
current passing through it, he the value of XL is given by
Vrms
XL = I = 2fL = L  (2)
rms

The reactance of a coil, therefore, depends upon the frequency of the A.C and the inductance L.
It is directly proportional to both f and L. L is expressed in henry, f in hertz and X L in ohms. It is to be
noted that inductance and capacitance behave oppositely as a function of frequency. If f is low X L is
small but XC is large. For high f, XL is large but XC is small. The behaviour of resistance is independent
of frequency.
Power Dissipation in Inductor
No power is dissipated in a pure inductor. In first quarter of cycle both V and I are positive so
power is positive which means the energy is supplied to inductor. In the second quarter V is ve but I is
+ve so the power is negative and energy is returned by the inductor. Again in third quarter, it receiving
energy but returns the same amount in fourth quarter. In this way no net change of energy is observed in
a cycle. Since an inductor coil does not consume energy the coil is used for controlling A.C. without
consumption of energy, such as inductance coil is known as choke.

Q.9 Define inductive reactance.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
It is the measure of the opposition offered by the inductance coil to the flow of A.C. It is denoted
by “XL”.
Vrms
XL = I
rms

or XL = 2fL = L
The reactance of coil depends upon the frequency „f‟ of A.C source. It is directly proportional to
„L‟ and „f‟ its unit is ohm (). It is noted that inductance and capacitance behave oppositely as a
function of frequency.

Q.10 Define impedance. Find its value for R.C series circuit and explain with phase or
diagram.
IMPEDANCE
The resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C) offer opposition to flow of A.C which is
measured by resistance R and reactances XL and XC. If a circuit consists of all these elements then “the
combined effect of resistance and reactances in such circuit is known as impedance”. It is denoted by „Z‟.
Vrms
Z = I
rms
 [CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 182
Its unit is ohm ().
R.C SERIES CIRCUIT
There is a circuit in which a resistance „R‟ and capacitor „C‟ are I
connected in series with A.C source. The same current flows through R C VC
and C due to series combination. If Irms is the value of current then
potential difference across „R‟ will be VR = IrmsR and it would be in phase V
with current. Similarly the potential difference across capacitor is VC = a.c. R VR
supply
IrmsXC the voltage lags the current by 90. It is shown in the diagram. The
applied voltage Vrms is obtained by resultant vector. Considering ABC
2 2 VR=IR I
Vrms = VR + VC A
2  C
Irms
= (IrmsR) +  2
V= IZ
C 
2 VC=IXC
 1  B
= Irms R + 
2
C
2
Vrms  1 
= R + 
2
Irms C
2
 1 
(Impedance) Z = R +  2
C
This shows that current leads the applied voltage by an angle „‟.
XC R
 = tan1  R  
 
 1 
= tan1   Z
CR XC

Vector Representation
Here it is known as impedance diagram of circuit. The angle gives the phase difference between
the voltage and current.
Q.11 Explain R.L series circuit.
R.L SERIES CIRCUIT
There is a resistor „R‟ and inductor (L) connected in series
-L circuit by source. We can calculate the impedance of R
with A.C
drawing the impedance diagram. The resistance „R‟ is drawn along
L
horizontal line because potential drop V = IrmsR is in phase with
current. The potential across inductance is VL = IrmsXL it leads current
R
by 90 so it is perpendicular to „R‟ line.
The impedance (Z) of circuit is obtained by vector sum of R
and L lines.
2
Z = R2 + XL
Z = R2 + (L)2
The phase difference between the voltage and current is given 
I
by angle „‟.
XL
 = tan1  R 
 
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 183
L
= tan1  R 
 

POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS

The expression for power P = VrmsIrms is true in case of A.C. circuits only when V and I are in
phase. The power dissipation in a pure inductive and pure capacitive circuit is zero. In these cases the

current lags or leads the applied voltage by 90 and component of applied voltage V along the current
vector is zero. In A.C. circuits the phase difference between applied voltage V and current Irms is given

by „‟. From figures of R-C and R-L series circuit it is clear that component of V along I is V cos .
Actually it is this component of voltage vector which is in phase with current. So the power dissipation
in A.C. circuit is given as
P = Irms  Vrms cos 
Here factor “cos ” is known as power factor.
Q.12 Explain series resonance circuit also discuss its properties.
SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT (R-L-C)
R
Consider a R-L-C series circuit which is excited by an
alternating voltage source whose frequency could be varied (Fig. a). V L
The impedance diagram of the circuit is shown in (Fig. b). As
explained earlier, the inductive reactance XL = L and capacitor C
1
reactance XC = are directed opposite to each other. When the
C (a)

1
frequency of A.C. source is very small XC = is much greater than XL = L. So the capacitance
C
dominates at low frequencies and the circuit behaves like an R-C circuit. At high frequencies XL = L is
1
much greater than XC = . In this case the inductance dominates and the circuit behaves like R-L
C
circuit. In between these frequencies there will be a frequency r at which XL = XC. This condition is
called resonance. Thus at resonance the inductive reactance being equal and opposite to capacitor
reactance, cancel each other and the impedance diagram assumes the form (Fig. c). The value of the
resonance frequency can be obtained by putting
1
rL =
rC
2 1 1
or r = LC or r =
LC
1
or f =
2 LC
Resonance Frequency
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 184
There is a certain frequency at which XL = XC this condition XL=L
is called resonance. At resonance the inductive reactance being equal
R
and opposite to capacitive reactance cancel the effect of each other
and circuit behaves like resistive circuit. The resonance frequency can XC=1/L
be calculated as (b)

XL = XC R
(c)
1
L =
C
1
2 = LC
1
 =
LC
1
2fr =
LC
1
fr =
2 LC
This is the expression for resonance frequency “fr”.
Properties of Series Resonance Circuit
(i) The resonance frequency is given by
1
fr = Ir=VO/R
2 LC
(ii) The impedance of circuit at resonance is resistive so current and
voltage are in phase and power factor is one.
(iii) The impedance of the circuit is minimum at this frequency and current
it is equal to „R‟.
(iv) If the amplitude of the source voltage „Vo‟ is constant then fr
current is will be maximum at resonance frequency. frequency
(v) At resonance VL the voltage drop across inductance and VC the voltage drop across capacitance
may be larger than the source voltage.
R-L-C series circuit also called acceptor circuit.
Q.13 What is parallel resonance circuit? Describe its properties. Also find the
resonance frequency for the circuit.
PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT L

Figure shows a RLC parallel circuit connected with alternating

source of voltage whose frequency could be varied. The resistance of V
C
coil is very small and capacitor draws a leading current whereas the
coil draws a lagging current. The circuit resonate at a frequency which
makes XL = XC so that the two branch currents are equal but opposite. r
Hence they cancel out with the result that the current drawn from
supply is zero. In actual practice, the current is not zero but has a
minimum value due to small resistance r of the coil, the current flowing
through r is V/r. Hence energy is needed from supply and energy is
dissipated from circuit in the form of heat.
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 185
At resonance XL = XC
I = IL  IC = 0 I

 IL = IC
V
= V 2frC
2frL Ir
2 1
fr = 2 fr f
4 LC IC
1
fr = V
2 LC

IL

Properties of Parallel Resonant Circuit

(i) The resonance frequency is given by
1
fr =
2 LC

(ii) At the resonance frequency the circuit impedance is maximum. It is resistive and its value is
L/Cr.

(iii) At resonance the current is minimum and so it is in phase with applied voltage. So power factor
is one.

(iv) At resonance the branch currents IL and IC may be larger than the source current I. LC parallel
circuit is also called as rejecter circuit or tank circuit or oscillator.

Q.14 What is three phase A.C supply?

THREE PHASE A.C. SUPPLY

We have already studied that an A.C. generator consists of a coil with a pair of slip rings. As the
coil rotates an alternating voltage is generated across the slip rings. In a three phase A.C. generator,
instead of one coil, there are three coils inclined at 120 to each other, each connected to its own pair of
slip rings. When this combination of three coils rotate in the magnetic field, each coil generates an
alternating voltage across its own pair of slip rings. Thus, three alternating voltages are generated. The
phase difference between these voltage is 120. It means that when voltage across the first pair of slip
rings is zero, having a phase of 0, the voltage across the second pair of slip rings would not be zero but it
will have a phase of 120. Similarly at this instant the voltage generated across the third pair will have a
phase 240. This is shown in figure. The machine, instead of having six terminals, two for each pair of
slip rings, has only four terminals because the starting point of all the three coils has a common junction
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 186
which is often earthed to the shaft of the generator and the +
PHASE1 PHASE2 PHASE3
other three ends of the coils are connected to three separate
terminals on the machine. These four terminals along with
the lines and coils connected to them are shown in figure.

VOLTS
The voltage across each of lines connected to terminals A, B,
c and the neutral line is 230 V. Because of 120 phase shift, _
the voltage across any two lines is about 400 V. The main
advantage of having a three phase supply is that the total load A
of the house or a factory is divided in three parts, so that none

400V
of the line is over loaded. If heavy load consisting of a
D C
number of air conditioners and motors etc., is supplied power

400V
from a single phase supply, its voltage is likely to drop at full 230 230 V

load. Moreover, the three phase supply also provides 400 V

B
which can be used to operate some special appliances 230 V
requiring 400 V for their operation.

Q.15 Describe the principle of metal detectors.

PRINCIPLE OF METAL DETECTORS

A coil and a capacitor are Oscillator circuit B Oscillator circuit A

electrical components which together Additional Additional

can produce oscillations of current. An LB C
cicuitry
for
cicuitry
for C LA
L-C circuit behaves just like an oscillator oscillator
B A
oscillating mass – spring system. In this
case energy oscillates between a fOB fOA
capacitor and an inductor. The circuit is
called an electrical oscillator. Two such Beat frequensy
amplifier
oscillators A and B are used in the
operation of a common type of metal fOB _ fOA
detector in the absence of any nearby
Speaker
metal object, the inductances LA and LB
are the same and hence the resonance frequency of the two circuits is also same. When the inductor B;
called the search coil comes near a metal object, its inductance LB decreases and corresponding oscillator
frequency increases and thus a beat note is heard in the attached speaker. Such detectors are extensively
used not only for various security checks but also to locate buried metal objects.

Q.16 Define choke.

CHOKE
It is a coil which consists of thick copper wire wound closely in a large number of turns over a
soft iron laminated cores. This makes the inductance L of the coil quite large whereas its resistance R is
very small. Thus it consumes extremely small power. It is used in A.C. circuits to limit current with
extremely small wastage of energy as compared to a resistance or a rheostat.

Q.17 What are the electromagnetic waves?

 [CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 187
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
It is a very important class of waves which requires no medium for transmission and which
rapidly propagates through vacuum.
In 1864 British physicist James Clark Maxwell
A C
formulated a set of equations known as Maxwell‟s equations
which explained the various electromagnetic phenomena.
According to these equations, a changing magnetic flux
creates an electric field and a changing magnetic flux creates
an electric field and a changing electric flux is taking place
through it. This changing magnetic flux will set up a changing
electric flux in the surrounding region. The creation of B
D
electric field in the region CD will cause a change of electric
flux through it due to which a magnetic field would be set up
in the space surrounding CD and so on. Thus each field
generates the other and the whole package of electric and
magnetic fields will move along propelling itself through
space. Such moving electric and magnetic fields are known as E
electromagnetic waves. The electric field, magnetic field and From
Antenna
the direction of their propagation are mutually orthogonal
figure. It can be seen in this figure that the electromagnetic
waves are periodic, hence they have a wavelength  which is
B Direction of
given by the relation c = f where f is the frequency and c is Propagation
the speed of the wave. In free space the speed of
electromagnetic waves is 3  108 ms1.
Depending upon the values of
wavelength and frequency, the electro- visible spectrum
magnetic waves have been classified
into different types of waves as radio
waves, microwaves, infrared rays,
visible light etc., figure shows the increasing energy

complete spectrum of electromagnetic increasing frequency

4 6 waves
8 from
10 the
12 low14 radio
16 waves
18 to high
20 22
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hertz)
frequency gamma rays. 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Wavelength (metres)
increasing wavelength

Q.18 Explain the principle of generation, transmission and reception of

electromagnetic waves with an example.

PRINCIPLE OF GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION OF

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 188

We have seen that electromagnetic waves are generated when

electric or magnetic flux is changing through a certain region of space.
An electric charge at rest gives rise to a Coulomb‟s field which does
not radiate in space because no change of flux takes place in this type
of field. A charge moving with constant velocity is equivalent to a
steady current which generates a constant magnetic field in the
surrounding space, but such a field also does not radiate out because no
changes of magnetic flux are in involved. Thus only chance to generate
a wave of moving field is when we accelerate the electric charges.
A radio transmitting antenna provides a good example of Shake an electrically charged
generating electromagnetic waves by acceleration of charges. The piece object to and fro, and you
produce electromagnet waves.
of wire along which charges are made to accelerate is known as
transmitting antenna figure. It is charged by an alternating source of Transm itting
potential of frequency f and time period T. As the charging potential antenna
alternates, the charge on the antenna also constantly reverses. For
example if the top has +q charges at any instant, then after time T/2
the charge on it will be q. Such regular reversal of charges on the
antenna gives rise to an electric flux that constantly changes with
frequency f. This changing electric flux sets up an electromagnetic wave
which propagates out in space away from the antenna. The frequency
with which the fields alternate is always equal to the frequency of the
source generating them. These electromagnetic waves which are
propagated out in space from antenna of a transmitter are known as
radio waves. In fee space these waves travel with the speed of light.
Suppose these waves impinge on a piece of wire of shown. The
electrons in the wire move under the action of the oscillating electric
field which give rise to an alternating voltage across the wire. The
frequency of this voltage is the same as that of the wave intercepting
the wire. The wire receiving the wave is known as receiving antenna.
As the electric field of the wave is very weak at a distance of many When electrons in the transmitting
antenna vibrate 94,000 times each
kilometres from the transmitter, the voltage that appears across the second, they produced radio waves
receiving antenna placed in space is usually due to the radio waves of having frequency 94 kHz.
large number of frequencies. The voltage of one particular frequency
can be picked up by connecting an inductance L and a variable
capacitor C in parallel with one end of the receiving antenna.
If one adjusts in value of the capacitor so that the natural
frequency of L-C circuit is the same as that of the transmitting station
to be picked up, the circuit will resonate under the driving action of the
antenna. Consequently, the L-C circuit will build up a large response to
the action of only that radio wave to which it is tuned. In your radio
receiver set when you change stations you actually adjust the value of
C.
Q.19 Define modulation with its types.
MODULATION
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 189
Speech and music etc., are transmitted hundred of kilometres away by a radio transmitter. The
scene in from of a television camera is also sent many kilometers away to viewers. In all these uses, the
carrier of the programme is a high frequency radio wave. The information i.e., light, sound or other data
is impressed on the radio wave and is carried along with it to the destination.
Modulation is the process of combining the low frequency
signal with a high frequency radio wave called carrier wave. The Sound
Audiosignal
resultant wave is called modulated carrier wave. The low frequency Modulated
carrier waves
signal is known as modulation signal. Modulation is achieved by Microphone
amplifier
changing the amplitude or the frequency of the carrier wave in tothetransmitter

accordance with the modulating signal. Thus we have two types of

Carrier waves
modulations which are Amplitudemodulation

(1) Amplitude modulation (A.M.)

(2) Frequency modulation (F.M.)
Amplitude Modulation
In this type of modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is
increased or diminished as the amplitude of the superposing
(a) carrier wave
modulating signal increases and decreases.
Figure (a) represents a high frequency carrier wave of constant
amplitude and frequency. Figure (b) represents a low or audio (b) audio signal
frequency signal of a sine waveform. Figure (c) shows the result
obtained by modulating the carrier waves with the modulating wave.
(c) amplitude modulated wave
The A.M. transmission frequencies range from 540 kHz to 1600 kHz.
Frequency Modulation (a)
In this type of modulation the frequency of the carrier wave is carrier wave
increased or diminished as the modulating signal amplitude increases (b)
or decreases but the carrier wave amplitude remains constant. Figure
shows frequency modulation. The frequency of the modulated carrier (c) fo H fo audio signal fo H fo
wave is highest (point H) when the signal amplitude is at its maximum
positive value and is at its lowest frequency (point L) when signal
frequency modulated wave
amplitude has maximum negative. When the signal amplitude is zero,
the carrier frequency is at its normal frequency fo.
The F.M. transmission frequencies are much higher and ranges between 88 MHz to 108 MHz.
F.M. radio waves are affected less by electrical interference than A.M. radio waves and hence, provide a
higher quality transmission of sound. However, they have a shorter range than A.M. waves and are less
able to travel around obstacles such as hills and large buildings.
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 190

SOLVED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 16.1
An A.C. voltmeter reads 250 V. What is its peak and instantaneous values if the frequency
of alternating voltage is 50 Hz?
Data
rms value of alternating voltage = Vrms = 250 V
Frequency = f = 50 Hz

To Find
Peak value = Vo = ?
Instantaneous value = V = ?

SOLUTION
Using
Vo
Vrms =
2

Vo = 2  Vrms

= 2  250
= 353.5 V
For instantaneous value
V = Vo sin 2ft
= 353.5 sin 2
= 353.5 sin 100 t
Result
Peak value = Vo = 353.5 V
Instantaneous value = V = 353.5 sin 100t

EXAMPLE 16.2
A 100 F capacitor is connected to an alternating voltage of 24 V and frequency 50 Hz.
Calculate:
(a) The reactance of the capacitor, and
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 191
(b) The current in the circuit
Data
Capacitance = C = 100 F
= 100  106 F
Alternating voltage = Vrms = 24 V
Frequency = f = 50 Hz
To Find
(a) Reactance of the capacitor = XC = ?
(b) Current in the circuit = Irms = ?

SOLUTION
(a) Using
1
XC =
2fC
1
=
2  3.14  50  100  106
XC = 31.8 
Vrms
(b) Now XC =
Irms
Vrms
Irms =
XC
24
= 31.8

= 0.75 A
Result
(a) Reactance of the capacitor = X C

(b) Current in the circuit = Irms = 0.75 A

EXAMPLE 16.3
When 10 V are applied to an A.C. circuit, the current flowing in it is 100 mA. Find its
impedance.
Data
rms value of applied voltage = Vrms = 10 V
rms value of current = Irms = 100 mA
= 100  103 A
To Find
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 192
Impedance = Z = ?

SOLUTION
Using
Vrms
Z = I
rms

10
=
100  103
= 100 
Result
Impedance = Z = 100 

EXAMPLE 16.4
At what frequency will an inductor of 1.0 H have a reactance of 500 ?
Data
Inductance = L = 1.0 H
Reactance = XL = 500 
To Find
Frequency = f = ?

SOLUTION
Using
XL = L = 2fL
XL
f =
2L
500
=

= 80 Hz
Result
Frequency = f = 80 Hz

EXAMPLE 16.5
An iron core coil of 2.0 H and 50  is placed in series with a resistance of 450 . An A.C.
supply of 100 V, 50 Hz is connected across the circuit. Find (i) the current flowing in the coil, (ii)
phase angle between the current and voltage.
Data
Resistance = R1 = 50 
= R2 = 450 
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 193
Inductance = L = 2.0 H
Voltage = Vrms = 100 V
Frequency = f = 50 Hz
To Find
(i) Current in the coil = Irms = ?
(ii) Phase angle =  = ?

SOLUTION
Vrms
(i) As Irms = Z

But Z = R2 + (L)2
As L = 2fL
= 2  3.14  50  2.0
= 628 
Then Z = (500)2 + (628)2
= 803 
Vrms
So Irms =
Z
100
= 803

= 0.01245 A
= 12.45 mA
(ii) For phase angle
L
 = tan1  R 
 
628
= tan1 500
 
 = 51.5
Result
(i) Current = Irms = 12.45 A
(ii) Phase angle =  = 51.5

EXAMPLE 16.6
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 194
A circuit consists of a capacitor of 2 F and a resistance of 1000  connected in series. An
alternating voltage of 12 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied. Find (i) the current in the circuit, and
(ii) the average power supplied.
Data
Resistance = R = 1000 
Capacitance = C = 2F
= 2  106 F
Alternating voltage = Vrms = 12 V
Frequency = f = 50 Hz
To Find
(i) Current in the circuit = Irms = ?
(ii) Average power supplied = P = ?

SOLUTION
(i) Now by formula
Vrms
Z = I
rms

Vrms
Irms =  (i)
Z
By Z = R2 + (XC)2
1
By XC =
2fC
1
=
2  3.14  50  2  106
= 1592 
So Z = (1000)2 + (1592)2
= 1880
Then putting in eq. (i) we get
12
Irms = 1880

= 0.0064 A
= 6.4 mA
(ii) For the average power XC
But  = tan1  R 
 
P = Vrms Irms cos 
1592
= 12  0.0064 cos 57.87 = tan1 1000
 
= 0.04 W
= 57.87
[CHAPTER 16] ALTERNATING CURRENT 195
Result
(i) Current in the circuit = Irms = 6.4 mA
(ii) Average power = P = 0.04 W

EXAMPLE 16.7
Find the capacitance required to construct a resonance circuit of frequency 1000 kHz with
an inductor of 5 mH.
Data
Frequency = f = 1000 kHz
= 106 Hz
Inductance = L = 5 mH
= 5  103 H
To Find
Capacitance = C = ?

SOLUTION
By formula
1
f =
2 LC
1
Squaring f2 = 2
4 LC
1
C =
4 Lf2
2

1
=
4(3.14)  5  103  (106)2
2

= 5.09 PF

Capacitance = C = 5.09 PF