J.B.

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
Bhaskar Nagar, Moinabad Mandal, R.R. District, Hyderabad -500075

Department of CSE

Computer Networks Notes

Module-I : Introduction To Computer Networks

II [Link], II semester ,

Academic Year: 2025-2026

Dr. MATAM BHEEMALINGAIAH

Professor

Ist Edition

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Pre-Requisites:
Knowledge on Data Structures.

Course objectives:
The Student will:
1. Recognize various layering approaches for networking and understand the functionalities of physical
layer.
2. Identify the data link layer protocols, multi access protocols, Ethernet technologies and various
internetworking devices.
3. Examine design issues of network layer, services provided to above layer and routing, and congestion
control protocols.
4. Examine IP protocol, addressing, various protocols like CIDR, ICMP, ARP and RARP of internet Layer
and examination of transport layer services.
5. Examine Transport layer protocols like TCP, UDP, RPC and various congestion controlling mechanisms,
including application layer services, protocols like HTTP, FTP, and E-Mail etc.

Module 1:

Overview of the Internet: Protocol, Layering Scenario, TCP/IP Protocol Suite: The OSI Model, Internet
history standards and administration; Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP reference model.

Physical Layer: Guided transmission media, wireless transmission media.

Module 2:
Data Link Layer: design issues, Framing, Error Detection and Error Correction, Block Coding, Hamming
Distance, CRC, Flow control and error Control, Stop and wait , Sliding window Protocols.

Connecting Devices: Repeaters, Hubs, Switches, Gateways and Bridges - Learning and Spanning tree
bridges.

Multi Access protocols- Random access - ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA, Ethernet IEEE
802.11

Module 3:
Network Layer: Network layer design issues, Store and forward packet switching, connection less and
connection oriented network

Internetworking: Protocols-IPV4 and IPV6, Logical Addressing-IPV4, IPV6, Tunneling and Packet
Fragmentation.

Address Mapping: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP),
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet
Group Management Protocol (IGMP).
Routing Algorithms: Shortest Path Finding and Distance Vector Routing Algorithms.

Module 4:

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Transport Layer: Process to Process Communication, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), The TCP Connection Establishment, The TCP Connection Release.
Crash recovery, The TCP sliding window, The TCP congestion control, Improving Quality of Service
Techniques: Leaky Bucket Algorithm.

Module 5:
Application Layer: Introduction, services, Application layer paradigms.
Applications: Domain Name System (DNS), World Wide Web (WWW), Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), File Transfer Protocol(FTP), Electronic Mail(E-MAIL), TELNET, Simple Network Management
Protocol(SNMP), Secure Shell(SSH).

Text Books:
1. Data Communications and Networking - Behrouz A. Forouzan, Fifth Edition TMH, 2013.
2. Computer Networks - Andrew S Tanenbaum, 4th Edition, Pearson Education.

Reference Books:
1. ComputerNetworks, 5E, Peterson, Davie, Elsevier
2. Introduction to Computer Networks and Cyber Security, Chawan-HwaWu, Irwin, CRC Publications.
3. Computer Networks and Internets with Internet Applications, Comer.

E - Resources:
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
5. [Link]

Course outcomes:
The Student will be able to:
1. Demonstrate the networking concepts, various Layering approaches, functionalities and some protocols of
Link layer.
2. Operate with Data link Layers.
3. Apply fragmentation, assigning of logical address and judge on routing and congestion.
4. Apply the working of IP Protocol, other protocols of internet layer and services of transport layer.
5. Demonstrate the services of Application Layer while using popular applications

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 Content

1.1 Introduction to Computer Networks

1.1.1 Types of Transmission Media
1.1.2 Interconnecting Devices
1.2 Signals
1.2.1 Analog Signal
1.2.2 Digital Signal
1.2.3 Difference between Baseband vs. Broadband communication
1.2.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.3 Internet History, Standard and Administration
1.3.1 History of Internet
1.3.2 Internet Standard
1.3.3 Internet Administration
1.4 Network Architecture (Network Software )
1.4.1 Real Time Examples
1.4.2 Data flow through layers
1.5 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
1.5.1 Introduction to OSI model
1.5.2 Principles used to develop the OSI model
1.5.3 Main functions of each layer
1.5.4 Physical layer
1.5.5 Data link layer
1.5.6 Network layer
1.5.7 Transport layer
1.5.8 Session layer
1.5.9 Presentation layer
1.5.10 Application layer
1.6 TCP/IP Model
1.6.1 Application Layer
1.6.2 Transport Layer
1.6.3 Network Layer
1.6.4 Host to Network Layer
1.7 Different Addresses in TCP/IP Model
1.7.1 Physical address(MAC Address)
1.7.2 IP address
1.7.3 Port address
1.7.4 Domain name address
1.8 Difference between OSI model and TCP/IP Model (Comparison)
1.9 Networks topologies
1.9.1 Mesh Topology
1.9.2 Star Topology
1.9.3 Bus Topology
1.9.4 Ring Topology
1.9.5 Hybrid Topology
1.10 Types of Computer Networks
1.10.1 Local Area Networks (LANs)
1.10.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs):
1.10.3 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
1.10.4 Global Area Network (GAN)
1.10.5 Comparison between LAN, MAN and WAN
1.11 Transmission Media
1.11.1 Impairment Courses
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 1.11.2 Classification of Transmission Media
1.11.3 Twisted pair cable
1.11.4 Coaxial Cable
1.11.5 Fiber Optic Cable
1.11.6 Comparison of Guided transmission media
1.11.7 Unguided Media (Wireless Media)
1.11.8 Layer of Earth’s Atmosphere
1.11.9 Types of Wave Propagation
1.11.10 Types of Antennas
1.11.11 Types of Frequency Bands
1.11.12 Comparison of Radio Waves, Microwaves, and Infrared Waves

1.1 Introduction to Computer Networks

A computer network is an interconnection among two or more computers or computing devices. Such
interconnection allows computers to share data and resources among each other. A basic network may
connect a few computers placed in a room/building / campus as shown fig.1.1, fig.1.2 and fig.1.3

Fig.1.1 Connection of two systems

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 Fig.1.2 Connection of multiple systems

Fig.1.3 Connection of multiple systems

The network size may vary from small to large depending on the number of computers it connects. A
computer network can include different types of hosts (also called nodes) like server, desktop, laptop,
cellular phones. Apart from computers, networks include networking devices like switch, router, modem,
gateway etc. Networking devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings.
For communication, data in a network is divided into smaller chunks called packets. These packets are
then carried over a network. Devices in a network can be connected either through wired media like cables
or wireless media like air. In a communication network, each device that is a part of a network and that can
receive, create, store or send data to different network routes is called a node. In the context of data
communication, a node can be a device such as a modem, hub, bridge, switch, router, digital telephone
handset, a printer, a computer or a server.
Interconnectivity of computing devices in a network allows us to exchange information simultaneously
with many parties through email, websites, audio/video calls, etc. Network allows sharing of resources. For
example, a printer can be made available to multiple computers through a network; a networked storage can
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be accessed by multiple computers. People often connect their devices through hotspot, thus forming a small
personal network.

1.1.1 Types of Transmission Media: Two types of transmission media are used

Fig.1 3 Transmission Media

Fig.1.4 Types of Transmission Media

In Guided transmission media generally the following materials are used.

 Twisted Pair
 Coaxial Cable
 Optical Fiber

Twisted Pair: Twisted pair cables figures as shown in fig .1.5. fig.1.6 and fig.1.7

Fig. 1.5. Twisted Pair cable

Fig.1.6 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables
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 Fig.1.7 Twisted Pair Cable Connectors

Co-axial Cable: It is shown in the fig 1.8 and it connectors are shown fig.1.9

Fig.1.8 Co-axial cable

Fig.1.9 Co-axial cable connectors

Fiber optic cable: Types fiber optic cable as shown fig.1.10, Construction of fiber optic cable as shown
fig.1.11 and fiber optic cable connectors as shown in fig 1.12

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 Fig. 1.10 Different types of fiber optic cables

Fig.11 Construction of fiber optic cable

Fig.1.12 Fiber Optic Cable Connector

Unguided Media (Wireless Media) : Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio
and television, and paging systems. They can penetrate through walls. Highly regulated. Use Omni
directional antennas depending on frequency radio offers different bandwidths as shown in fig.1.13

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 Fig.1.13 Types of Unguided Media
There are 3 types of RF (Radio Frequency) Propagation as shown fig.1.14

 Ground Wave
 Ionosphere and
 Line of Sight

1.14 Antenna
Types of Wave Propagation as shown in fig.1.15

Fig.1.15 Three types of wave propagation

1.1.2 Interconnecting Devices: The following different interconnected devices are used in computer
Networks are shown table 1.1
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 Amplifier
 Repeater
 Hub
 Switch
 Modem
 Access Point
 Bridge
 Router
 Gateway
 Network Interface Card(NIC)

Table 1.1 List of Interconnecting Devices

Hub
Hub

Switch Switch

WI-FI Router
WI-FI Router

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 Wireless Gateway
Gateway

Wireless Modem
Cable Modem

Wireless Repeater

Network Interface Card(NIC)

Network Interface Card(NIC)

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 1.2 Signals

 To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals

 Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is continuous. Digital data
refers to information that has discrete states. Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take on
discrete values

Fig.1.16 Digital Signal

Fig.1.17 Analog Signal

 Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take continuous values. Digital data have
discrete states and take discrete values

 Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited number of values

 Comparison of analog and digital signals

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 Fig.2.1 Analog and Digital Signals
In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and no periodic digital signals.
2.1.1 Analog Signal: The analog signal is represented by sine wave in time domain

Fig.1.18 Analog Signal (sine wave)

The power in your house can be represented by a sine wave with peak amplitude of 155 to 170V

The following terminology is used for Analog signal.

 Amplitude
 Cycle (Period)
 Frequency
 Phase
 Wave length

Amplitude: Peak Value on Y-axis of Sine wave

Fig.1.19 Peak Amplitude

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Example: The voltage of a battery is a constant; this constant value can be considered a sine wave, as we
will see later. For example, the peak value of an AA battery is normally
1.5 V.

Fig.1.20 Sinusoidal Wave (Sine Wave)

Period and Frequency

Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.

Frequency: It refers to the number of periods in 1second. It is measured in Hertz (HZ)

Note that period and frequency are just one characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the inverse of
frequency, and frequency
is the inverse of period, as the following formulas show.

1 1
F , T
T F
 Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.
 Change in a short span of time means high frequency.
 Change over a long span of time means low frequency

Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but different frequencies

Fig.1.21 Frequency and Period

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 Table 2.1 Units of period and frequency

Problem: The period of a signal is 100 ms. what is its frequency in kilohertz?

Solution: First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz =
−3
10 kHz).

Phase: The phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0. Three sine waves with the same
amplitude and frequency, but different phases

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 Fig.1.22 Different Phases of Analog Signal

Example: A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and radians?
Solution: We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

Wavelength: Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two successive crests or troughs of a
wave. Description: Wavelength is the distance from one crest to another or from one trough to another, of a
wave (which may be an electromagnetic wave, a sound wave, or any other wave).

C
 or   C  T
F
Problem: The frequency of red light is 4 1014 HZ

C 3 108
Wavelength of red light ( )    0.75 106 m  0.75 m (Micrometers)
F 4 1014

Fig.1.33 Wavelength
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Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional to each other. The wave with the greatest frequency
has the shortest wavelength. Twice the frequency means one-half the wavelength. For this reason, the
wavelength ratio is the inverse of the frequency ratio.

The wave speed (v) is defined as the distance traveled by a wave per unit time. If considered that the wave
travels a distance of one wavelength in one period,

 1
V , T
T F

The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

Fig.1.34 Time domain and Frequency Domain

Fig.1.35 Time domain and Frequency Domain of composite signal

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The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal. The bandwidth of periodic and no periodic composite signals

Fig.1.36 Bandwidth of Signal

Fig.1.37 Bandwidth of Signal

2.1.2 Digital Signal

In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have
more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level

Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four signal levels

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 Fig.1.38 Digital Signal

2.2.3 Difference between Baseband vs. Broadband Communication

Broadband and baseband can be categorized into signaling. The broadband signaling transmits the analog
signals and uses guide and unguided media. The baseband signaling transmits the digital signals and involves
electrical impulse that is transmitted into a physical medium like wires.

Baseband vs Broadband (Band-pass) Communication

Broadband (Band-pass)
Feature Baseband Communication
Communication
Digital data modulated onto an analog
Signal Type Digital signal transmitted directly
carrier
Uses low frequencies, from 0 Hz up to Uses higher frequency bands (band-
Frequency Range
bandwidth pass)
✅ Modulation is required (ASK, FSK,
Modulation ❌ No modulation required
PSK, QAM)
Transmission Typically wired (e.g., Ethernet, LAN Wired or wireless (cable TV, radio,
Medium cables) cellular)
Channel divided into multiple frequency
Channel Usage Entire channel used by one signal
bands
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 Broadband (Band-pass)
Feature Baseband Communication
Communication
Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Distance Coverage Short distance Long distance
Noise Resistance Less resistant to noise More resistant to noise
Cost & Complexity Simple and low cost More complex and expensive
Cable TV, Mobile networks, Radio
Examples Ethernet, LAN, USB
communication

1.2.3 Electro Magnetic Spectrum:

In wireless communication three type of electromagnetic waves are used radio waves, microwaves and
infrared waves. These waves have different frequency and wavelength as shown in fig 1.39

Fig.1.39 Electro Magnetic Spectrum

1.3 INTERNET HISTORY, STANDARD AND ADMINISTRATION

1.3.1 History of Internet:

In the 1960s a research project was commissioned by Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) in the U.S. Department of Defense to connect the academic and research institutions located at
different places for scientific collaborations.

The first message was communicated between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and
Stanford Research Institute (SRI). Slowly but gradually, more and more organizations joined the
ARPANET, and many independent smaller networks were formed. Few of the milestones in the magnificent
journey of evolution of computer networks is depicted in the timeline shown in fig. Fig.1.18

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 Fig.1.40 ARPANET

Evolution of Computer Networks as shown in fig. 1.41

Fig.1.41 Evolution of Computer Networks

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that enables communication,
information sharing, and resource access across the world. Its development spans over six decades, evolving
from a military research project into a foundation of modern digital society.

 Early Foundations (1950s–1960s)

Cold War and Networking Needs

 During the Cold War, the U.S. Department of Defense sought a robust communication system
capable of surviving nuclear attacks.
 The concept emphasized decentralization, avoiding single points of failure.

Packet Switching

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  Paul Baran (USA) and Donald Davies (UK) independently proposed packet-switching networks.
 Packet switching divides data into small packets, which are transmitted independently and
reassembled at the destination.
 This concept became the core principle of Internet communication.

ARPA and Research Initiatives

 The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was established in 1958.

 ARPA funded research on computer networking, leading to the creation of ARPANET.

 ARPANET Era (1969–1970s)

Birth of ARPANET (1969)

 The first Internet precursor, ARPANET, was launched.

 Initial nodes:
o UCLA
o Stanford Research Institute (SRI)
o University of California, Santa Barbara
o University of Utah
 First message sent: “LO” (attempt to send “LOGIN”).

Network Control Protocol (NCP)

 NCP was the first host-to-host protocol used on ARPANET.

 Enabled basic communication but lacked internetworking capabilities.

Email and Applications

 1971 – Ray Tomlinson invented email.

 Introduced the @ symbol to separate user and host names.
 Email quickly became the most popular network application.

 Development of TCP/IP (1970s–1980s)

Internetworking Concept

 Need arose to connect multiple heterogeneous networks.

 Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn proposed TCP/IP.

TCP/IP Architecture

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

o Ensures reliable, ordered data delivery.
 IP (Internet Protocol):
o Handles addressing and packet routing.

Internet Officially Born (1983)

 On January 1, 1983, ARPANET switched from NCP to TCP/IP.

 This date is considered the official birth of the Internet.

 Expansion and Standardization (1980s)

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 Domain Name System (DNS)

 Introduced in 1984 by Paul Mockapetris.

 Translates domain names (e.g., [Link]) into IP addresses.
 Reduced dependence on numeric addressing.

NSFNET

 The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) expanded Internet access to universities.
 Replaced ARPANET as the main backbone.
 ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990.

 World Wide Web Revolution (1990s)

Invention of the World Wide Web

 1991 – Tim Berners-Lee introduced the World Wide Web (WWW).

 Key technologies:
o HTML – HyperText Markup Language
o HTTP – HyperText Transfer Protocol
o URLs – Uniform Resource Locators

Web Browsers

 Mosaic (1993) – First popular graphical browser.

 Netscape Navigator (1994) – Commercial browser.
 Web usage grew rapidly beyond academia.

Commercialization

 1995 marked the commercialization of the Internet.

 Companies like Amazon, Yahoo, and eBay emerged.
 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) became widespread.

 Broadband and Web 2.0 (2000s)

Broadband Internet

 Transition from dial-up to DSL, cable, and fiber.

 Enabled faster data transmission and multimedia content.

Web 2.0

 Emphasized user-generated content and interactivity.

 Examples:
o Wikipedia
o YouTube
o Facebook
 Rise of blogs, wikis, and social media platforms.

 Mobile Internet and Cloud Computing (2010s)

Smartphones and Mobile Internet

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  Proliferation of smartphones led to anytime, anywhere connectivity.
 Mobile apps replaced many traditional web services.

Cloud Computing

 Emergence of cloud platforms (AWS, Azure, Google Cloud).

 Shift from local storage to on-demand online services.

Internet of Things (IoT)

 Billions of devices connected to the Internet.

 Applications in smart homes, healthcare, agriculture, and industry.

 Modern Internet and Emerging Trends (2020s)

High-Speed Networks

 Deployment of 5G and fiber-optic networks.

 Support for real-time applications like VR and AR.

Artificial Intelligence and Big Data

 Internet-driven AI systems rely on large-scale data collection.

 Applications include recommendation systems, cybersecurity, and automation.

Cybersecurity Challenges

 Increase in cyber threats, data breaches, and privacy issues.

 Emphasis on encryption, zero-trust models, and cyber laws.

Internet Governance and Standards

Standardization Bodies

 IETF – Internet Engineering Task Force

 ICANN – Manages domain names and IP addresses
 W3C – Web standards organization

History of Internet – Year-wise Table

Year Event / Development

1957 USSR launched Sputnik; USA formed ARPA
1958 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) established
1961 Leonard Kleinrock proposed packet switching theory
1965 First computer-to-computer communication (MIT–SDC)
1969 ARPANET launched; first message sent (UCLA–SRI)
1971 First email sent by Ray Tomlinson
1972 ARPANET publicly demonstrated
1973 TCP/IP concept developed; Ethernet invented
1974 Term “Internet” introduced
1978 TCP split into TCP and IP

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 Year Event / Development
1983 ARPANET adopted TCP/IP (Internet birth year)
1984 DNS (Domain Name System) introduced
1986 NSFNET became Internet backbone
1989 World Wide Web proposed by Tim Berners-Lee
1991 World Wide Web released to public
1993 Mosaic web browser launched
1997 IEEE introduced 802.11, the first Wi-Fi standard.
1998 Google lunched the Google chrome
2000 Dot-com bubble burst
2004 Facebook launched (Web 2.0 era)
2005 YouTube launched
2007 Smartphones boosted mobile Internet
2010 Cloud computing expansion
2015 4G widespread; IoT growth
2020 5G, AI-driven Internet services
2023–Present AI, Big Data, IoT, Cybersecurity focus

1.3.2 Internet Standards

Internet standards ensure interoperability and global communication.

(a) Key Internet Protocol Standards

Layer Protocols
Application HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, POP, IMAP, DNS
Transport TCP, UDP
Network IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP
Link Ethernet, Wi-Fi

(b) Standardization Process

1. Internet Draft
2. RFC (Request for Comments)
3. Internet Standard

RFCs define how Internet protocols work.

(c) Organizations Responsible for Standards

Organization Role
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) Develops Internet protocols
IAB (Internet Architecture Board) Overall architecture
IRTF (Internet Research Task Force) Long-term research
W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) Web standards (HTML, CSS)
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 Organization Role
ISO International standards (OSI model)

1.3.3. Internet Administration

Internet administration manages naming, addressing, and coordination.

(a) ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)

 Coordinates:
o Domain names
o IP addresses
o Root DNS servers

(b) IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)

 Allocates:
o IP address blocks
o Protocol numbers
o Port numbers

(c) Regional Internet Registries (RIRs)

Region Organization
Asia-Pacific APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information Centre)
North America ARIN (American Registry for Internet Numbers)
Europe RIPE NCC(Roseaux IP Europeans Network Coordination Centre)
Latin America LACNIC (Latin American and Caribbean Network Information Centre)
Africa AFRINIC (African Network Information Centre)

1.4 Network Architecture (Network Software)

A set of layers and protocols are called as Network Architecture; it is also called Network Software .It is
developed as using series of layers by using hierarchy model or Protocol Hierarchies. The network
functionality can be expressed in the form of levels or layers as shown in fig. 1.20 in next page
 These layers are formed to reduce the design complexity of the networks and are organized as a stack of
layers. Each layer is built upon another layer.
 One network will differ from the other in terms of number of layers in each layer, the contents of each
layer and the function of each layer.
 The main purpose of each layer is to give services to upper layer. The idea is that a particular piece of
software (or hardware) provides a service to its user. The details of internal state and algorithm are hidden
from them, and hence the users will be aware only the services available, not the internal details.
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 Layer n one computer and layer n another computer is called peer layers.
 Layer n and layer n-1 are called adjacent layers
 An active element in the each layer is called entity
 Interfaces are used to get the services and primitive operations from lower layer made available to the
upper layer. Interfaces can be identified between any two adjacent layers.
 There two types of communication is performed in the Network Architecture
Peer to Peer Communication and Hierarchical Communication

Fig. 1.42 Layers, protocols, and interfaces

 The peer to peer communication is carried between two peer layers and is denoted by horizontal dashed
line.
 Hierarchical Communication is carried between two adjacent layers and it is denoted by vertical arrow
 The set of rules is protocol that govern exchange of communication between two peer layers
 A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack

1.4.1 Real Time Example

Example: 1: Communication between two philosophers by using layers as shown in fig.1.21

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 Fig.1.43 Philosopher, Translator and Secretary

 An analogy may help explain the idea of multilayer communication.

 Imagine two philosophers (peer processes in layer 3), one of whom speaks Urdu and English and one of
whom speaks Chinese and French.
 Since they have no common language, they each engage a translator (peer processes at layer 2), each of
whom in turn contacts a secretary (peer processes in layer 1).

 Philosopher 1 wishes to convey his affection for oryctolagus cuniculus to his peer. To do so, he passes a
message (in English) across the 2/3 interface to his translator, saying ‘‘I like rabbits,’’ as illustrated in Fig.
1.3
 The translators have agreed on a neutral language known to both of them, Dutch, so the message is
converted to ‘‘Ik vind konijnen leuk.’’ The choice of the language is the layer 2 protocol and is up to the
layer 2 peer processes.
 The translator then gives the message to a secretary for transmission, for example, by email (the layer 1
protocol).
 When the message arrives at the other secretary, it is passed to the local translator, who translates it into
French and passes it across the 2/3 interface to the second philosopher.
 Note that each protocol is completely independent of the other ones as long as the interfaces are not
changed.
 The translators can switch from Dutch to, say, Finnish, at will, provided that they both agree and neither
changes his interface with either layer 1 or layer 3.
 Similarly, the secretaries can switch from email to telephone without disturbing (or even informing) the
other layers. Each process may add some information intended only for its peer.

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 Exaple.2: Exchange of letter through Post office by using layers as shown in fig.1.22

Fig.1.44 Tasks involved in sending a letter

1.4.2 Data flow through layers or Data Exchange in layers

.Now considers a more technical example: how to provide communication to the top layer of the five-layer
network in Fig.1.23

Fig.1.45 Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.

M: Message, H: Header, T: Trailer

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  A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given to layer 4 for
transmission.
 Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the message and passes the result to
 Layer 3. The header includes control information, such as addresses, to allow layer 4 on the
destination machine to deliver the message. Other examples of control information used in some
layers are sequence numbers (in case the lower layer does not preserve message order), sizes, and
times.
 In many networks, no limit is placed on the size of messages transmitted in the layer 4 protocol but
there is nearly always a limit imposed by the layer 3 protocol. Consequently, layer 3 must break up
the incoming messages into smaller units, packets, prepending a layer 3 header to each packet.
 In this example, M is split into two parts, M1 and M2 that will be transmitted separately.
 Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use and passes the packets to layer 2.
 Layer 2 adds to each piece not only a header but also a trailer, and gives the resulting unit to layer 1
for physical transmission.
 At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with headers being
stripped off as it progresses. None of the headers for layers below n are passed up to layer n.

1.5 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

1.5.1 Introduction to OSI model: Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that
covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s. The seven layer as shown in fig.1.24 and Fig.1.25
 Application layer
 Presenton layer
 Session layer
 Transport layer
 Network layer
 Data Link layer
 Physical layer

Black diagram of OSI model as shown in fig.1.46 and fig.1.49 these two figures same

31
Fig.1.46 OSI model

Fig.1.47 OSI model

32
How headers and hrailer are added and removed in OSI model as shwon in fig.1.48

Fig.1.48 Headers and Trailer in OSI model

1.5.2 Principles to development of OSI model

The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

 A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

 Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally standardized
protocols
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
 The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together in
the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy.
1.5.3 Main functions of each layer: The main functions of each layer in OSI model as shown in fig .1.49
and table 1.2

Fig.1.49 The main functions of each in OSI model

The following table1.2 describes each layer of OSI and its functions and responsibilities
33
 Table 1.2 Functions and responsibilities of layer

Sno Name of layer Functions and responsibilities of layer

1 Physical layer  Physical Characteristics of interfaces and medium

 Representation of bit
 Data rate
 Synchronization
 Line of configuration
 Physical topology
 Transmission Mode
 Modulation and Demodulation
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
2 Data link layer  Framing
 Physical addressing
 Node to Node Flow Control
 Node to Node Error Control
 Access Control
 Hop-to-hop frame delivery
3 Network layer  Logical Addressing
 Routing
 Congestion Control
 Source-to-destination delivery
4 Transport layer  Service-point addressing
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection Control
 End to End Flow Control
 End to End Error control
 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
5 Session layer  Dialog control
 Synchronization
7 Presentation layer  Translation
 Compression,
 Encryption
8 Application layer  Graphical User Interface
 Network virtual terminal
 File transfer and access , management
 Mail services
 Directory service

In details of each layer

1.5.4 Physical layer: The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next. Other functions and responsibilities of Physical Layer are as follows

34
  Physical Characteristics of interfaces and medium
 Representation of bit
 Data rate
 Synchronization
 Line of configuration
 Physical topology
 Transmission Mode

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals
with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It also defines
the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to Occur.
Figure 1.50 shows the position of the physical layer with respect to the transmission medium and the data
link layer.

Fig.1.50 Transmission of bits

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.

Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no
interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer
defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1’s are changed to signals).

Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the physical layer.
In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.

Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must be
synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
There are two methods used to transmit data between digital devices: parallel transmission and serial
transmission as shown in the fig.1.51

Types of Data Transmission

Parallel Data Transmission Serial Data Transmission

Synchronous transmission Asynchronous transmission

35
 Fig.1.51 Types of Data Transmission

In parallel data transmission multiple bits are transmitted at time usually one byte as shown in fig 1.52

Fig.1.52 Parallel Transmission

In the serial transmission the stream of bits are transmitted in serial one after one. The serial transmission
has two types asynchronous and synchronous. In synorous communication both sender and reciever follow
the timings for synchonizarion as shown in fig 1.53

Fig.1.53 Synchronous communication

In Asynorous communication both sender and reciever not follow the timings. Each byte is sent with gaps
and each byte has start bit 0 and shop bit 1 as shown fig.1.54

Fig.1.54 Synchronous communication

Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. In a point-
to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a
link is shared among several devices as shown in fig.1.55

36
 Fig.1.55 Point to Point and Multipoint Configuration

Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network. The types
of topologies are shown in fig.1.56

Fig.1.56 types of topologies

Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices:
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex The Transmission mode is divided into three categories: as shown in
fig.1.57

 Simplex mode
 Half-duplex mode
 Full-duplex mode

.
Fig.1.57 Transmission modes

. The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission mode.
 The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
 Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide the
direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
37
  The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

Simplex mode: In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is
a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the same
time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time as shown
in fig.1.58

Fig.1.58 Simplex mode

 In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
 A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the
data.
 This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way
exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require any
corresponding reply.
 The Radio Broadcasting station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but
never allows them to transmit back.
 TV Broadcasting station is simplex mode. It transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows
them to transmit back.
 Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the data
from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
 Satellites → GPS Receiver (one-way only)
GPS satellites only transmit signals. GPS receivers (in mobiles, cars, ships) only receive signals.
The receiver does not send any signal back to the satellite.

 Fire Alarm System and traffic Signal Lights

The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel can be
utilized during transmission.
Advantage of Simplex mode:

 In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel, so that
more data can be transmitted at a time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:
 Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

Half-Duplex mode: In this mode both systems send and receive the data but at not same time
shown in fig. 1.59

38
 Fig.1.59 Half-Duplex mode
 In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the data
as well.
 Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
 The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
 In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then the
receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
 A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and
another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously
will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.

 Client-Server Communication

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

 In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the entire
bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.
Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:
 In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this causes the
delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode: In this mode both systems send and receive data at same time as shown in fig.1.60

Fig.1.60 Full-duplex mode

 In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
 Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
 Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and
another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
39
  The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
 The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
Examples:
 Telephones/Smartphones: Both people can speak and hear each other at once.
 Switched Ethernet: Modern network switches allow computers to send and receive data packets
simultaneously.
 Video Conferencing: Platforms like Zoom and Teams rely on full-duplex for real-time natural
interaction

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

 Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:
 If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication
channel is divided into two parts.

1.5.5 Data link layer: The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
• Framing
• Physical addressing
• Node to Node Flow Control
• Node to Node Error Control
• Access Control

The sending and receiving of frame at Data Link layer as shown fig.1.61

Fig.1.61 Sending and receiving of frame

Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable
data units called frames as shown in fig .1.62

Fig.1.62 Data Frame Format

Flag has 8 bits: 0 1 1 1 1 1 0

40
Physical addressing (MAC Addressing): A media access control address (MAC address) is a unique
identifier assigned to a network interface controller (NIC) for use as a network address in communications
within a network segment. This use is common in most IEEE 802 networking technologies, including
Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.

The size of MAC address is six bytes .It is represented by hexadecimal notion by using happens

Example MAC Addresses: 07-1A-7B-C7-5F-E4 ,

3D-28-1B-7C-10-2A,

If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the
frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the
sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.

Node to Node Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms
to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.

Node to Node Error Control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize
duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame

Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time. Figure 2.7 illustrates hop-
to-hop (node-to-node) delivery by the data link layer.

Hop-to-hop frame delivery at Data link layer as shown in fig .1.63

Fig.1.63 Hop-to-hop frame delivery at Data link layer

1.4.6 Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
Responsibilities and functions of the network layer include the following
41
 • Logical Addressing
• Routing
• Congestion Control
• Source-to-destination delivery

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple
networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the
same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final
destination.
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the
two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links),
there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Fig.1.64 shows the
relationship of the network layer to the data link and transport layers.

Fig.1.64 Sending and receiving of Packet at Network layer

Logical addressing (IP addressing): The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles
the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system
to help distinguish the source and destination systems.

The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things,
includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver. The logical address is also called IP address. IP
address has two versions 4 and 6. The size of IP4 is 4bytes=24bits and it is represented binary and dotted
decimal notion as shown 1.65

Fig.1.65 IP4 address

IP6 is advanced and its size is 16byte=b128bits. It is represented by binary and hexadecimal with colon
notion as shown in fig.1.66

42
 Fig.1.66 IP6 Address

Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks (network of networks)
or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers)

Congestion control: It too many packets are submitted by hosts to subnet then routers within subnet are
unable to forward packets. This heavy traffic is called congestion. By using different congestion control
algorithms are used control congestion and they are implemented at network layer.
Source to destination delivery at Network layer as shown in fig.1.67 and 1.68

Fig.1.67 Source to destination delivery

Fig.1.67 Source to destination delivery

43
As the figure shows, now we need a source-to-destination delivery. The network layer at A sends the packet
to the network layer at B. When the packet arrives at router B, the router makes a decision based on the final
destination (F) of the packet. As we will see in later chapters, router B uses its routing table to find that the
next hop is router E. The network layer at B, therefore, sends the packet to the network layer at E. The
network layer at E, intern sends the packet to the network layer at F.

1.5.7 Transport layer: The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.
 Service-point addressing
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection Control
 Flow Control
 Error control
 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an
application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one
independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does.
The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order,
overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level. Fig.1.68 shows the
relationship of the transport layer to the network and session layers

Fig.1.68 Segmentation and reassembly

Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

 Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this reason,
source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a
specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the
other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point
address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport
layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
 Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost
in transmission.
 Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented. A
connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the
data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However,
flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
44
  Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. However,
error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single link. The
sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer
without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through
retransmission.

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message at Transport layer as shown in fig.1.69

Fig.1.69 process-to-process delivery of message

1.5.8 Session layer: The session layer is responsible for

 Dialog control
 Synchronization.

Dialog control: The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
Synchronization: In synchronization data is divided units and check points are added in between data units
and each received data is acknowledged by receiver as shown fig.1.70

Fig.1.70 Crash Recovery by using Synchronization

1.4.9 Presentation layer: The presentation layer is responsible for

 Translation
 Compression
 Encryption.

The relationship between application layer and presentation layer as shown in fig.1.71

45
 Fig.1.71 Data exchange at presentation layer

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information
in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems, the
presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The
presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a
common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its
receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption
means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting
message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message
back to its original form.
 Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio,
and video.
1.5.10 Application layer: The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user as shown in
fig.1.72 and it provides different services to user
 Graphical User Interface
 Network virtual terminal
 File transfer and access , management
 Mail services
 Directory service
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user
interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services.
Fig.1.48 shows the relationship of the application layer to the user and the presentation layer. Of the
many application services available, the figure shows only three: XAOO (message-handling services),
X.500 (directory services), and file transfer, access, and management (FTAM). The user in this example
employs XAOO to send an e-mail message.

Fig.1.72 Application layer services to user

46
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
 Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal,
and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation
of a terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn,
talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows the user to log on.
 File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a remote
host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
 Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

1.6 TCP/IP Model

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application as shown in fig.1.72

Fig 1.72 TCP/IP model

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP as shown in fig 1.73

47
 Fig 1.73 TCP /IP Reference model

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. The TCP/IP model is a description
framework for computer network protocols created in the 1970s by DARPA, an agency of the United States
Department of Defense.
It evolved from ARPANET, which were the world's first wide area network and a predecessor of the
Internet. The TCP/IP Model is sometimes called the Internet Model or the United States Department of
Defense Model. It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this
standard. Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not match exactly with those in the OSI
model.
The TCP/IP model and related protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
It loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows:

1.6.1 Application Layer

This is the scope within which applications create user data and communicate this data to other processes or
applications on another or the same host. The communications partners are often called peers. This is where
the "higher level" protocols such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, etc. operate.

 SMPT (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): It transfers mails

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): It transfers files
 DNS (Domain Name System): It converts user-friendly address to IP address
 HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): The protocols that are used to transfer hypertext between
two computers is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol. HTTP provides standard between a web
browser and web server to establish communication. It is set of rules for transferring data from one
computer to another
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a networking protocol used for the
management and monitoring of network-connected devices in Internet Protocol networks. .It is an
application layer protocol in the OSI model framework. Typically, the SNMP protocol is
implemented using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 TELNET (Network Terminal) is a network protocol used to virtually access a computer and to
provide a two-way, collaborative and text-based communication channel between two machines. It
follows a user command Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) networking
protocol for creating remote sessions.
 SSH stands for Secure Shell or Secure Socket Shell. It is a cryptographic network protocol that
allows two computers to communicate and share the data over an insecure network such as the
internet. It is used to login to a remote server to execute commands and data transfer from one
machine to another machine.

48
1.6.2 Transport Layer

The Transport Layer constitutes the networking regime between two network hosts, either on the local
network or on remote networks separated by routers. The Transport Layer provides a uniform networking
interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. This is where flow-
control, error-correction, and connection protocols exist, such as TCP and UDP. This layer deals with
opening and maintaining connections between Internet hosts.

UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from process to process.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): It is a process-to process protocol that adds only port address,
checksum, and error control and length information.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): It provides full transport layer services to applications. It
collects each data gram as it comes in and reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP): It provides support for newer applications such
as voice over to internet.

1.6.3 Network Layer

It is also called Internet Layer. The Internet Layer has the task of exchanging datagrams across network
boundaries. It is therefore also referred to as the layer that establishes internetworking; indeed, it defines and
establishes the Internet. This layer defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol
suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines IP addresses. Its function in
routing is to transport datagrams to the next IP router that has the connectivity to a network closer to the
final data destination.

At the network layer TCP/IP, supports the internetworking protocol (IP).in turn it uses four supporting
protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, IGMP, IGP, EGP

 IP protocol: it forwards data packets from source to destination

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): It is used to associate a logical address with a physical
address. It is used to find the physical address of the node when its internet address is known.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP): It allows a host to discover its internet address
when it knows only its physical address.
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send
notification of datagram problems.
 Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP): Is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a
message to a group of recipients
 Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) is a dynamic route update protocol used between routers that run
on TCP/IP hosts within a single autonomous system. The routers use this protocol to exchange
information about IP routes
 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), is a type of routing protocol used to distribute routing
information between different autonomous systems in large ...

1.6.4 Host -to Network Layer

This layer defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts
communicate without intervening routers. This layer describes the protocols used to describe the local
network topology and the interfaces needed to affect transmission of Internet Layer datagrams to next-
neighbor hosts. (cf. the OSI Data Link Layer). In this layer Ethernet LAN protocols are used

49
 1.7 Different Addresses in TCP/IP Model

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and
specific as shown in fig.1.74

 Physical Adresses
 Logiciel Adresses
 Port Addresses
 Domain Name Addresses

Fig.1.74 Different Addresses in TCP/IP Model

1.7.1 Physical address

It is also called MAC (Medium Access Control) address .Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte)
physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon,
as shown below:

MAC Address 07:01:02:01:2C:4B

. 10 to 87
ame transmission form node
Data frame transmission form node 10 to 87 as shown fig.1.75

50
 Fig.1.75 Data frame transmission from node 10 to 87 by using MAC

1.7.2 IP address: IP address is denoted by dotted decimal notion as follows. It is 4 bytes =32bits

IP address: 150. 20. 10. 1

Transmission data packet using IP address as shown in fig.1.76

Fig.1.76 Transmission data packet using IP addresses

1.7.3 Port address: it is use identify application. The combination of IP and Port address is socket address
.It identifies the currently running application. A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal
number as shown.
Example: 50, A 16-bit port address represented as one single number

1.7.4 Domain Name address : It is also called domain name address, [Link],

The following fig.1.77 shows the transmission data by using different addresses

51
 Fig.1.77 Transmission data by using different addresses

COUNTRY DOMAINS Generic Domains

 .in – India  .org – Non-profit organizations

 .us – United States  .net – Network-related organizations
 .uk – United Kingdom  .edu – Educational institutions
 .ca – Canada  .gov – Government organizations
 .au – Australia  .mil – Military organizations
 .nz – New Zealand
Other Popular Generic Domains
Asia
 .info – Information websites
 .cn – China  .biz – Business websites
 .jp – Japan  .name – Personal websites
 .kr – South Korea  .pro – Professional services
 .sg – Singapore
 .pk – Pakistan New Generic Domains (Modern Use)
 .bd – Bangladesh
 .lk – Sri Lanka  .tech – Technology-related sites
 .np – Nepal  .online – General-purpose websites
 .store – E-commerce sites
Europe  .blog – Blogs and content creators
 .app – Mobile applications
 .de – Germany
 .fr – France
 .it – Italy
 .es – Spain
 .nl – Netherlands
 .se – Sweden
 .ch – Switzerland
 .ru – Russia

52
Middle East

 .ae – United Arab Emirates

 .sa – Saudi Arabia
 .qa – Qatar
 .om – Oman
 .il – Israel

Africa

 .za – South Africa

 .ng – Nigeria
 .eg – Egypt
 .ke – Kenya

South America

 .br – Brazil
 .ar – Argentina
 .cl – Chile
 .co – Colombia

1.8 Difference between OSI model and TCP/IP Model (Comparison)

The main differences between the two models and are as follows:
1. The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4 layers
2. OSI is a reference model and TCP/IP is an implementation of OSI model.
3. TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards around which the internet has developed. The OSI model
however is a "generic, protocol- independent standard."
4. TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
5. TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.
6. TCP/IP appears to be a simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it has fewer layers.
7. TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact because TCP/IP
protocols are the standards around which the internet was developed therefore it mainly gains creditabilit y
due to this reason. Where as in contrast networks are not usually built around the OSI model as it is merely
used as a guidance tool.

53
 Table 1.3 Difference between OSI model and TCP/IP Model

Sno OSI model TCP/IP model

1 It has Seven layers It has four layers

 Application layer  Application layer

 Presenton layer  Transport layer
 Session layer  Network layer
 Transport layer  Host to Network layer
 Network layer
 Data Link layer
 Physical layer
2 Model was defined first before First protocols were implemented then model
Implementation was defined

3 In OSI model three concepts Services , TCP/IP model the three concepts Services ,
Protocols and Interfaces are clearly Protocols and Interfaces are not clearly
distinguished distinguished

4 In OSI model, the protocols are hidden. TCP/IP model protocols are not hidden.

5 In OSI model. Transport layer supports In TCP/IP model , transport layer supports
oriented service only connection less service

6 OSI model don’t support for Internet TCP/IP model supports Internet
directly

7 Layers were developed strictly according to No strict regulation on rules were formed
rules are called principles while developing the model

1.4 Comparison between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model (Open Systems TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control

Feature
Interconnection) Protocol / Internet Protocol)
ISO (International Organization for
Developed by DARPA (U.S. Department of Defense)
Standardization)
Year 1984 1970s
Number of Layers 7 Layers 4 Layers
Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Network Interface, Internet, Transport,
Layer Names
Session, Presentation, Application Application
Approach Theoretical / Reference model Practical / Implementation model
Used for learning and understanding Used in real-world Internet
Usage
networking concepts communication
Layer Separation Clear and strict separation of layers Less strict separation of layers
Session &
Separate layers Included in Application layer
Presentation Layers
Transport Layer
TCP, UDP TCP, UDP
Protocols
54
 1.4 Comparison between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model (Open Systems TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control

Feature
Interconnection) Protocol / Internet Protocol)
Network Layer
IP, ICMP IP, ICMP
Protocols
Supports both connection-oriented and TCP is connection-oriented, UDP is
Reliability
connectionless services connectionless
Error Handling At multiple layers Mainly at Transport layer
Protocol
Model is independent of protocols Protocol-dependent model
Independence
Popularity Mostly academic and conceptual Widely used in practice (Internet)
Example Use Teaching, network design reference Internet, intranets, real networks

1.9 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Topology: How devices/ Systems are connected to form a Network. There four types of topology as shown
in fig.1.78

Fig.1.78 Types of Topology

1.9.1 Mesh Topology: Not common on LANs Most often used in WANs to interconnect LANS. Each node
is connected to every other node .Allows communication to continue in the event of a break in any one
connection .It is “Fault Tolerant”. Is shown in fig 1.77

Fig.1.77 Mesh Topology

55
Advantages
• Improves Fault Tolerance
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Difficult to install
• Difficult to manage
• Difficult to troubleshoot

1.9.2 Star Topology: Like the spokes of a wheel (without the symmetry). Centre point is a Hub. Segments
meet at the Hub. Each device needs its own cable to the Hub. Predominant type of topology. Easy to
maintain and expand is shown in fig 1.56

Fig.1.78 Star Topology

Advantages
• Easy to add devices as the network expands
• One cable failure does not bring down the entire network
• Hub provides centralised management
• Easy to find device and cable problems
• Can be upgraded to faster speeds
• Lots of support as it is the most used

• Disadvantages
• A star network requires more cable than a ring or bus network
• Failure of the central hub can bring down the entire network
• Costs are higher (installation and equipment) than for most bus networks

1.9.3 Bus Topology: In this topology, network maintained by a single cable. Cable segment must end with a
terminator. Uses thin coaxial cable (backbones will be thick coaxial cable).Extra stations can be added in a
daisy chain manner. Thick Ethernet (10Base5) used for backbones. Limited to 500m. Max of 100 nodes per
segment Total of four repeaters, 2500m, with a total of 488 nodes as shown in fig.1.79

56
 Fig.1.79 Bus Topology
Advantages
• Inexpensive to install
• Easy to add stations
• Use less cable than other topologies
• Works well for small networks

Disadvantages
• No longer recommended
• Backbone breaks, whole network down
• Limited no of devices can be attached
• Difficult to isolate problems
• Sharing same cable slows response rates
1.9.4 Ring Topology: No beginning or end, all devices of equality of access to media, single ring data
travels in one direction only, guess what a double ring allows. Each device has to wait its turn to transmit.
Most common type is Token Ring (IEEE 802.5).A token contains the data, reaches the destination, data
extracted, acknowledgement of receipt sent back to transmitting device, removed, empty token passed on
for another device to use as shown fig.1.80

Fig.1.80 Rig Topology

Advantages
• Data packets travel at great speed
• No collisions
• Easier to fault find
• No terminators required
Disadvantages

• Requires more cable than a bus

57
 • A break in the ring will bring it down
• Not as common as the bus – less devices available

1.5.5 Hybrid Topology: Old networks are updated and replaced, leaving older segments (legacy). Hybrid
Topology – combines two or more different physical topologies .Commonly Star-Bus or Star-Ring. Star-
Ring uses a MAU (Multistation Access Unit (see later slide) as shown in fig.1.59 and fig.1.60.

Fig.1.81Hybrid Topology

Fig.1.82 Hybrid Topology

1.5 Comparison of Network Topologies

Topology Structure Advantages Disadvantages Best Use Case
All devices connected to Simple, low cost, Backbone failure stops entire Small, temporary
Bus
a single backbone cable easy to install network, collisions networks
Easy to manage,
All devices connected to Central device failure affects Offices, schools,
Star fault isolation, high
a central hub/switch all LANs
performance
Each device connected
Equal access, no One node failure breaks Token-based
Ring to two others forming a
collisions network networks
loop
Military, critical
Devices interconnected High reliability,
Mesh Expensive, complex cabling systems, Data
with multiple paths fault tolerant
Centers
Hierarchical
Scalable, easy Backbone failure affects Large
Tree combination of star and
expansion segments organizations
bus
Hybrid Combination of two or Flexible, reliable Complex design, costly Large enterprises

58
 more topologies

1.10 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

 Local Area Networks (LANS)

 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANS)
 Wide Area Networks (WANS)
 Global Area Networks (GANS)
1.10.1 Local Area Networks (LANs): Short distances and designed to provide local interconnectivity.
Speed : 10Mbps -100Mbps.
Distance : 10m-10km,
Coverage area : Room /Building/Campus
Topology : Bus / Ring / Star
Line configuration: point- to -point/ Multi point.
Multiple LANs in any organization as shown in fig.1.83 and fig.1.84

Fig.1.83 Multiple LANs

59
 Fig.1.84 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

1.10.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs): Provide connectivity over areas such as a city as shown in
fig.1.85
 Distance : 10Km – 100Km
 Speed : 1.5Mbps -150Mbps
 Coverage are : city

Fig.1.85 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

1.10.3 Wide Area Networks (WANs): Long distances and provide connectivity over large areas as shown
in fig.1.86 and fig.1.87
 Distance : 100Km – 1000Km
 Speed : 1.5Mbps -2.4Gbps
 Coverage are : Country/ Continent

60
 Fig.1.86 Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Fig.1.87 Wide Area Networks (WANs)

1.10.4 Global Area Network (GAN) : It is called Internet , an interconnected collection of all types of
networks (heterogeneous networks) as shown in fig.1.89

61
 Fig.1.88 Internet

1.10.5 Comparison between LAN, MAN and WAN

Table 1.6 Comparison between LAN, MAN, and WAN

MAN (Metropolitan Area WAN (Wide Area
Feature LAN (Local Area Network)
Network) Network)
Metropolitan Area
Full Form Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Network
Small area (room, building, Country, continent, or
Coverage Area City or large town
campus) worldwide
Geographical
Up to a few kilometers 5–50 km (approx.) Thousands of kilometers
Range
Speed Very high High Comparatively lower
Ownership Private (individual/organization) Private or government Public or private (ISPs)
Cost Low Medium High
Maintenance Easy Moderate Difficult
Technologies Fiber optics, cable MPLS, satellite, leased
Ethernet, Wi-Fi
Used networks lines
Home network, office network, City-wide cable TV
Examples Internet, bank networks
college lab network

1.11 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Fig.1.89 Transmission medium

 Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
 The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN (Local Area Network).
62
  It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
 In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
 In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
 In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it
is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
 The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fiber optics, atmosphere, water, and
vacuum.
 The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of medium
and signal.
 Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media, medium
characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more
important.
 Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of
installation and maintenance.
 The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e., Physical
layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium, the
higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one due to
the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to transmission
impairment.
o Interference: Interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels over a
communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.

1.11.1 Impairment Courses

Fig,1.90 Transmission Impairment

Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal decreases with increasing
the distance which causes the loss of energy as shown fig.1.91

63
 Fig.1.91 Attenuation

Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This type of distortion is
examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the delay distortion

.f

Fig.1.92 Distortion

Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is added to it which
creates the noise.

Fig.1.93 Noice

1.11.2 Classification of Transmission Media

Transmission media is classified into two types as shown in fig 1.94

64
 Fig.1.94 Types of Transmission Media
Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as Bounded
media. It has types of cables twisted pair cable , coaxial cable and fiber optic cable

1.11.3 Twisted pair cable

 Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable is
cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a
lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

65
 Fig.1.95 Twisted Pair (UTP) cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support up to 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support up to 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support up to 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
o Category 5: It can support up to 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

 It is cheap.
 Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
 It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

 This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable

66
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
transmission rate.

Characteristics of Shielded Twisted Pair:

 The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
 An installation of STP is easy.
 It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
 It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

 It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

 It has a higher attenuation rate. Connector

Twisted pair Cable Connectors

Fig,1.96 Twisted pair Cable Connectors

Application of twisted pair cable

 Telephone communication –
Used in traditional landline telephone networks to transmit voice signals.
 Local Area Networks (LANs) –
Commonly used in Ethernet networks (Cat5, Cat6 cables) for connecting computers, switches, and
routers.
 Internet connections –
Used in DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) broadband services for internet access.
 Data transmission –
Carries digital data signals over short to medium distances.
 Computer networking in offices and homes –
Widely used because it is low cost and easy to install.
 Intercom and PBX systems –
Used in internal communication systems in offices, schools, and hospitals.

67
  Security and surveillance systems –
Used to connect CCTV cameras and access control systems (especially UTP cables).
 VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) –
Used to transmit voice data over IP networks.
 Industrial and control systems –
Used in automation and control wiring where moderate data rates are required.

 Short-distance communication –
Suitable for applications where transmission distance is limited (up to about 100 meters in Ethernet).

1.11.4 Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial
cable.
 The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
 It has a higher frequency as compared to twisted pair cable.
 The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor.

Fig.1.97 Coaxial Cable

 The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from
the EMI (Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.

Categories of coaxial cables based on RG

68
Advantages of Coaxial cable:

 The data can be transmitted at high speed.

 It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Coaxial cable:

 It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

 If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Co-axial Cable Connectors are called BNC connectors

Fig.1.98 Coaxial Cable Connectors

Applications of Coaxial Cable

 Cable television (CATV) –

Used to distribute TV signals from service providers to homes.
 Broadband internet connections –
Used in cable modem systems for high-speed internet access.
 Antenna connections –
Connects TV antennas, satellite dishes, and radio receivers.
 Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) –
Widely used to transmit video signals in surveillance systems.
 Local Area Networks (LANs) –
Used in early Ethernet networks (10Base2 and 10Base5).
 Radio and communication systems –
Used to transmit RF signals in radio transmitters and receivers.

69
  Military and aerospace applications –
Used due to good shielding and resistance to interference.
 Broadcasting systems –
Used in television and radio broadcasting equipment.
 Test and measurement equipment –
Used in oscilloscopes, signal generators, and other instruments.
 Data transmission over medium distances –
Suitable for transmitting data signals with less noise compared to twisted pair.

1.11.5 Fiber Optic Cable

 Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
 Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to send the data by
pulses of light.
 The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from
other types of wiring.
 Fiber optics provides faster data transmission than copper wires.

70
 Fig.1.99 Fiber Optic Cable
 Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a
light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of the core, the lighter will be transmitted into
the fiber.
 Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the
cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within
the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fiber.
 Plastic Buffer: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose
of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra fiber protection.

Types of Fiber Optic Cables

Fig.1.100 Types of Fiber Optic Cables

Generally optical fiber is classified into two categories based on the number of modes, and the refractive
index. These are explained as following below.

71
 Fig.1.101 Types of Fiber Optic Cables

Single-mode fiber: In single-mode fiber, only one type of ray of light can propagate through the fiber.
This type of fiber has a small core diameter (5um) and high cladding diameter (70um) and the difference
between the refractive index of core and cladding is very small. There is no dispersion i.e. no degradation
of the signal during traveling through the fiber. The light is passed through it through a laser diode.

Multi-mode Fiber: Multimode fiber allows a large number of modes for the light ray traveling through it.
The core diameter is generally (40um) and that of cladding is (70um). The relative refractive index
difference is also greater than single mode fiber. There is signal degradation due to multimode dispersion.
It is not suitable for long-distance communication due to large dispersion and attenuation of the signal.
There are two categories on the basis of Multi-mode fiber i.e. Step Index Fiber and Graded Index
Fiber. Basically these are categories under the types of optical fiber on the basis of Refractive Index

Step-index: The refractive index of core is constant. The refractive index of the cladding is also constant.
The rays of light propagate through it in the form of meridional rays which cross the fiber axis during
every reflection at the core-cladding boundary.

Graded Index: type of fiber, the core has a non-uniform refractive index that gradually decreases from
the center towards the core-cladding interface. The cladding has a uniform refractive index. The light rays
propagate through it in the form of skew rays or helical rays. it is not cross the fiber axis at any time.

Difference between Single-Mode, Multi-Mode, and Step-Index Optical Fiber

Multi-Mode Fiber
Feature Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) Step-Index Fiber
(MMF)
Large (varies, usually ≥ 50
Core diameter Very small (≈ 8–10 µm) Larger (≈ 50–62.5 µm)
µm)
Number of light
Only one mode Multiple modes Multiple modes
paths
Refractive index Gradual (mostly used with
Usually graded index Abrupt (step change)
profile graded index)
Dispersion Very low Higher than single-mode Very high
Bandwidth Very high Moderate Low

72
 Multi-Mode Fiber
Feature Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) Step-Index Fiber
(MMF)
Signal loss Very low Higher than SMF High
Transmission Very long (tens to hundreds of Short to medium (up to
Short distance only
distance km) few km)
Light source Laser diode LED / Laser LED
Cost Expensive Less expensive Cheapest
Long-distance communication, Short-distance, low-speed
Applications LANs, data centers
telecom, internet backbone links

Advantages of Optical Fiber:

 Noise immunity: RFI and EMI immune (RFI - Radio Frequency Interference, EMI -Electromagnetic
Interference)
 Security: cannot tap into cable.
 Large Capacity due to BW (bandwidth)
 No corrosion
 Longer distances than copper wire
 Smaller and lighter than copper wire
 Faster transmission rate

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:

 Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!

 Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much & it will break!
 Difficult to splice
 Unidirectional
Fiber Optic cable Connectors

Fig.1.102 Fiber Optic cable Connectors

Applications of Fiber Optic cable

 Backbone connection for Wi-Fi networks –

Fiber optic cable connects core networks to Wi-Fi access points for high-speed data transfer.
 Integration with 5G and Wi-Fi 6/6E –
Fiber supports high data rates required by modern Wi-Fi standards.

73
  Telecommunication systems –
Used for long-distance voice, video, and data transmission.
 Internet and broadband services –
Provides high-speed internet (FTTH – Fiber to the Home).
 Computer networks (LAN, MAN, WAN) –
Used as backbone cables in high-speed networks.
 Cable television (CATV) –
Used to transmit TV signals with high quality and low loss.
 Data centers –
Used for high-bandwidth, fast data transfer between servers.
 Military and defense communication –
Used due to high security and resistance to electromagnetic interference.
 Medical applications –
Used in endoscopy, laser surgeries, and medical imaging.
 Industrial automation –
Used in factories for reliable and noise-free communication.
 Undersea communication cables –
Used for international communication across oceans.
 Smart cities and IoT networks –
Used to connect smart infrastructure and monitoring systems.
 Aviation and space communication –
Used in aircraft and spacecraft for lightweight and high-speed data transfer.
 Security and surveillance systems –
Used for high-resolution video transmission over long distances.

1.11.6 Comparison of Guided media

Feature Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable

Transmission Copper wires twisted Single copper core with
Glass or plastic fiber
Medium together shielding
Signal Type Electrical Electrical Light
Bandwidth Low Medium Very High
Data Speed Low to Medium Medium Very High
Medium (up to several hundred Very Long (several
Maximum Distance Short (≈100 meters)
meters) kilometers)
Excellent (immune to
Noise Immunity Low Better than twisted pair
EMI)
Attenuation High Medium Very Low
Security Low Medium Very High

74
 Feature Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable
Cost Low Medium High
Installation Easy Moderate Difficult
Flexibility High Medium Low
Typical Internet backbone, data
Telephone lines, LANs Cable TV, broadband, CCTV
Applications centers

1.11.7 Unguided Media (Wireless Communication)

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Fig.1.103 Electromagnetic spectrum

1.11. 8 Layer of Earth’s Atmosphere

75
 Fig. 1.104 Layer of Earth’s Atmosphere

Troposphere
The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface and extends 8 to 14.5 kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). This part of
the atmosphere is the densest. Almost all weather is in this region.

Stratosphere
The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high. The ozone
layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer.

Mesosphere
The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. Meteors
burn up in this layer

Thermosphere
The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high. Aurora
76
and satellites occur in this layer.

Ionosphere
The ionosphere is an abundant layer of electrons and ionized atoms and molecules that stretches from about
48 kilometers (30 miles) above the surface to the edge of space at about 965 km (600 mi), overlapping into
the mesosphere and thermosphere. This dynamic region grows and shrinks based on solar conditions and
divides further into the sub-regions: D, E and F; based on what wavelength of solar radiation is absorbed.
The ionosphere is a critical link in the chain of Sun-Earth interactions. This region is what makes radio
communications possible.

1.11.9 Types of Wave Propagation

 Ground Wave Propagation (Surface Wave propagation)

 Sky Wave Propagation
 Space Wave Propagation (Line of sight propagation):

77
 Fig.1.105 Types of Wave Propagation

Ground Wave Propagation (Surface Wave propagation): When the radio waves from the transmitting
antenna propagate along the surface of the earth, to reach the receiving antenna, the wave propagation is
called ground waves or surface wave propagation. Ground waves are radio waves that travel or propagate
along the surface of the earth. These radio waves induce a current in the ground from which they pass.
While propagating through the medium waves will have losses as well as absorption. Therefore there will be
a loss of signal or power. The more the frequency of waves the more will be losses. That is why it is
favorable only for low-frequency waves only. Generally, this kind of technique is used for broadcasting
purposes.

Sky Wave Propagation: The radio waves from the transmitting antenna propagate through the sky towards
the receiver, either directly or by reflection from the ground, this kind of wave propagation is called sky
wave propagation. It is also called ionospheric wave propagation.
The refractive index of the ionosphere is less than its free space value and it decreases with increases in
height. Therefore radio waves go under total internal reflection. Radio waves of frequency less than 3 MHz
are observed in the ionosphere and of frequency greater than 30 MHz can pass through the ionosphere after
suffering a small deviation

Space Wave Propagation (Line of sight propagation): The radio waves from the transmitting antenna
propagate through space, around the ground and reach the receiver either directly or by reflection from the
ground, this kind of wave propagation is called space wave propagation. It is also called the line of sight
propagation.
The radio waves which travel directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna are also
called space waves. Waves in the MHz frequency range are used for space wave propagation. We know that
our earth is spherical therefore to make the long-distance we need the height of the antenna as long as
possible.

1.11.9 Types of Antennas:

.
Omni-directional Antenna

78
1.11.10 Types of Frequency Bands

79
1.11.11 Comparison of Radio Waves, Microwaves, and Infrared Waves

Sr.
No. Basis Radio wave Microwave Infrared wave

1. Direction These are Omni-directional These are unidirectional in These are

in nature. nature. unidirectional in
nature.

2. Penetration At low frequency, they can At low frequency, they They cannot
penetrate through solid can penetrate through penetrate through
objects and walls but high solid objects and walls. at any solid object and
frequency they bounce off high frequency, they walls.
the obstacle. cannot penetrate.

3. Frequency Frequency range: 3 KHz to Frequency range: 1 GHz Frequency range:

range 1GHz. to 300 GHz. 300 GHz to 400
GHz.

4. Security These offers poor security. These offers medium These offers high
security. security.

5. Attenuation Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.

6. Government Some frequencies in the Some frequencies in the There is no need of

License radio-waves require microwaves require government license
government license to use government license to use to use these waves.
these. these.

7. Usage Cost Setup and usage Cost is Setup and usage Cost is Usage Cost is very
moderate. high. less.

8. Communication These are used in long These are used in long These are not used
distance communication. distance communication. in long distance
communication.

Comparison of Radio Waves, Microwaves, and Infrared Waves

Feature Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Waves

Shorter than radio waves Shorter than microwaves
Wavelength Longest (meters to kilometers)
(1 m – 1 mm) (700 nm – 1 mm)
Frequency Lowest Medium Higher than microwaves
Energy Lowest Moderate Higher
Penetration Very high (can pass through
Moderate Low
Power buildings & atmosphere)

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 Feature Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Waves
Heat Effect Negligible Produces heat Strong heat effect
Speed of light (same for all EM
Speed Speed of light Speed of light
waves)
Hot objects, molecular
Generation Oscillating electric currents Magnetrons, klystrons
vibrations
Infrared detectors, thermal
Detection Antennas Microwave receivers
cameras
Interaction with Absorbed by water
Weak interaction Absorbed as heat
Matter molecules

Applications

📡 Radio Waves

 Radio & TV broadcasting

 Mobile communication
 Satellite communication
 Navigation systems

📶 Microwaves

 Microwave ovens 🍲
 Radar systems
 Wi-Fi & Bluetooth
 Satellite communication

🔥 Infrared Waves

 Remote controls
 Night vision devices
 Thermal imaging
 Heat sensors
 Medical physiotherapy

Key Differences (Quick Points)

 Radio waves → Longest wavelength, used for communication

 Microwaves → Cause heating, used in cooking and radar
 Infrared waves → Felt as heat, used in thermal imaging

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