X-Global Structure Analysis And Design Foundation I

CHAPTER 3 ISOLATED FOOTINGS

3.1 Introduction

Footings are structural elements made of reinforced concrete, which serve to transfer
the loads from the building’s columns to the ground in such a way that the soil’s
bearing capacity can support them.

It follows that soils with good bearing capacity will require smaller footings, whereas
soft soils and high building loads result in required footing areas so large that they
become uneconomical; in this case, an alternative solution is adopted, which may be
foundation beams or a mat foundation, discussed in later chapters.

Depending on the needs of the building and the characteristics of the soil, different
types of shallow foundations can be designed, such as: footings, foundation beams, and
mat foundations. This chapter will study everything related to footings.

Footings are economical and practical to construct, which is why they are the most
commonly used in our region where the soil has reasonable load-bearing capacity.

Among the types of footings developed in this chapter are the following: isolated
footings, unconnected property-line footings, connected property-line footings,
combined footings, corner footings, connected corner footings, footings set back on one
side, and footings set back on both sides. The development of each of these will be
presented later.

Depending on the eccentricity of the load or the acting moments, footings may be
centrically or eccentrically loaded; centrically loaded footings are the ones developed
in this text.

3.2 Effects of Eccentric Loads

A footing is considered to be eccentrically loaded if the supported column is not

centered with respect to the area of the footing, or if the column transmits, at its
connection with the footing, not only a vertical load but also a bending moment.
The foundation of an exterior column may be subjected to an eccentric load. If the
eccentricity is large, it can cause a tensile effect on one side of the foundation.
Therefore, it is recommended to size the foundation so that the load lies within the
middle third in order to avoid tensile stresses in the soil, which may theoretically occur

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before the redistribution of stresses takes place. The soil pressure for eccentrically
loaded footings is expressed by the following equation:

𝑃 𝑀. 𝑥
𝜎= ± (Eq 3.1)
𝑆 𝐼
Where:
𝜎 : soil pressure at a given point
𝑃 : axial load
𝑆 : area of the footing.
𝑀 : acting moment
𝑥: distance from the neutral axis,
𝐼 : moment of inertia of the footing area.
𝑒 : Eccentricity
We have:
𝐵. 𝐴 𝐴
𝑆 = 𝐴. 𝐵, 𝐼 = &𝑥= ±
12 2

Replacing the above expressions into Eq. (3.1), we get:

𝑃 𝑃. 𝑒 6
𝑞= ± .
𝐴. 𝐵 𝐴. 𝐵 𝐴
𝑃 6𝑒
𝑞= 1± (Eq 3.2)
𝐴. 𝐵 𝐴

Taking these aspects into account, the different cases of eccentricity are developed
below Figure [3.1], in which the load may act: at the center, within the core, at the
edge, and outside the central core.

(a) Elevation view

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(b) Elevation view

Figure 3.1: Cases of Eccentricity

3.2.1 Case I (𝒆 = 𝟎)
This is the case in which the eccentricity falls at the center of the central core or
middle third, where the moment is very small Figure [3.2].
The soil pressure is given by the following equation:

𝑃
𝑞= (Eq 3.3)
𝐴. 𝐵

The following condition must be satisfied 𝑞 ≤ 𝑞 .

Where:
𝑞 ∶ Allowable bearing capacity of the soil
𝑞 ∶ Net pressure transmitted by the footing to the soil

Figure 3.2: Case I (𝑒 = 0)

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3.2.2 Case II (𝒆 < 𝑨/𝟔)

In this case, the eccentricity falls within the central core, where the compressive stress
is greater than the bending stress. Figure [3.3].

Figure 3.3: Case II (𝑒 < 𝐴/6)

𝑃 6. 𝑒
𝑞 = . 1+ (Eq 3.4)
𝐴. 𝐵 𝐴
𝑃 6. 𝑒
𝑞 = . 1− (Eq 3.5)
𝐴. 𝐵 𝐴

For this case, the following condition must be satisfied: 𝑞 ≤𝑞 .

3.2.3 Case III (𝒆 = 𝑨/𝟔)

In this case, the eccentricity is located at the limit of the central core, where the direct
stress is equal to the bending stress Figure [3.4].

Figure 3.4: Case III (𝑒 = 𝐴/6)

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Soil pressures are given by the following equations:

2. 𝑃
𝑞 = (Eq 3.6)
𝐴. 𝐵
𝑞 =0 (Eq 3.7)

3.2.4 Case IV (𝒆 > 𝑨/𝟔)

In this final case, the eccentricity is located outside the central core. If the load acts
outside the middle third, tensile stresses are generated on the opposite side of the
eccentricity. If the maximum stress due to the load 𝑃 does not exceed the net allowable
stress, it is not expected that the footing will lift on that side, and the center of gravity
of the triangular pressure distribution must coincide with the resultant load. The soil
pressures are given by the following equations and in order to satisfy the conditions of
static equilibrium:

𝑞 .𝑥
∑𝐹 = 0 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑃 = .𝐵 (Eq 3.8)
2

Taking moments with respect to point J:

𝐴 𝑅. 𝑥 𝑥
∑𝑀 = 0 ⇒ 𝑃 . = .= 𝑃. 𝑒 + (Eq 3.9)
2 3 3

The system established with equations 3.8 and 3.9 has as unknowns the values of 𝑥
and 𝑞 ; by solving this, we obtain:

2𝑃 4𝑃 𝐴
𝑞 = = where, 𝑥 =3 −𝑒
3 𝐴
2 −𝑒 .𝐵
3(𝐴 − 2𝑒). 𝐵 2

Figure 3.5: Case VI (𝑒 > 𝐴/6)

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3.3 Centrically Loaded Footings

In general, and in typical building construction, footings with vertically centered loads
are the most common case. Although moments and shear forces may exist, their values
are usually very small, and their influence on the centering of the load is minimal.

3.4 Isolated Centrically Loaded Footings

Isolated footings are defined as those that transfer the load from a single column to
the ground, as can be seen in Figure [3.6] (a). As an exception, an isolated footing may
also be one that supports two adjacent columns separated by an expansion joint, in a
“tuning fork” shape, as shown in Figure [3.6] (b).

Isolated footings can have various geometric shapes depending on the needs; their use
is recommended when the loads are relatively low and/or the soil has good bearing
resistance.

The behavior of this type of footing is not complex, and its calculation presents no
significant difficulty. These footings will be analyzed as rigid foundations.

Figure 3.6: Types of Isolated Footings

The pressure distribution beneath a footing with a point load is not uniform. The
shape of the pressure distribution depends on the type of supporting material and the
degree of rigidity of the footing, as shown in Figure [3.7]. When the stress distribution
is irregular, it creates a fairly complex problem to solve. Therefore, to simplify the
calculation, a linear pressure distribution is adopted, which in practice shows little
variation from the actual pressure distribution (Figure [3.7] (a)).
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(a) Assumed Uniform (b) Actual for Granular Soil (c) Actual for Cohesive Soil

Figure 3.7: Pressure Distribution

Footings must be designed to resist the effects of factored axial loads, shear forces,
and bending moments.

3.5 Design of Centrically Loaded Isolated Footing

3.5.1 Plan Dimensioning

The area of the footing is estimated based on the allowable bearing capacity of the soil
and the service load:

𝑃 𝑃
𝑞 = ⇔𝐴 = (Eq 3.10)
𝐴 𝑞

Where:

𝑃 ∶ Service load

𝐴 : Required area of the isolated footing, rectangular (𝐴. 𝐵) or square (𝐴. 𝐴)

𝑞 : Allowable soil bearing capacity

The service load (P) is the load acting on the column and transmitted to the footing,
which is calculated beforehand by analyzing the entire structure.

When designing a rectangular footing, one of the sides (𝐴 or 𝐵) can be assumed, and
the other can be calculated. In the case of a square footing, side A is equal to side B
(𝐴 = 𝐵).

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 Square Footing

𝑃 𝑃
𝑞 = ⇔𝐴= (Eq 3.11)
𝐴 𝑞

 Rectangular Footing

𝑃 𝑃
𝑞 = ⇔𝐴= (Eq 3.12)
𝐴. 𝐵 𝑞 .𝐵

In the case of rectangular footings, it is not advisable to exceed the ratio of 𝐴 = 2. 𝐵

.Otherwise, the footing should be designed in such a way that the overall structural
behavior is ensured, for example, by incorporating a top rib. Next, the net ultimate
pressure that the footing transmits to the soil is calculated:

𝑃
𝑞 = (Eq 3.13)
𝐴

Where:

𝑃 : Factored load that must be resisted by the footing.

The load factors according to ACI 318S-14 Ch.5, Art.5.3, P.64 :

𝑃 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝐿, D ∶ Dead Load

𝑃 = 1.4𝐷, L ∶ Live Load

Choose the greater of the two values.

Where:

𝐴 : Required area of the isolated footing (square 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴 or rectangular 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵)

 𝑞 : Net ultimate pressure transmitted by the footing to the soil

Next, verify that the pressure calculated using (Eq 3.14) does not exceed the allowable
bearing capacity:

𝑃
𝑞 = (Eq 3.14)
𝐴⋅𝐵

𝑞≤𝑞 (Eq 3.15)

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3.5.2 Elevation Dimensioning

The effective depth “𝑑” of the footing is estimated based on punching shear and flexural
shear checks, or a minimum effective depth can be calculated.

According to the ACI 318S-14 Ch.13, Art.[Link], P.203 Code, the effective depth of
footings should not be less than 15 𝑐𝑚 for footings resting directly on soil.

3.5.3 Punching Shear Check

A column supported on a footing causes a punching shear effect due to the shear forces
acting around the perimeter of the column. This effect subjects the footing to vertical
compression. If this stress is too high, the footing tends to fail in shear.

Figure 3.8: (a) Punching shear failure & (b) Critical shear sections

As a result, if failure occurs, the discontinuity takes the shape of a truncated pyramid,
as seen in Figure [3.8(a)], with sides extending outward at an angle close to 45°. The
critical section for two-way shear is established according to the ACI 318S-14 Code,
Ch.22, Art.[Link], P.384 The average shear stress in the concrete at failure can be
taken as equivalent to that which acts on vertical planes through the footing and
around the column, over a perimeter 𝑏 located at a distance 𝑑 from the face of the
column (vertical section shown in Figure [3.8(b)]). This shear stress can be determined
using the following equation:

𝑞 (𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 − 𝐴 )
𝑣 = (Eq 3.16)
𝑏 ⋅𝑑

𝐴 = (𝑎 + 𝑑) ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑑) (Eq 3.17)

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𝑏 = 2(𝑎 + 𝑑 + 2𝑑) (Eq 3.18)

Where:

𝑢 ∶ Shear stress acting on the footing

𝐴 ∶ Area of the critical shear section 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 from Figure [3.8(b)]

𝑏 ∶ Perimeter of the critical shear section

𝐴 ∶ Width of the footing

𝑞 ∶ Net ultimate pressure transmitted by the footing to the soil

𝑑 : Effective depth of the footing

𝜙 = 0.75, shear strength reduction factor ACI 318S-14,Ch.21,T.21.2.1,P.363.

The ACI 318S-14, Ch.22, Art.[Link], P.387 states that the allowable punching shear
stress is the minimum value of the following equations:

2
𝑣 = 0.53 1 + 𝑓 (Eq 3.19)
𝛽

𝑑
𝑣 = 0.27 𝛼 ⋅ +2 𝑓 (Eq 3.20)
𝑏

𝑣 = 1.10 𝑓 (Eq 3.21)

Where:

 𝛽 ∶ Ratio between the long side and the short side of the column

 𝜆 = 20, for loads applied at the corner of a footing

 𝜆 = 30, for loads applied at the edge of a footing

 𝜆 = 40, for loads applied at the center of a footing

 𝑣 ∶ Shear strength provided by the concrete

𝑓 ∶ Specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days

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Once the requirements are satisfied, the following condition must be verified:

𝑣 ≤𝑣 (Eq 3.22)

3.5.4 Flexural Shear Check

Flexural shear may occur at a section located at a distance 𝑑 from the face of the
column, as in beams and one-way slabs. According to the ACI 318S-14, Ch.14,
Art.14.5.5, P.213, the shear stress is determined by the following equation:

𝑣 = 0.53 𝑓 (Eq 3.23)

Figure 3.9: Flexural shear failure (a) along the “x” axis, (b) along the “y” axis.

From the condition of equilibrium and the geometry of Figure [3.9], the following

equations are obtained, as tabulated in Table [3.1]:

Along the “x” axis Along the “y” axis

𝐴−𝑎 𝐵−𝑏
𝑚= 𝑚=
2 2
𝑃 𝑃
𝑞 = 𝑞 ⋅ 𝐵, 𝑞 = 𝑞 = 𝑞 ⋅ 𝐴, 𝑞 =
𝐴 𝐵

𝑣 = 𝑞 ⋅ (𝑚 − 𝑑) 𝑣 = 𝑞 ⋅ (𝑛 − 𝑑)

𝑚 𝑛
𝑀 =𝑞 ⋅ 𝑀 =𝑞 ⋅
2 2

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𝑣 𝑣
⇒𝑣 = ⇒𝑣 =
𝜙⋅𝐵⋅𝑑 𝜙⋅𝐴⋅𝑑

Table 3-1: Equations for verifying flexural shear

Table [3.1] (continued) – Equations for verifying flexural shear

Where:
𝐴, 𝐵 ∶ Length and width of the footing, respectively
𝑎, 𝑏 ∶ Length and width of the column, respectively
𝑞 , 𝑞 ∶ Ultimate pressure per unit length in the “x” and “y” directions,
respectively
𝑣 , 𝑣 ∶ Shear force in the “x” and “y” directions, respectively
𝑀 , 𝑀 ∶ Ultimate moment in the “x” and “y” directions, respectively
𝑣 ∶ Shear stress acting on the footing
𝑑 ∶ Effective depth of the footing
𝜙 = 0.75, Shear strength reduction factor ACI 318S-14, Ch.22, Art.[Link],
P.387.

Therefore, for calculating the effective depth of the foundation both for punching shear
and flexural shear in the “x” and “y” directions:
1. You can assume a value for the effective depth and verify that the following
condition is met 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣 . If the condition is not met, increase the value of “d”.
2. To avoid assuming the value of “𝑑”, you can calculate the minimum required
effective depth by equating the three expressions to their respective strengths.
Then, solve for the three values of effective depth and take the largest of the
three as the final value.
3. The minimum total depth ℎ is obtained by summing the minimum effective
depth 𝑑 and the concrete cover 𝑟, which is 7.5 𝑐𝑚 according to the ACI
318S-14, Ch.20, T.[Link].1, P.356. Therefore, the minimum height of the
footing is:

ℎ =𝑑 +𝑟 (Eq 3.24)

3.5.5 Transfer of Forces

The transfer of forces in footings is developed in Annex B of the text.

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3.5.6 Calculation of Flexural Steel Reinforcement

Square footings behave in one direction only; therefore, the flexural reinforcement is
distributed uniformly along the length and width of the footing.

In rectangular footings, steel reinforcement must be calculated in two directions. The

reinforcement in the long direction 𝐴 should be uniformly distributed across the
total width of the footing. For the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement
𝐴 must be uniformly distributed over a strip (centered with respect to the axis of
the column), whose width is equal to the short side of the footing.

The remaining reinforcement 𝐴 required in the short direction should be evenly

distributed over the two outer segments beyond the central strip half for each segment.

Figure 3.10: distribution of the flexural reinforcement

Once the footing section and the effective depth have been calculated, the
reinforcement is determined using the moments obtained from Table [3.1].

 The reinforcement 𝐴 (Figure [3.10]) is calculated using the following

equations:

𝑀 𝐴
𝐴 = Where 𝑎 =
𝜙⋅𝑓 ⋅ 𝑑−𝑎
2
0.85 ⋅ 𝑓 ⋅ 𝐵

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Or, expressed as:

0.85 ⋅ 𝑓 ⋅ 𝐵 2⋅𝑀
𝐴 = ⋅ (𝑑 − 𝑑 − (Eq 3.25)
𝑓 0.85 ⋅ 𝜙 ⋅ 𝑓 ⋅ 𝐵

 The minimum reinforcement 𝐴 is calculated with:

⎧0.0018 ⋅ 4200 ⋅ 𝐵 ⋅ ℎ
𝐴 ≥ 𝑓 (Eq 3.26)
⎨
⎩ 0.0014 ⋅ 𝐵 ⋅ ℎ

Therefore, the final value of 𝐴 will be the greater of the two values given by
(Eq 3.25) and (Eq 3.26).

 The reinforcement 𝐴 (Figure [3.10]) will be calculated using (Eq 3.25),

applying the moment previously calculated from the equations in Table [3.1]. It
must also be calculated using the following equation in accordance with ACI
318S-14, Ch.13, Art.[Link], P.204:

2
𝐴 = +1 ⋅𝐴 (Eq 3.27)
𝛽

Where:
𝛽 ∶ Ratio between the long side and the short side of the footing,
𝐴 and 𝐵, respectively.

Also, determine minimum reinforcement 𝐴 is calculated with:

⎧0.0018 ⋅ 4200 ⋅ 𝐵 ⋅ ℎ
𝐴 ≥ 𝑓 (Eq 3.28)
⎨
⎩ 0.0014 ⋅ 𝐵 ⋅ ℎ

As in the previous case, 𝐴 will be the maximum value of (Eq 3.25), (Eq 3.27),
and (Eq 3.28)

 The reinforcement 𝐴 (Figure [3.10]) is 50% of the difference between the

main reinforcements:

𝐴 −𝐴
𝐴 = (Eq 3.29)
2

The minimum reinforcement 𝐴 is:

4200 𝐵
𝐴 = 0.0018 ⋅ ⋅ 𝐴− ⋅ℎ (Eq 3.30)
𝑓 2

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The greater value between (Eq 3.29) and (Eq 3.30) will be adopted as 𝐴 .

Where:
ℎ ∶ Total depth (height) of the footing
𝜙 = 0.9 : Strength reduction factor (used when 𝜌 ≤ 0.005, which
generally occurs in footings)

3.5.7 Bond and Development of Bars

Since the footing is in contact with the ground, it is subjected to tensile stresses at its
bottom surface. This can cause cracking and slippage between the section and the
reinforcement bars. For this reason, it is important to provide adequate concrete cover
and bar development length, to ensure that the bars are well anchored in the concrete,
allowing the section and the provided reinforcement to work effectively.
The critical sections for verifying the development length of the reinforcement bars are
the same as those for flexural moments, as shown in Figure [3.11].

Figure 3.11: Development Length of Bars

The development length of bars subjected to tension must satisfy the following
expressions, both in the x-direction and the y-direction:

𝑙 = 𝑚−𝑟 ≥𝐿 (Eq 3.31)

𝑙 = 𝑚−𝑟 ≥𝐿 (Eq 3.32)

The minimum development length for tension bars, according to the ACI 318S-14,
Ch.25, Art.25.4.2, P.439, must be taken as the greatest value among clauses (a), (b),
and (c) as shown in Table [3.2].

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Minimum Development Length for Tension Bars

𝑓 ⋅𝜓 ⋅𝜓 ⋅𝜓
𝐿 = ⋅𝜙
(a) 𝑐 +𝑘
3.5 ⋅ 𝜆 ⋅ 𝑓
𝑑

Bars of 20 𝑚𝑚 and Bars of 20 𝑚𝑚 and

Spacing and covering.
smaller. bigger.
Clear spacing between bars or bars
being developed or lap spliced not
less than 𝜙 , with clear cover at 𝑓 ⋅𝜓 ⋅𝜓 𝑓 ⋅𝜓 ⋅𝜓
(b) least 𝜙 , or clear spacing between ⋅𝜙 ⋅𝜙
6.6 ⋅ 𝜆 ⋅ 𝑓 5.3 ⋅ 𝜆 ⋅ 𝑓
bars being developed or lap spliced
not less than 2𝜙 and clear cover
not less than 𝜙 .
𝑓 ⋅𝜓 ⋅𝜓 𝑓 ⋅𝜓 ⋅𝜓
Other cases ⋅𝜙 ⋅𝜙
4.4 ⋅ 𝜆 ⋅ 𝑓 3.5 ⋅ 𝜆 ⋅ 𝑓
(c) 30 𝑐𝑚

Table 3-2: Simplified Equations for Development Length

Each of the terms in the equations is explained below. The values of the variables for
different conditions are given in Table [3.2].
1. 𝜓 : Reinforcement position factor
 Horizontal reinforcement placed such that more than 30 𝑚𝑚 of fresh
concrete is cast below the development or splice length: 1.3
 Other reinforcement: 1.0
2. 𝜓 ∶ Coating factor
 Epoxy-coated bars or wires, and bars with dual zinc and epoxy coating, with
cover less than 3 ⋅ 𝜓 or clear spacing less than 6 ⋅ 𝜓 : 1.5
 All other epoxy-coated bars or wires, and dual zinc and epoxy-coated bars:
1.2
 Uncoated reinforcement and hot-dip galvanized bars: 1.0
 However, the product 𝜓 ⋅ 𝜓 must not be taken greater than 1.7
3. 𝜓 ∶ Bar size factor
 Bars less than 20 mm and deformed wires: 0.8
 Bars greater than 22 𝑚𝑚: 1.0
4. 𝜆 ∶ Lightweight aggregate concrete factor When lightweight aggregate concrete
is used, 𝜆 must not exceed 0.75. However, when the tensile strength 𝑓 is
specified, 𝜆 can be taken as:
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𝑓
𝜆 = min ,1
1.8𝑓

When normal-weight concrete is used: 𝜆 = 1.0.

5. Bar spacing or cover dimensions, If the concrete cover or the clear spacing
between bars is too small, the concrete may crack. This situation is considered
using the term:
+
, this is called the confinement term. In this equation:
 𝑐 ∶ is the smaller of the following:
o The distance from the center of a tensioned bar to the nearest
concrete surface
o Half the center-to-center spacing between adjacent reinforcement
bars
 𝑘 ∶ is a factor known as the transverse reinforcement index, used to account
for the contribution of confining reinforcement (stirrups) across potential
crack planes.

40. 𝐴
𝑘 = (Eq 3.33)
𝑠⋅𝑛

Where:

𝐴 ∶ Total cross-sectional area of all transverse reinforcement

within spacing 𝑠, with yield strength 𝑓
𝑛 ∶ Number of tension bars being developed along the potential
crack plane and if the reinforcement is in two layers, 𝑛 is the
larger number of bars in any single layer
𝑠 ∶ Spacing (center-to-center) of the transverse reinforcement

According ACI 318S-14, Ch.25, Art.[Link], P.440 to the, it is

conservatively allowed to use 𝑘 = 0, and the maximum limit for the term:

𝑐 +𝑘
≤ 2.5 (Eq 3.34)
𝑑

This is because values greater than 2.5 result in shorter development lengths,
which increase the risk of pullout failure.

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3.5.8 Reinforcement Detailing of the Isolated Footing

Figure 3.12: Elevation View

Figure 3.13: Plan View

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