Political Science Paper 2 Revision
Notes: Comparative Systems and
Pakistan Affairs
Part A: Selected Political Systems (Nature and
Dynamics)
1. United States of America (USA)
Nature of the System: Federal Presidential Democracy
● Constitution: Written, rigid, based on fundamental principles like separation of powers,
checks and balances, and judicial review.
● Federalism: Power is constitutionally divided between the Federal Government and 50
State Governments.
● Separation of Powers: Strict division among the three branches (Legislature/Congress,
Executive/President, Judiciary/Supreme Court).
Dynamics of Major Political Institutions
Institution Composition/Dynamics Key Features/Powers
Executive (President) Head of State and Head of Fixed Tenure: Four years.
Government. Elected Veto Power: Can veto
independently of the legislature legislation (subject to 2/3
(Electoral College). override by Congress).
Commander-in-Chief: Leads
the armed forces. Executive
Orders: Directives used to
manage operations of the
federal government.
Legislature (Congress) Bicameral: Senate (100 Checks on Executive: Power
members, equal representation, to impeach, confirm cabinet
2 per state) and House of and judicial appointments
Representatives (435 (Senate). Exclusive Powers:
members, proportional Origination of all revenue bills
representation). (House); power to declare war.
Judiciary (Supreme Court) Nine Justices appointed for life Judicial Review: Power to
by the President, confirmed by declare laws and executive
the Senate. actions unconstitutional
(Established in Marbury v.
Madison). Guardian of the
Constitution: Final interpreter
Institution Composition/Dynamics Key Features/Powers
of the Constitution.
Political Parties Two-Party System:
Dominance of Democrats and
Republicans. Highly
decentralized, with weak party
discipline compared to
parliamentary systems.
2. United Kingdom (UK)
Nature of the System: Unitary Parliamentary Constitutional Monarchy
● Constitution: Unwritten, flexible, composed of statutes, conventions, judicial decisions,
and common law.
● Unitary State: All legal authority resides centrally in the Parliament (Westminster).
● Parliamentary Sovereignty: Parliament is the supreme legal authority; it can create or
end any law. Courts cannot declare an Act of Parliament unconstitutional.
● Fusion of Powers: The Executive (Cabinet/Prime Minister) is drawn from and
accountable to the Legislature (Parliament).
Dynamics of Major Political Institutions
Institution Composition/Dynamics Key Features/Powers
Executive (Prime Minister & The PM is the leader of the Collective Responsibility:
Cabinet) majority party in the House of Cabinet members must publicly
Commons. The Cabinet is the support all government
key decision-making body. decisions or resign.
Accountability: The
PM/Cabinet can be removed by
a vote of no-confidence in the
Commons.
Legislature (Parliament) Bicameral: House of Sovereign Authority: Can
Commons (elected, powerful) legislate on any matter. Source
and House of Lords of Executive: The Commons
(appointed/hereditary, forms the government.
ceremonial, powers limited by
Parliament Acts).
Monarchy (Head of State) Hereditary position Ceremonial: Reigns but does
(King/Queen). not rule. Role is to advise,
warn, and encourage the PM.
Judiciary Highly independent but strictly
bound by the doctrine of
Parliamentary Sovereignty.
Judicial Review is limited to
Executive actions, not primary
legislation.
3. France (Fifth Republic)
Nature of the System: Unitary Semi-Presidential Republic
● Constitution: Written, rigid (1958, established by Charles de Gaulle). Designed to
stabilize the executive and end the political instability of the Fourth Republic.
● Dual Executive: Power is shared between an elected President and an appointed Prime
Minister.
Dynamics of Major Political Institutions
Institution Composition/Dynamics Key Features/Powers
Executive (President) Directly elected for a five-year Supreme Authority:
term (Head of State). Determines national policy,
controls foreign policy and
defense. Emergency Powers:
Has significant emergency
powers (Article 16).
Dissolution: Can dissolve the
National Assembly.
Executive (Prime Minister & Appointed by the President, but Co-habitation: Occurs when
Cabinet) must retain the confidence of the President and PM belong to
the National Assembly (Head of different political parties,
Government). leading to a power struggle
over domestic policy.
Legislature (Parliament) Bicameral: National Assembly Limited Authority: Legislation
(dominant) and Senate often prepared by the
(weaker). Executive. Limited censure
powers against the
government.
Constitutional Council A specialized body that reviews Acts as the guardian of the
the constitutionality of Constitution, enhancing the
legislation before it is power of the Executive by
promulgated. checking Parliament.
4. Former Soviet Union (USSR, pre-1991)
Nature of the System: Totalitarian One-Party State (Nominally Federal)
● Ideology: Marxist-Leninist Communism; goal was the "Dictatorship of the Proletariat" led
by the Communist Party (CPSU).
● State Structure: Nominally a Federal Union of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics (SSR), but
highly centralized in reality.
● Source of Power: The Party was the state; the Constitution merely formalized the Party's
supreme authority.
Dynamics of Major Political Institutions
Institution Composition/Dynamics Key Features/Powers
Communist Party (CPSU) Led by the General SecretaryDe Facto Sovereign: The sole
(e.g., Stalin, Brezhnev) andsource of policy, authority, and
governed by the Politburo ideology; all state organs
(main policy-making organ). merely executed Party
decisions. Democratic
Centralism: Principle of Party
organization.
Executive (Council of The government's Executed the policies
Ministers) administrative body, headed by formulated by the
the Chairman. Politburo/Central Committee.
Legislature (Supreme Soviet) Nominally the highest state Rubber Stamp: Met briefly to
authority, divided into two unanimously approve decisions
chambers. already made by the CPSU.
Had no true legislative power.
Judiciary Served as an instrument of the Used to suppress dissent and
Party and state; not enforce state ideology rather
independent. than dispensing impartial
justice.
Part B: Political Systems, Nationalism, and
Constitutional History
2. Political Systems of Developing Countries
Turkey
Nature of the System: Semi-Presidential to Full Presidential Republic (since 2017
Referendum)
● Historical Context: Founded by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on principles of Secularism
(Laicism or Laïcité) and strong nationalism, rejecting the Ottoman Caliphate. The military
traditionally acted as the guardian of secularism.
● Current Shift: The 2017 constitutional changes abolished the post of Prime Minister,
granting the President vast executive powers, moving the system towards a highly
centralized executive presidency.
Dynamics
● Military: Historically powerful, intervening repeatedly (1960, 1971, 1980, 1997) to protect
secularism. Its political influence has diminished significantly since 2016.
● Role of Islam: A constant cleavage. The ruling AKP party seeks to reintroduce Islamic
values into public life, challenging the strictly secular foundation of the state.
Iran (Islamic Republic)
Nature of the System: Theocratic Republic
● Historical Context: Established after the 1979 Islamic Revolution, replacing the Pahlavi
Monarchy.
● Dual Authority: A unique political hybrid blending democratic elements (elected
President and Parliament) with theocratic control.
Dynamics
● Supreme Leader (Vali-e-Faqih): Ayatollah Khamenei (since 1989). Holds absolute
political and religious authority (theocratic sovereignty). Appoints the head of the judiciary
and military, and defines the state's major policies.
● Guardian Council: 12 jurists (6 clerical appointed by the Supreme Leader, 6 lay
appointed by the Judiciary). Supreme power of Veto and Vetting:
1. Veto: Must approve all legislation for conformity with Islamic law.
2. Vetting: Vets and approves all candidates for the Presidency and Parliament.
● Elected Institutions:
○ President: Head of Government, responsible for execution of policies.
○ Majlis (Parliament): Elected body that legislates (within the bounds of the
Shariah).
India
Nature of the System: Federal Parliamentary Democratic Republic
● Constitution: Written, the longest in the world. Federal in structure, unitary in spirit
(Center has emergency and overriding powers).
● Secularism: Constitutionally secular, though religious nationalism (Hindu majoritarianism)
is a growing political dynamic.
Dynamics
● Federalism: High degree of cooperative and competitive federalism, but the Center
has vast powers (e.g., President's rule over states).
● Parliamentary System: Based on the Westminster model. The Prime Minister is highly
powerful due to the dominant position of the Lok Sabha (Lower House).
● Multi-Party System: Characterized by the dominance of two major national parties
(Congress and BJP) and numerous influential regional parties, often resulting in coalition
politics.
China (People's Republic of China)
Nature of the System: Totalitarian One-Party State (Socialist Market Economy)
● Ideology: Officially Communist, but economically pragmatic ("Socialism with Chinese
Characteristics").
● Source of Power: The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is the supreme authority; the
state institutions are subservient.
Dynamics
● The CCP: Governed by the Politburo Standing Committee (the core leadership). The
General Secretary (currently Xi Jinping) holds the ultimate power. Democratic
Centralism is the guiding principle.
● The State (Government):
○ President: Head of State (largely ceremonial).
○ State Council: Chief administrative body (Executive).
○ National People's Congress (NPC): Nominally the highest legislative body, but
acts as a rubber stamp for Party decisions.
● Economic Model: State control over strategic sectors combined with extensive
free-market reforms in other areas, leading to rapid economic growth under authoritarian
control.
3. Rise of Muslim Nationalism in South Asia
Muslim Nationalism was driven by historical experiences, religious identity, and the fear of Hindu
domination after the end of British rule.
Historical Context (Post-1857)
The failure of the 1857 War of Independence severely marginalized Muslims, who were viewed
by the British as the primary rebels. This led to economic decline, as British policy favored
Hindus in education and civil service.
Role of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898)
● Focus: Educational and social upliftment. He realized that Muslims could only regain
political stature by adopting modern Western education.
● Aligarh Movement: Founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College in 1877
(later Aligarh Muslim University), aimed at producing an educated Muslim elite capable of
serving in the administration.
● Political Stance: Initially favored Hindu-Muslim unity but later became convinced they
were two separate nations, particularly after the Hindi-Urdu controversy. He advised
Muslims to stay away from the Congress and politics, focusing instead on loyalty to the
British and education.
● Two-Nation Theory Precursor: He was one of the first to articulate the idea of distinct
Muslim identity, paving the way for the political demand for Pakistan.
Role of Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938)
● Philosophical Architect: Provided the intellectual and philosophical basis for a separate
Muslim state.
● Concept of the Millat: Rejected territorial nationalism common in the West. His concept
of nationhood was based purely on the unifying force of Islam (Tawheed), arguing that
Muslims formed a distinct Millat (Nation) regardless of their geographical location.
● Allahabad Address (1930): Delivered the first concrete political demand for a
consolidated Muslim state in the North-West of India (Punjab, NWFP, Sindh, Balochistan).
This was the geographical blueprint for Pakistan.
● Ijtihad: Advocated for dynamic change and Ijtihad (re-interpretation of Islamic law) to
meet modern challenges, ensuring the future Muslim state would be progressive.
Role of Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948)
● Political Strategist and Founder: Transformed the cultural nationalism articulated by Sir
Syed and the philosophical demand of Iqbal into a successful mass political movement.
● Ambassador of Unity: Started his career as a champion of Hindu-Muslim unity (Lucknow
Pact, 1916). His disillusionment, particularly after the 1937 Congress Rule, solidified his
belief in the Two-Nation Theory.
● Lahore Resolution (1940): Presided over the session where the Muslim League formally
demanded a separate Muslim state.
● Two-Nation Theory: Articulated the differences in clear, pragmatic terms:"We are a
nation with our own distinctive culture and civilization, language and literature, art and
architecture, names and nomenclature, sense of values and proportion, legal laws and
moral code, customs and calendar, history and traditions, aptitudes and ambitions."
● Direct Action: Used constitutional and electoral means (1945-46 elections) and mass
mobilization to achieve Pakistan.
4. A Comparative and Critical Analysis of the 1956, 1962, 1973 and
1985 Constitutions of Pakistan
1956 Constitution
● Promulgated: March 23, 1956 (After nine years of efforts).
● Nature: Parliamentary, Federal, written, and semi-rigid.
● Key Features:
○ Islamic Character: Named the country "Islamic Republic of Pakistan." Included
Islamic provisions (e.g., Council of Islamic Ideology).
○ Federalism: Adopted the principle of Parity between East and West Pakistan (One
Unit).
○ Parliamentary: Head of State (President) was separate from the Head of
Government (Prime Minister).
○ Unicameral: Proposed a single legislative house.
● Critical Analysis: Failed due to political instability, weak leadership, and continuous
conflict between the Governor-General (President) and the Prime Minister. Abrogated by
General Ayub Khan in October 1958.
1962 Constitution
● Promulgated: March 1, 1962 (By General Ayub Khan).
● Nature: Presidential, Federal (but highly centralized), written, and rigid.
● Key Features:
○ Presidential: All executive power vested in the President, elected indirectly by an
Electoral College (Basic Democrats).
○ Indirect Elections (Basic Democracies): A system of local self-government (BDs)
which also formed the Electoral College for the President and Assemblies.
○ Initial Secular Tilt: Originally omitted the word "Islamic" from the Republic's name,
restoring it only under public pressure.
○ Lack of Checks: The legislature was weak, and the judiciary had limited powers of
Judicial Review.
● Critical Analysis: Highly criticized for its authoritarian nature, concentration of power in
one man, and lack of universal franchise. Its failure led to the mass movement and Ayub
Khan's resignation in 1969.
1973 Constitution
● Promulgated: August 14, 1973 (Under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto).
● Nature: Parliamentary, Federal, written, rigid, and unanimously adopted (hence its
longevity and legitimacy).
● Key Features:
○ Parliamentary: Prime Minister became the real executive head. President was a
constitutional/ceremonial head. PM was directly responsible to the National
Assembly.
○ Bicameral Legislature: Introduced the Senate (Upper House) to ensure equal
representation of provinces and strengthen federalism.
○ Strong Islamic Provisions: Declared Islam as the State Religion. Defined who is
a Muslim (addressing the Ahmadiyya issue). Explicitly mentioned that all laws must
be brought into conformity with the injunctions of Islam.
○ Federalism: Ensured provincial autonomy (4 concurrent lists).
● Critical Analysis: The most robust and democratic document, providing political stability.
However, it was subjected to major amendments during the martial law period (e.g.,
Zia-ul-Haq).
1985 Constitution (Revival of the 1973 Constitution under Zia-ul-Haq)
● Promulgated: Implemented via the Revival of the Constitution of 1973 Order (RCO)
and the subsequent 8th Amendment (1985).
● Nature: Modified the 1973 Constitution, shifting it toward a semi-presidential system.
● Key Changes (8th Amendment):
○ Increased Presidential Power: Implemented Article 58(2)(b), granting the
President discretionary power to dissolve the National Assembly (Prime Minister's
government). This fundamentally destabilized the parliamentary system.
○ Islamization: Validated all measures taken by the military regime (Hudood, Zakat
Ordinances) and strengthened Islamic courts.
● Critical Analysis: The 8th Amendment fundamentally damaged the parliamentary
structure and led to a decade of political instability, as elected governments were
repeatedly dismissed by the President (Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Farooq Leghari). This
controversial amendment was finally removed by the 18th Amendment in 2010, restoring
the parliamentary supremacy of the original 1973 structure and strengthening provincial
autonomy.