INDEX

No Units Page-no

15 Molecular Theory of Gases 2-4

16 First law of thermodynamics 5-11

17 Second law of 12-14

thermodynamics
18 Magnetic Field 15-18

19 Electromagnetic Induction 19-

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 Unit-no 1: “Molecular theory of gases”

 Difference between Heat and temperature:

Heat;
Heat is the sum of kinetic energy of all molecules in a system. It is a
form of energy that transfers from hot body to cold body. Its unit is
joule. Other unit of heat are calories [1 calories = 4.184J], BTU
(British thermal unit). It is measured by calorimeter.

Temperature;
Temperature is the average kinetic energy in a system. It is the
degree of hotness or coolness. Its unit is kelvin. Other unit of
temperature are Celsius and Fahrenheit. It is measured by
thermometer.

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  Scales of temperature
There are three scales of temperature
(i) Centigrade or Celsius scale
(ii) Fahrenheit scale
(iii) Kelvin or absolute scale are commonly used these days

1. Tk = Tc + 273.15
2. Tf = 9/5 Tc + 32 or 1.8 Tc +32
3. Tc = 5/9 (Tf -32)

Q; At what temperature Celsius scale is equal becomes to Fahrenheit

scale. OR At what temperature Celsius scale consist with a
Fahrenheit scale.
Answer; let x be the temperature at which Tc = T f

Tc = T f
T f = 1.8 Tc +32
x = 1.8 x +32
x- 1.8x = 32
-0.8x = 32
x = 32/-0.8
x = -40

Answer; At the temperature of – 40 temperature scale and Celsius

scale Becomes equal.

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 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
These are main postulates of Kinetic Theory of Gases are as under;
 A gas contains very large amount of particles called molecules.
Depending on the gases each molecule consist of an atom or a group of
atoms.
 A finite volume of a gas consists of very large number of molecules.
This assumption is justified by experiments. At standard conditions
there are
3 x 1025 molecules per cubic meter.
 The size of a molecules is very small, it is about 3 x 10-10 m.
 The molecules move in all directions with various speeds collide
elastically with one another and with the walls of the container.
 The molecules exert no forces on one another except during collisions.
In the absence of the external forces, they move freely in straight lines.
 Laws of mechanics are assumed to be applicable to the motion of
molecules.
 Average Kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature.

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 Unit No 16 “first law of thermos dynamics”

Heat
Heat is a form of energy that transfer’s from hot to cold body due to
temperature difference. Work and thermal energy are linked by the broader
framework of energy conservation. The study of heat has evolved significantly
over centuries.

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 Thermal energy and work
Internal energy and heat; in thermodynamic, thermal energy is associated
with the internal energy of a system.

Heat Flow
It flows spontaneously from a region of higher temperature to the lower one
the rate at which heat is transferred can be Calculate by using the equation;
Q = mc ∆T
Where, Q is the heat transferred, m is the mass of substance, c is
the specific heat capacity of the substance, and ∆T is the temperature
change.

Internal energy
Internal energy (U) is defined as the total energy of a closed system. Internal
energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of the system.

 The symbol for internal energy is U, and its SI unit is the Joule (J).
 Internal energy is determined by temperature, the random motion of molecules,
and the phase of matter.
 Internal energy can be increased by doing work on a system or adding heat to it.
 Internal energy can be decreased by losing heat to its surroundings.

Internal Energy & Temperature:

The internal energy of an object is internally related to its temperature.
When a gas in a container is heated, the gas molecules move faster, increasing
their kinetic energy depending on their surroundings. In both liquids and solids,
molecules have both kinetic and potential energy due to intermolecular forces that
keep them close together. However, ideal gas molecules are assumed to have no
intermolecular forces, meaning they only possess kinetic energy and no potential
energy. The (change in) internal energy of a system can be calculate by using the
equation;

∆U = 3/2 k∆T

∆U ∝ ∆T
OR

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Conversion of Work to Thermal Energy
When work is done on a system, it leads to an increase in its internal energy, contrib
uting to thermal energy. For example, when you rub your hands together, the mechanical
work done generates heat due to friction, increasing the thermal energy of your hands.

Thermodynamics terms and basic concepts

The flow of heat or any other form of energy into or out of a system as it
undergoes a physical or chemical transformation is called thermodynamic.

Systems of thermodynamics:

1. Open System
In an open system, both heat and matter can be exchanged with the
surrounding. For instance, steam (matter) can escape from the cup of coffee, and
heat can be lost to the surrounding.

2. Close System
In close system, only heat can be transferred with the surroundings, but
matter cannot. In this example, heat can still transferred through the pot, but
the water vapors trapped inside the pot and cannot escape.

3. Isolated System
In an isolated system, neither heat nor matter can be exchange with the
surrounding. Example of an isolated system is thermos flask, which prevents
any exchange of both mass and energy with its surrounding.

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First law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamic is based on the idea that energy neither be
created and nor it can’t be destroyed in any thermodynamic system. So, it is
the particular form of the law of conservation of energy that deal with the heat
energy.
“This law states that every thermodynamic system possesses a variable
(U) called the internal energy”

∆Q = ∆U + ∆W

“The change in internal energy of a system equals to the net heat

transfers into the system minus the net work done by the system”

∆U = ∆Q – W

Where,
∆U = change in internal energy of the system
∆Q = transferred heat into the system
W = work done by the system

Sign Conversion

- ∆Q (Heat release from the system)

+ ∆Q (Heat enters into the system)
- ∆U (internal energy decrease)
+ ∆U (internal energy increase)
- W (work done by the system)
+ W (work done on the system)

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 Application of the first law of thermodynamics:
Application the first law of thermodynamics are based on the
principle that; “the three forms of energy; internal energy, heat and work can
be inter converted”
 The process in which any one of the three terms of the equation is zero.
 The process in which any one of the state variable P, V, T of the system
is held constant.


Isochoric process

“The thermos dynamic process during which the volume of the system is remains
constant”

A simple example of an isochoric process is a gas stored in a sealed cylinder expands

and contracts with temperature fluctuations keeping its volume constant.
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Becomes,
∆Q = ∆U

Isobaric process
“The thermodynamic process during which the pressure is kept constant
is called isobaric process”
A simple example of an isobaric process is boiling water at atmospheric
pressure. Even though the water absorbs heat and changes into steam, the
pressure remains constant throughout the process.
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Becomes, ∆W = P∆V
∆Q = ∆U + P∆V

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Isothermal Process
“The thermodynamics process during which the temperature of the
system is remains constant”
A simple example of an isothermal process is, when air is slowly compressed in
a bicycle pump, the heat generated is dissipated to the surrounding and
keeping the temperature of the air inside the pump is roughly constant.
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Becomes,
∆Q = ∆W

Adiabatic process
“The thermodynamic process during which no heat enters or leave the
system”
A simple example of an adiabatic process is, when gas expand in a turbine, it
does so adiabatically, converting thermal energy into mechanical work without
heat loss to the environment.
Adiabatic Expansion:-∆U = ∆W
Adiabatic Compression: -∆W = ∆U

Heat Capacity
Heat capacity is define as the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of a substance by 1`C or 1`K.

Specific heat capacity

Specific heat is often denoted by ‘C’, it is a measurement of the heat energy
required to raise the temperature of mass (Usually one gram or one kg mass of
a substance by one degree Celsius or one degree Kelvin).
Q = mC∆T

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11
Molar Specific Heat
It is denoted by ‘Cm’. It measure how much heat energy is required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a substance by one degree Celsius or one degree
Kelvin.
Q = nCm∆T

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 Unit no 17 “2nd law of thermodynamics”

Second law of thermodynamics

Lord Kelvin and Rudolf Clausius formulated the Second law of thermodynamics. It
consist of two statements.

Kalvin Statement
According to this statement “It is impossible to construct an engine, operating
continuously in a cycle that can take heat from a source and convert it completely into
work”.
According to Kelvin Statement, an engine when converting heat into mechanical work
cannot convert all of it into work. Apart of heat must be rejected to a cooler reservoir.

Clausius Statement
According to Clausius Statement “It is impossible to cause heat to flow from a cold body
to hot body without the expenditure of energy”.

Working principle of Heat engine

Any device that transforms heat into mechanical energy (Work) is called Heat engine. The
essential of a heat engine are the furnace or hot body, the working substance and a
Condenser or a cold body.
W = Q1 – Q2
W = ∆Q

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Reversible and Irreversible Process
To understand the nature of theoretical heat engine, we must first examine the concept of
reversible and irreversible process.
Reversible, “A reversible process is one which can be retraced back in exactly reversible
order,
Without producing any change in the surroundings”.
Irreversible, “The process which cannot retraced in the backward direction by reversing
the Controlling factors is known as Irreversible process”.

Petrol engine
Petrol is an Internal Combustion engine design to run on Volatile Fuel such as Petrol
(gasoline), which has spark ignition. In these engine air and fuel are generally mixed posts
compression.
It Includes,
1. IC Engine
2. Intake valve
3. Spark plug
4. Exhaust valve
5. Crank Shaft
6. Efficiency of IC engine
7. Piston

Diesel engine
Diesel engine is an engine which use diesel as a fuel. No spark plug is needed in the diesel
engine. Diesel is sprayed into the cylinder at maximum compression. Efficiency of diesel
engine is about 35% to 40%.
It Includes,
1. Intake valve
2. Exhaust valve
3. Piston
4. Cylinder
5. Fuel Mixture
6. Crank Shaft

14
The Carnot Engine
A French engineer named Sadi Carnot in 1824 describe an ideal engine Called Carnot
engine. Which is free from all sort of heat losses and friction.
Carnot Cycle’s Steps,
1. Isothermal expansion
2. Adiabatic expansion
3. Isothermal Comparison
4. Adiabatic Comparison

Refrigerator
According to the 2nd law of thermos dynamics heat will always flow spontaneously hot to
cold body, and never the other way around. A refrigerator causes heat to flow cold body to
hot body by doing work, which cools the space inside refrigerator.

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 Unit No “18” (Magnetic Field)

Magnetic field
An area around the permanent magnet or a currant carrying conductor. Where, they
generate a magnetic force.
Magnetic field can be generated through two primary methods;
 Permanent magnet
 Current carrying conductor
The direction of magnetic field is always North to south. In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted
made a significant discovery that revealed how a Current Carrying Conductor generates a
magnetic field.
They observed by the experiment that the magnetic fields direction produced by the
current carrying wire follows the right-hand rule. According to this rule,
“When you grasp the wire with your right hand, your thumb points the direction of
the current, while the curl of your fingers indicates the direction of the magnetic
fields line”

Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor

When we place a current carrying conductor with in a uniform external field, the
interaction between the magnetic field produced by the conductor and the external
magnetic field give rise to the external magnetic force.

Magnetic flux
The number of magnetic lines of force passing through an area surface held perpendicular
to it. It is called “magnetic flux”.

(Maximum/Minimun magnetic flux & unit of magnetic flux is written in copy)

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Ampere’s law
This law tell the relation between magnetic field and current in a conductor.
Ampere’s law can be defined as the integral of the magnetic field (B) around a close
loop is directly proportional to be total electric current (I) passing through the loop.

(Derivation is derived in copy)

(Application of Ampere’s law is also written & derived in copy)

Force on a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field:

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 When a charged particle moves through a uniform magnetic field, it experiences a
force known as the magnetic force.
The direction of the force is determined by the Right-hand rule, which states that if
you point your right thumb in the direction of the particles velocity and your fingers in the
direction of the magnetic field then the force directed perpendicular to the both, either into
or out of the palm of your hand, depending on the charge of the particle.
Where,
Force is directly proportional to the magnetic field and velocity of the charged particle.

Charge to mass ratio of Electron

Measuring the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an electrons is a classic experiment in the field
of electromagnetism and particle physics. This experiment, known as the “charge to mass
ratio (e/m) experiment”, involves applying both a magnetic field and an electric field to a
beam of an electron.

Measuring Instrument:
Galvano meter
A Galvanometer is an instrument used to detect and measure electric currents. It is a
highly sensitive electromagnetic apparatus cable of measuring even very small current,
such as those on the order of a few micro amperes.

Principle
It works based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a coil carrying
an electric current is positioned with in an external magnetic field, it undergoes magnetic
torque. The degree of deflection observed in the coil, caused by this magnetic torque, is
directly proportional to the currents magnitude following through the coil.

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Conversation of Galvanometer to Ammeter
To Convert a Galvanometer into an ammeter, a low-resister Known as a shunt is connected
in parallel with the Galvanometer. The selection of an appropriate shunt is based on the
desired current range of the ammeter.

Conversation of Galvanometer to Voltmeter

To convert a Galvanometer into voltmeter, a large resistor is connected in Series with the
galvanometer.

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 Unit no “19”
Electromagnetic Induction

Induced Electromotive force

Induced Electromotive Force (emf) can be generated in two primary ways:
(i) By Relative Movement (The Generator Effect)
This method is based on faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction, which states that
an emf is induced in a conductor when it experiences a change in magnetic flux. The
generator effect, also known as motional emf, occurs when there is a relative motion
between a conductor and the magnetic field.
(ii) By changing a magnetic field (The transformer effect)
This methods is also relies on faraday’s law but involves changing the strength or
orientation of a magnetic field around stationary conductor.

Faraday’s law
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is a fundamental principle in electromagnetism
that describe the relationship between a changing magnetic field and the induced
electromotive force (emf) or Voltage in a circuit.
It states that;
“Faradays law of electromotive force (emf) induced in a closed circuit directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux passing through the circuit”

Factors Affecting the magnitude of the induce emf;

I. Magnetic flux
II. Number of turn in the coil
III. Area of coil
IV. Angle between magnetic field and Coil
V. External force

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Lenz’s and principle of conversation of energy:
According to Lenz’s law “The direction of induced emf in a circuit is always such that it
oppose the cause which produce it”
The principle of conversation of energy is states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only change forms. When we apply this principle to electromagnetic
induction, we see that work done in changing the magnetic field is converted in to electric
energy in the form of the induce current. Hence the Lenz’s law is accordance to the law of
conversation of energy.

Production of Eddy Current

Eddy currents are produce according to the faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that a changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (emf) in a
conductor.

Magnetic effect of eddy current:

Counteracting Magnetic field
Eddy current generates its own magnetic field, and the direction of fields oppose the
original field that induce them as a result.
Magnetic damping
Eddy current are intentionally induced to create a magnetic resistance that opposes the
motion.
Joule Heating
Eddy currents experience resistance as the flow through the conductor, and this resistance
results in the conversation of electrical energy into heat.

Induction of Eddy Current:

To minimize this losses, laminated cores are used in transformers to break up con ducting
paths and reduce the formation of eddy currents.

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Self-Induction:
When electric current pass through the coil, it creates a magnetic field around it. If the
current in the coil changes, either increasing or decreasing, the magnetic flux into the coil
also changes accordingly. As a result of the change in magnetic flux, an induce emf is
generated in the same coil. This process, where a changing current in the coil induce an emf
in the coil itself, known as self-induction.

Energy Produced in Self-Induction

An inductor store energy in its magnetic field when it carries a Direct Current (DC). This energy
remains store as long as the inductor continues to carry it.

Mutual Induction
Imagine two closely positioned coils. The coil contain DC current is called primary coil and
another is secondary coil.
A Phenomenon where a changing current in one coil induce an Electromotive Force (EMF)
in another coil is known as Mutual Induction. The unit is Henry (H) and symbol is M.

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