Module – V - Extruded end product quality characteristics
Sub Topic-1: Nutritional- effect of processing on macro and micronutrients,
Functional- Expansion ratio, water and oil absorption index, bulk density.
Quality changes in foods during food extrusion
Extrusion, known for its efficiency and high-volume production of textured foods, also
introduces significant quality changes. These changes, affecting structural, textural, and
nutritional aspects, can be both positive and negative. The process may enhance nutrient
bioavailability but poses a risk of degradation, especially for heat-sensitive vitamins and
proteins. Managing these changes is vital for ensuring nutritional quality. Additionally, the
Maillard reaction during extrusion contributes to flavor, color, and aroma development,
enhancing taste and visual appeal.22
Effect on physical and sensory characteristics
Extrusion variables such as temperature, moisture, and screw speed have been reported to
affect expansion ratio, bulk density, water absorption index, water solubility index, and
hardness of extruded foods.
The production of characteristic texture is one of the main features of extrusion technology.
The HTST conditions in extrusion cooking have only minor effects on the natural color and
flavor of foods. Fading of color due to product expansion, excessive heat or reactions with
proteins, and reducing sugars or metal ions may be a problem in some extruded foods. The
process conditions used in extrusion cooking such as high barrel temperatures and low feed
moistures favor the Millard reaction and also decrease the nutritional availability of
lysine. Increasing protein content at constant feed moisture content causes an increase in
brittleness, hardness, and crispness but decreases the color intensity. Flavors are therefore
more often applied to the surface of extruded foods in the form of sprayed emulsions or
viscous slurries, however, this may cause stickiness in some products and hence require
additional drying.
Effect on chemical properties
Effect on starch
Inherent to all cereals, pseudocereals, fruits, vegetables, and legumes, carbohydrates
constitute the predominant components, ranging from simple sugars to complex structures
like starches and fibres. The primary raw materials for extrusion and bakery-based products
often involve milled cereal flour and starchy materials. Starch, typically comprising 50% to
80% of dry solids, significantly influences the physical characteristics of the extruded melt,
impacting expansion, hardness, and degree of cooking.
Extrusion cooking induces gelatinization at lower moisture contents (12-22%), where the
combination of heat, shear forces on starch granules, and water content disrupts the molecular
structure, leading to molecular hydrolysis. Starch polymers undergo dispersion and
degradation, forming a continuous fluid melt during extrusion. This fluid polymer continuum
traps water vapor bubbles, stretches during extrudate expansion, and stabilizes the structure
until the cell ruptures. Upon cooling, the starch polymer cell walls recoil and stiffen,
contributing to the final extrudate structure. As moisture is removed, the starch polymer
adopts a glassy state, resulting in a hard and brittle texture. Factors such as increased
temperature, screw speed, and pressure during extrusion can accelerate gelatinization, while
lipids, sucrose, dietary fibre, and salts may retard this process.
Effect on fibre
Extrusion cooking induces transformative effects on the structural characteristics and
physicochemical properties of foods. The primary impact involves a shift from insoluble fibre
to soluble fibre, driven by the disruption of covalent and non-covalent bonds between
carbohydrates and proteins associated with the fibre. This rupture leads to the formation of
smaller molecular fragments that exhibit increased solubility. The resulting alterations in fibre
structure contribute to enhanced functional properties, encompassing elevated gelatinization
temperature, greater solubility, improved swelling and solvent retention capacity, heightened
apparent viscosity and consistency coefficient, reduced flow behavior index, and enhanced
foam ability.
Effect on protein
Proteins, as biopolymers with numerous chemical groups, exhibit heightened reactivity
compared to polysaccharides, leading to various changes during extrusion, primarily
denaturation. Comprising chains of amino acids, proteins in native raw materials possess
diverse physical sizes and forms. The extrusion process involves the breakage and potential
reformation of disulfide bonds, resulting in improved protein digestibility by exposing
enzyme-sensitive areas and inducing denaturation. Strong shear during extrusion significantly
influences protein structure and conformation. The breakdown and denaturation of proteins
contribute to increased protein solubility in extruded meat-based foods. Electrostatic and
hydrophobic interactions promote the formation of insoluble aggregates, and while the
creation of new peptide bonds remains controversial, high molecular weight proteins can
dissociate into smaller subunits. Enzymes, being proteins, lose their activity due to high
temperatures and shear during the extrusion process.
Extrusion finds a significant application in high-protein foods for protein texturization.
Texturization processes through extrusion are utilized to produce products mimicking the
texture, taste, and appearance of meat or seafood, providing high nutritional value. 34 In
extrusion, globular proteins from oilseeds (soybeans, sunflower seeds, common beans, peas,
and cottonseed) and cereals, especially wheat gluten proteins, have been identified to form a
continuous structure.35,36
Effect on lipids
In the extruder, fats and oils become liquid at temperatures above 40°C. They are mixed with
other materials and are rapidly dispersed as fine oil droplets. The presence of lipids in
quantities lower than 3% does not affect expansion properties, however, in amounts above
5%, the reduction in expansion rate is considerable. Lipids have a powerful influence on
extrusion cooking processes by acting as lubricants because they reduce the friction between
particles in the mix and between the screw and barrel surfaces and the fluid melt. 9 Extrusion
results in increased metal chelating activity as well as 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
radical scavenging activity probably due to the formation of novel compounds such as
melanoidins during thermal processing.37 Maillard reaction products are found to have strong
antioxidant properties comparable to those of commonly used food antioxidants. Extrusion
cooking has shown a significant decrease in reducing power.
The onset of oxidation in extruded foods can be postponed through several mechanisms,
including the denaturation of oxidative enzymes like lipase and other enzymes. Additionally,
the formation of lipid-amylose complexes reduces the availability of both starch and lipids,
contributing to extended shelf life for extruded products. Moreover, the extrusion process
facilitates the release of endogenous antioxidants in granules, offering protection against
oxidation. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)-3 and -6, vital for human health, are more
susceptible to oxidation due to their higher degree of unsaturation. Consequently, there is a
growing preference for extrusion and other alternative food processing methods over
traditional processing to mitigate nutrient loss and minimize oxidation.
Effect on micronutrients
Vitamins can be destroyed by the action of temperature or by oxidation. Since extrusion
mostly involves thermal treatment at higher temperatures of 100 oC, some loss of vitamins in
the processed material is expected, especially of the temperature-sensitive and water-soluble
vitamins such as vitamin C. However, because of the HTST-type shock treatment, the extent
of losses is lower than with conventional methods such as static long-term cooking. Thiamine
being the most sensitive to temperature, is damaged during extrusion depending on the
processing conditions, temperature rise, and screw speed. Riboflavin losses are much lower
(about 94% retention after extrusion) and decrease with increasing water content in the
mixture. Vitamins A and E reveal high stability in extruded products, much higher than in the
case of raw materials. According to researchers, it is associated with an increased
susceptibility to the extraction of fat-soluble vitamins after baro thermal processing.
Minerals, characterized as inorganic, heat-stable, solid, crystalline chemical elements, are
naturally occurring and cannot be decomposed or synthesized through ordinary chemical
reactions. Their heat stability allows for pre-processing fortification without the risk of
subsequent damage. Extrusion enhances mineral absorption by mitigating factors that inhibit
absorption, including phytates, polyphenols, and other antinutrients. The increased solubility
of fibre (which may influence the gastrointestinal tract's mobility and potentially interfere
with mineral absorption) as a result of extrusion is also beneficial.
Effect on anti-nutritional factors
Anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) are natural compounds found in edible seeds that, upon
ingestion, interfere with the body's utilization of nutrients, particularly proteins, vitamins, and
minerals. They bind to these nutrients, reducing their absorption in the gastrointestinal
tract. Common ANFs in edible seeds include phytate, phenolic compounds (like tannins),
lectin, enzyme inhibitors (such as trypsin and amylase inhibitors), saponins, and oxalates.
These ANFs can have adverse effects, but various processing techniques, including extrusion
cooking, can help mitigate these effects by lowering or removing harmful compounds before
consumption.
Extrusion cooking, a highly effective technology, has been shown to reduce tannins and
haemagglutinins in foods. Shear forces generated during extrusion also eliminate trypsin and
protease inhibitors. Other researchers have reported the mitigating impact of extrusion on
phytates, oxalates, saponins, and polyphenols.
Effect on anti-oxidant properties
While reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a crucial role in maintaining normal physiological
functions, their accumulation can lead to oxidative damage and increase the risk of diseases
like cancer and cardiovascular issues. 49 Natural phenols and flavonoids can counteract initial
free radicals, reducing ROS concentration and preventing chain reactions.
The impact of extrusion on the antioxidant properties of food products can be both positive
and negative. Positive effects may result from the thermal disruption of cell walls and
subcellular compartments during extrusion, releasing confined phenolics and enhancing their
radical scavenging activities.50 In some cases, extrusion increases antioxidant capacity,
possibly influenced by the presence of ingredients like proteins or aromatic compounds.
Alternatively, extrusion may promote the formation of Maillard reaction products, which also
enhance antioxidant activity.51 Conversely, extrusion may deplete bioactive compounds due to
thermal and shear stress on the product.
It's important to note that the antioxidant activity of fibre-rich by-products during extrusion is
significantly influenced by feed moisture and temperature. Therefore, optimization of these
parameters should be considered to maximize antioxidant benefits.52,53
Physiological Quality Attributes
Physical characteristics such as expansion, density, and hardness are important parameters to
evaluate the consumer acceptability of the final product (Patil et al., 2007). It has been
shown that SME correlates well with extrudate properties such as expansion, density, and
texture characteristics.
Color Change
Comparison of color change before and after extrusion cooking helps in determining the
impact of extrusion cooking on product ingredients. Ilo and Berghofer (1999) determined
kinetics of color changes during extrusion cooking of maize grits. In this study, the kinetics of
color changes during extrusion cooking of yellow maize grits were investigated using the CIE
Lab color system and a zero-order kinetic model. The lightness of extrudate (L*) and the
redness (a*) were mostly dependent on barrel temperature, feed moisture, and feed rate. The
yellowness parameter (b*) was only slightly dependent on extrusion variables. The lightness
parameter (L*) showed marked changes due to extrusion cooking and was the best parameter
in the modeling of extrudate browning kinetics.
Bulk Density and Expansion Ratio
Bulk density and expansion ratio are dependent physical attributes. The increase in bulk
density corresponds to decrease in expansion ratio and vice-versa. Extrudate expansion has
been reported to be the most dependent on material moisture content and extrusion
temperature. Several theoreti-cal considerations for extrudate expansion have been published
(Alvarez-Martinez et al., 1988; Padmanabhan and Bhattachayrya, 1989; Kokini et al., 1992;
Kumagai and Yano,1993; Ilo et al., 1996). A general model of extrudate expansion was
developed including the radial, longitudinal, and volumetric expansion (Alvarez-Martinez et
al., 1988). Most of these studies used radial expansion as a measure of quality for extru-date
expansion. reduced bulk density and enhanced expansion for corn meal extrudates with
addedsucrose (2–8% wt). The structural changes in extrudates with the addition of sucrose
have been attributed to competition formoisture (Hsieh et al., 1990) and inhibition of
gelatinization(Sopade and Le Grys, 1991) during expansion. A bulk densityincrease and a
sectional expansion reduction with sucroseaddition were observed by Fan et al. (1996a). In
addition Bar-rett et al. (1995) noticed a cell size reduction with sucroseaddition. The
influence of physical structure of extrudates onstrength of these materials was reported by
various investiga-tors (Barrett and Peleg, 1992). Ollette et al. (1991) observedprogressive
reduction in the stress-strain functions of extrudedwheat starch during bending tests. Thymi
et al. (2005)reported structural properties of extruded corn starch. The effect of extrusion
conditions (temperature, feed moisture con-tent, residence time, and rotation speed) on the
structural prop-erties of extruded corn starch was investigated. The apparentdensity increased
slightly as the residence time increased forall temperature and moisture contents, while the
porosity andthe expansion ratio of extruded products decreased with the residence time.
Higher water feed level during extrusion process decreasethe radial expansion (Faubion and
Hoseney, 1982; Fletcheret al., 1985; Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1988; Singh et al.,2007a),
decrease volumetric expansion (Alvarez-Martinezet al., 1988), and increase bulk density of
the extrudates. Zhuet al. (2010) investigated mechanical and microstructural properties of soy
protein–high amylose corn starch extrudates in relation to physiochemical changes of starch
during extrusion. Results from the current study indicated that high amy-lase corn starch–soy
protein concentrate extrudates did not expand very well, but had substantially lower
mechanical strength. High amylase corn starch–soy protein concentrate gave a much lower
expansion compared with normal cornstarch during extrusion. However, the expansion of
normal corn starch was significantly reduced when 10% or 20% SPCwas added (De Mesa et
al., 2009), whereas the expansion of high amylase corn starch–soy protein concentrate was
not significantly impacted. Foods with lower moisture contents tend to be more vis-cous,
therefore, the pressure differential would be smaller for higher moisture extruded foods,
leading to a less expanded product (Singh et al., 2007a). The increase in feed moisture
content at the same extrusion temperature reduced the degree of starch conversion (Kokini et
al., 1992) and increased the apparent density values (Thymi et al., 2005). Ding et al.(2006)
investigated the effect of extrusion conditions on the functional and physical properties of
wheat-based expanded snacks. During the extrusion process, the dough viscosity, elastic
swell effect, and bubble growth effect contribute to the structure change of the extrusion mix.
The degree of starch gelatinization and extrudate expansion was found to be reduced as the
feed moisture increased.
Texture
In extruded foods, texture is of major importance, with crispness being often a desirable
attribute. Among other tests, the texture analysis of expanded snacks has been performed
through compression, penetration, acoustic procedures, and texture profile analysis. The main
component which deter-mines the texture of extruded product is flour composition. Many
ingredients have pronounced effect on overall texture of extruded product. Mezreb et al.
(2006) evaluated the effect of sucrose on the textural properties of corn and wheat extrudates.
Sucrose exerted pronounced effects on both the structure and the ability to process corn and
wheat extrudates. Sucrose induced a reduction in product expansion, probably reflecting the
decrease in glass transition temperature. How-ever, independently of the flour type, an
increase in sucrose leads to crisper products until an optimal content has beenreached, beyond
which crispness decreases.
Sub Topic-2: Microbial studies in extruded product.
Effect on micro-organisms
Extrusion technology as with other high-temperature processing techniques is capable of
inhibiting microbial activity within the food material. As a result, most conventional extruded
products such as snack foods and breakfast cereals are safe to eat. The high-temperature
processing and shear results in lower water activity (0.1 and 0.4), suggesting a longer shelf
life of the product.13 Suitable packaging then becomes an important factor to consider if the
status of microbial quality is to be maintained.
Fraiha et al.54 in their studies using Bacillus stearothermophilus spores, reported that shear
stress may be involved in microbial load reduction during the extrusion process, predicting
that mechanical forces might cause cell rupture. They opined that heat was not the sole
phenomenon to explain cell death during extrusion, mechanical damage of cells might be
involved.
Extrusion processing at low barrel temperatures (80-100 oC) resulted in injury to spores of B.
globigii. Extrusion at the higher barrel temperatures in zone 2 (120 and 180 oC) resulted in
extensive spore destruction.55 Okelo et al.56 observed that most pathogenic organisms would
be inactivated by extrusion cooking by selecting extruder conditions within the experimental
variable ranges that maximized spore destruction of thermophilic bacteria. This reduction
would also likely include members of mesophilic Bacillus cereus group.
Extrusion cooking has been identified as one of the most effective ways to reduce mycotoxin
levels in processed products, especially if glucose or other additives such as ammonia or
sodium bisulphite are included as ingredients. This is especially important since extruded
products are highly popular in the food and feed market.14