Module – VI

Recent developments in extrusion technology/extruded products

Sub Topic-2: By-product and waste utilization and functional extruded foods
Extrusion processing can be an excellent avenue for the utilization of these by-products in
foods. Extrusion is a widely used thermo-mechanical process due to its versatility, flexibility,
high production rate, low cost, and energy efficiency. Extruded products such as direct-
expanded products, breakfast cereals, and pasta have been developed by researchers using
agricultural by-products. The different by-products have a wide range of characteristics in
terms of chemical composition and functional properties, affecting the final products in
extrusion processing. For the practical applications of these by-products in extrusion, it is
crucial to understand their impacts on the qualities of raw material blends and extruded
products. This review summarizes the general differences in the properties of food by-
products from different sources (proximate compositions, physicochemical properties, and
functional properties) and how these properties and the extrusion processing conditions
influence the product characteristics.
The development of functional extruded snacks enriched with bioactivecompounds from food
industrial by-products is the future thrust. The mixing ofmore than two by-products is also
being practiced for improving the nutritionalgoodness of snacks. Korkerd et al., (2016)
formulated corn based extrudedsnacks with defatted soya meal, germinated brown rice and
mango peel fibre indifferent proportions which increased the protein and fibre content of the
[Link], a decreased expansion ratio was found in the product. Extrusioncooking
caused increase in soluble fibre content of the snack. Alam et al., (2016) developed extruded
snacks with four by-products such as broken rice (65–85%),defatted soybean flour (7.5–
17.5%), carrot pomace powder (3.75–8.75%) andcauliflower trimmings powder (3.75–
8.75%). Defatted soy flour improved theprotein (10-14%) and fibre 2.46% [Link] use of
novel technologies that help minimize the heat damage below 100oCto the functional
constituents in food by-products such as supercritical fluidextrusion. The technological
challenge with respect to post extrusion drying ofsnacks to preserve heat liable bioactive
compounds in by-products has emergedout innovative technologies such as radio frequency
drying, electro-osmoticdewatering. The inclusion of higher percentage of by-products can
reduce theload on environment therefore, attention can be given to reducing the particlesize
which may even have less disruption of starch matrix with improvedbioavailability. The
nano-encapsulation techniques could reduce particle sizebelow [Link] criteria such as
consumer acceptability and willingness to purchase needs tobe taken into consideration while
formulating extruded snacks with food industryby-products. Therefore, the utilization of food
industrial by-products not onlyrequire to study the consumer attitudes, sensory but also need
to understand theeffect on starch matrices.

Sub Topic-3: Encapsulated flavours and fat replacers

One of the advanced methods of encapsulation is extrusion. The extrusionprocess in this
context is not the same as that used for the hot extrusion ofcarbohydrate based expanded food
products. The technologies used are ramextrusion (melt injection) and screw extrusion (melt
extrusion) (Porzio, 2008 andAbbas et al., 2012). The bioactive compounds are additional
nutritive compoundsthat pose health benefits over and above the basic nutrition obtained
from [Link] include carotenoids, phytosterols, polyphenols, flavonoids etc.
Thesecompounds are known to possess pharmacological properties such asantidiabetic,
anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant (Aytul andGokmen, 2016). The
protection of bioactive compounds from higher processing,storage conditions and stomach
juices, enzymes is crucial to aid in theabsorption. The encapsulation technique provides an
alternative for the foodindustry to develop functional foods

Extrusion microencapsulation includes three processes:

(i) Melt injection
(ii) Melt extrusion
(iii) Centrifugal extrusion (co-extrusion)
(iv) Electrostatic extrusion

Melt Injection Process

The sugar/corn syrup solution is heated in a jacketed pressure vessel to boil offthe water and
raise the solid content. The jacket can be operated under [Link] boiling off the water,
flavour is incorporated into the mixture and the jacketis sealed. High shear emulsification by
stirrer ensures the flavour dispersion inthe sugar melt. The closed system is then pressurized
to extrude the sugar-flavour melt through narrow openings. The extrudate is passed through
the bathof cold solvent- isopropanol at ambient pressure. The threads of the extrudaterapidly
solidify yielding amorphous solid with flavour droplets dispersed in sugarmatrix which are
then centrifuged. The solvent removal takes place by hot airblowing to remove traces of
solvent

Melt Extrusion
In the melt extrusion process a co-rotating twin screw extruder is used tofacilitate uniform
mixing and passing forward. The carbohydrate with low levels ofwater (plasticizer) is
fluidized to a viscous state by thermo-mechanical energy toprovide a glassy state (A glass is
the higher energy, amorphous solid in contrastto the rubbery amorphous state). The
flavouring compound to be encapsulated isadded to the molten mass of carbohydrates
through an injection port of theextruder provided just before the exit die (Porzio and
Zasypkin,2004). Theextruder's high temperature and flavour flash-off are the major concerns
for theencapsulation of flavour.

Centrifugal Extrusion (Co-Extrusion)

Centrifugal extrusion is used for flavours, and vitamins. A variety of wall materialsare used
such as gelatin, cellulose, carrageenan, starch, alginate, etc. Thecentrifugal force is applied on
the concentric nozzles that separately contain thecore and wall material in a rotating cylinder.
The core material flows through theinside tube and the wall material through the outer tube.
As the cylinder rotates,both the materials co-extrude providing a coating on the core. The
smallencapsulates are produced because of the centrifugal force acting in an
outwarddirection. The encapsulates produced range from 150 to 2000 mm (Goud andPark,
2005). The main disadvantage is that the lower shelf life is achievable dueto high moisture
content and microbial contamination.
Electrostatic Extrusion
A new and promising technology for encapsulation of bioactive compounds,flavors, and
probiotics has been developed. The method is based on thedisruption of electrostatic forces at
the tip of the needle and discharging the smalldroplets with a specific charge. The
microcapsules are produced by mixing thecore material in a glassy carbohydrate phase such
as sodium alginate to form ahomogenous solution. The solution is extruded through a
stainless steel needleand a syringe pump. The extrusion is carried out under the electric field
whereinthe needle has a positive charge and the collecting solution (calcium chloride).The
contact of alginate solution with calcium chloride forms insoluble microbeads in which the
core material is entrapped. However, the microbeads obtained bysimple dropping method are
too big (minimal diameter is about 1 mm.) to ensuregood mass transfer properties.

Super critical fluid extrusion

SUPERCRITICAL FLUID (SCF)
A pure component is considered to be in a supercritical state if its temperature
and its pressure are higher than the critical values of pressure and temperature.
The characteristic orders of magnitude for physical properties of gasses, liquids
and supercritical fluids. In the supercritical
state, liquid-like densities are approached, while viscosity is near that of normal
gases, and diffusivity is about two orders of magnitude higher than in typical
liquids. The density of a supercritical fluid is extremely sensitive to minor
changes in temperature and pressure
near the critical point. According to that, supercritical fluids have the properties
between those of gases and liquids.
Supercritical fluid extrusion
Supercritical fluid extrusion (SCFX) has been developed and patented by Rizvi &
Mulvaney 1992). It is process where supercritical CO2 is injected blowing agent
for control puffing in extrusion and viscosity lowering plasticizer. Extrudates have
porous interior with smooth external surface. CO2 injection serves as inexpensive
alternative for expanding products at
lower temperatures [31]. Supercritical CO2 can achieve rapid solubilization by
enhancing the solubility of the fluid in processing matrix and reducing surface
tension effects. Solubility of CO2 can be increased with increasing pressure or
with decreasing temperature. The use of SCF in the extrusion process is based on
a four- -step process [8] which includes:
1) development of a dough with gas-holding properties by mixing alone or by
cooking (gelatinization), mixing and cooling, if necessary, to below l00 °C, as in
starch melts;
2) injection of supercritical CO2 into the dough or melt at a rate not exceeding
the saturation limit, and mixing to create a single phase within the extruder
barrel;
3) creation of a controlled thermodynamic instability by manipulation of the
pressure and/ or temperature in the extruder;
4) control of the degree of cell growth during the setting of the product through
appropriate die selection and post-extrusion drying and cooling processes. SCFX
operating parameters such as the injection rate of supercritical CO2 and rate of
pressure drop are critical and can be adjusted to produce broad range of cell
size, density and product expansion.

Liquid CO2 is first cooled and then compressed to above its supercritical
pressure. Then, the high pressure CO2 is heated well into its supercritical phase.
This CO2 can be directly injected into the extrusion process under pressure into a
fully cooked dough in the extruder. Expansion or puffing of the product occurs by
gas expansion and diffusion, the expansion occurring radually from inside to
outside, leaving a central core of empty space and a naturally formed expanded
outer layer or skin. Shematic diagram of supercritical CO2 system together with
extruder system.
Some of the most important advantages of SCFX are:
• production of extruded products on low temperatures and low-shear expansion;
• dual texture (porous interior with smooth external surface), with variable
number and size
of cells for texture control;
• manipulation of in-barrel pressure and temperature during processing offers
added opportunities for generation of microcellular, composite (sandwich)
structures of different morphologies and mechanical properties;
• possibility of adding heat sensitive ingredients (flavorings, colorants, etc.);
• option of reactive extrusion via pH control through in barrel formation of
carbonic acid;
• reduction of melt viscosity and pH (due to large solubility effects) provide more
degrees
of freedom to modify the rheological and chemical properties of the extrudates