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AQA GCSE Physics Your notes
2.2 Series & Parallel Circuits
Contents
2.2.1 Series & Parallel Circuits
2.2.2 Resistors in Series & Parallel
2.2.3 Comparing Series & Parallel Circuits
2.2.4 AC & DC
2.2.5 Mains Electricity
2.2.6 Dangers of Mains Electricity
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2.2.1 Series & Parallel Circuits
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Series & Parallel Circuits
There are two ways of joining electrical components, in series and in parallel
Some circuits include both series and parallel parts
A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components, connected end to end:
Diagram showing two bulbs connected in series
A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along separate branches of the circuit
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Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel
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Series Circuits
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In a series circuit:
The current is the same at all points ie. through each component
The total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the components
The total resistance of two components is the sum of the resistance of each component
Lamps connected in a series circuit
In the above circuit:
The current from the power supply is the same as the current in both lamps I = I1 = I2
If the battery is marked 12 V, then the potential difference would be 12 ÷ 2 = 6 V across each lamp
If each lamp has a resistance of R, then the total resistance in the circuit is equal to R + R = 2R
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Parallel Circuits
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In a parallel circuit:
The total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through the separate
components
The potential difference across each component is the same
The total resistance of two resistors is less than the resistance of the smallest individual resistor
Lamps connected in a parallel circuit
In the above circuit:
Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will equal the current from the
power supply I = I1 + I2
If the battery is marked 12 V, then the potential difference would be 12 V across each lamp
If each lamp has a resistance of R, then the total resistance in the circuit will be less than 2R
Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be more current in some branches
than in others
The current in each branch will only be identical if the resistance of the components along each
branch are identical
Current behaves in this way because it is the flow of electrons:
Electrons are physical matter – they cannot be created or destroyed
This means the total number of electrons (and hence current) going around a circuit must remain
the same
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When the electrons reach a junction, however, some of them will go one way and the rest will go
the other
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Current is split at a junction into individual branches
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2.2.2 Resistors in Series & Parallel
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Resistors in Series
When two or more resistors are connected in series, the total resistance is equal to the sum of their
individual resistances
For two resistors of resistance R1 and R2, the total resistance can be calculated using:
Where R is the total resistance, in Ohms (Ω)
Increasing the number of resistors increases the overall resistance, as the charge now has more
resistors to pass through
Resistors connected in series
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Worked example
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The combined resistance R in the following series circuit is 60 Ω.What is the resistance value of R2?
A. 100 Ω B. 30 Ω C. 20 Ω D. 40 Ω
ANSWER: C
Step 1: Write down the equation for the combined resistance in series
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Step 2: Substitute the values for total resistance R and the other resistors
60 Ω = 30 Ω + R2 + 10 Ω
Step 3: Rearrange for R2
R2 = 60 Ω – 30 Ω – 10 Ω = 20 Ω
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Resistors in Parallel
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When two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance decreases
In the below circuit, the combined resistance of the resistors R1 and R2 is less than if they were
connected in series
Resistors connected in parallel
This happens because each resistor creates an extra path along which the charge can flow
This allows more charge to flow overall
This leads to a smaller overall resistance
The advantages of this kind of circuit are:
The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
If one component stops working the others will continue to function
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Examiner Tip
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Students often struggle to understand how adding resistors to a circuit can actually reduce
resistance.
Take a simple series circuit with just a cell, some wires, and a 5 Ω resistor. You now want to add a 10 Ω
resistor to that circuit. You have two options; you can add the 10 Ω resistor in series to the 5 Ω resistor
or in parallel to it.
If you add the 10 Ω resistor in series, then all of the electrons in the circuit have to flow through both
resistors. That's why the resistances add together. The total resistance of the new circuit is 5 + 10 = 15
Ω.
If you add the 10 Ω resistor in parallel, then you are creating a new loop, which is a new path for the
electrons to flow through. They either flow through the 5 Ω resistor or they flow through the 10 Ω
resistor. Now, because of the extra loop, that extra path for the electrons, there is actually more charge
flowing around the circuit than there was before that 10 Ω resistor was added. That means a higher
current, which means an overall smaller resistance than the original 5 Ω circuit.
A fundamental concept to understand about circuits is that when you change anything in the circuit
(current, p.d., resistance), then everything (current, p.d., resistance) changes as a result.
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2.2.3 Comparing Series & Parallel Circuits
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Comparing Series & Parallel Circuits
Current in Series & Parallel
In a series circuit, the current is the same at all points
In a parallel circuit, the current splits at junctions – some of it going one way and the rest going the
other
Diagram showing the behaviour of current in series and parallel circuits
Potential Difference in Series & Parallel
In a series circuit, the voltage of the power supply is shared between the components
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is the same
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Your notes
Diagram showing the behaviour of voltage in series and parallel circuits
Resistors in Series & Parallel
In a series circuit, the total resistance is the sum of the resistance in each component
Two resistors in series will have a larger overall resistance than just one
This is because the charge has to push through multiple components when flowing around the
circuit
The more components the charge has to travel through, the higher the number of collisions that
occur
In a parallel circuit, the total resistance decreases and is less than the resistance of any of the individual
components
Two resistors in parallel will have a smaller overall resistance than just one
This is because the charge has more than one pathway to take, so only some charge will flow along
each path
The more pathways there are, the smaller the amount of charge in each path
Series and Parallel Circuit Summary Table
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Your notes
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Worked example
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A circuit was set up as shown in the diagram.
Calculate the resistance of the bulb.
Step 1: Determine the voltage across the bulb
The components share the potential difference of the power supply, so:
12 V – 8 V = 4 V
Step 2: Write down the equation for voltage, current and resistance
V = IR
Step 3: Calculate the current through the resistor
I = V / R = 8 / 6 = 1.33 A
Step 4: Calculate the resistance of the bulb
In a series circuit, the current is the same everywhere, so:
R = V / I = 4 / 1.33 = 3.0 Ω
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2.2.4 AC & DC
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DC Series Circuits
A direct current (d.c.) is defined as
A current that is steady, constantly flowing in the same direction in a circuit, from positive
to negative
The potential difference across a cell in a d.c. circuit is in one direction only
A d.c. power supply has a fixed positive terminal and a fixed negative terminal
Electric cells, or batteries, produce direct current (d.c.)
Circuits powered by cells or batteries use a d.c. supply
A series circuit consists of a string of components connected in a loop between the ends of the power
supply
In a series circuit:
The current is the same at all points
The potential difference of the power supply is shared between the individual components
Two disadvantages of series circuits are:
If one of the components breaks, all of the others will stop working
The components cannot be controlled (switched on and off) separately
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Examiner Tip
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All the circuits you have studied so far are d.c. circuits. Don't be put off by an exam question if you are
asked to calculate the current, potential difference or resistance in a d.c. series circuits, you don't have
to do anything different from what you have already learned!
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AC & DC
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An alternating current (a.c.) is defined as
A current that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth around a circuit
On an oscilloscope, direct current and alternating current are represented in the following way:
Two graphs showing the variation of current with time for alternating current and direct current
An a.c. power supply has two identical terminals
The potential difference between the terminals varies as a sine curve, or sinusoidally
The frequency of an alternating current is the number of times the current changes direction back and
forth each second
In the UK, mains electricity is an alternating current with a frequency of 50 Hz and a potential difference
of around 230 V
Comparing Direct & Alternating Current
The following table summarises the differences between d.c. and a.c.
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Examiner Tip
If you are asked to explain the difference between alternating and direct current, sketching and
labelling the graphs shown above can earn you full marks.
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2.2.5 Mains Electricity
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Mains Electricity
Mains electricity is the electricity generated by power stations and transported around the country
through the National Grid
Everyone connects to the mains when plugging in an appliance such as a phone charger or kettle
Mains electricity is an alternating current (a.c.) supply
In the UK, the domestic electricity supply has a frequency of 50 Hz and a potential difference of about
230 V
A frequency of 50 Hz means the direction of the current changes back and forth 50 times every
second
Mains electricity, being an alternating current, does not have positive and negative sides to the power
source
The equivalent to positive and negative are called live and neutral and these form either end of the
electrical circuit
The live and neutral wires deliver the electricity to the device. The Earth wire is purely for safety
Examiner Tip
You will be expected to remember the values of frequency and potential difference for mains
electricity in the UK, so make sure you memorise these numbers!
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Three Core Cables
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All electrical appliances are connected to the mains using at least a live wire and a neutral wire
In the UK, most electrical appliances are connected to the mains using a three-core cable consisting of
A live wire
A neutral wire
An Earth wire
The insulation covering each wire is colour coded for easy identification:
Live wire – brown
Neutral wire – blue
Earth wire – green and yellow stripes
A diagram showing the three wires going to a mains powered appliance: Live, Neutral and Earth
Every country has a slightly different configuration, with many using two-pin plugs and plug sockets
such as in the USA and mainland Europe
The earth wire is still present in the two-pin plugs, just more hidden
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Examiner Tip
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One way to remember which colours is which wire on the diagram, try looking at the second letter of
each colour which corresponds to its position:
Blue = Left (Neutral)
Brown = Right (Live)
Striped = Top (Earth)
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Live, Neutral and Earth Wires
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The three wires have distinct purposes
The Live Wire
The live wire:
Carries the alternating potential difference from the mains supply to a circuit
It is the most dangerous of the three wires
If it touches the appliance without the Earth wire, it can cause electrocution
The Neutral Wire
The neutral wire:
Forms the opposite end of the circuit to the live wire to complete the circuit
Because of its lower voltage, it is much less dangerous than the live wire
The Earth Wire
The earth wire:
Acts as a safety wire to stop the appliance from becoming live
This prevents electric shocks from occurring if the appliance malfunctions or the live wire breaks off
and touches the case of the plug
Teacher tip
I enjoy teaching this topic to my GCSE students because knowing how to wire a plug (and more
importantly, how not to!) is a very practical life skill. I provide the opportunity to have hands-on
experience by letting them wire an actual (non-working) plug, which makes the lesson more interesting
for students, and attaches the learning to the event making it easier to remember. My students have
always enjoyed the experience, and parents often comment how they impressed they are that their
young person can wire a plug!
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2.2.6 Dangers of Mains Electricity
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Potential Difference of Live, Neutral and Earth Wires
The live wire carries most of the power to the circuit and, as a result, it is the most dangerous wire
It has a voltage of around 230 V
The neutral wire is much safer than the live wire, although it can deliver a small shock
It has a voltage close to 0 V
The earth wire only carries a current to the ground if there is a fault in the appliance
It has a voltage of 0 V
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Dangers of Mains Electricity
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Normally, the earth wire does not carry any electricity – it is there for safety only
As a result, in most circumstances, its potential difference is 0 volts
Many electrical appliances have metal cases that pose a potential safety hazard:
If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the case would become
electrified
Therefore if anyone touched it, they would risk electrocution
The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk
If this happens:
The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the Earth
This causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live wire
The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break
This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe to touch
Signs, like the above, warn of the risk of electrocution
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Because of the large potential difference between the live (230 V) and the earth (0 V), if the two are
connected together, a very large current can be created
If a person provides the connection between live and earth then a large current can pass through Your notes
them, providing a potentially lethal shock
Electricians will always switch off the mains electricity supply to the whole house, or section of a house
when they are working with electrical appliances
This is because they will come into contact with live wires when they are working
The potential difference of the live wire is 230 V and the potential of the electrician is 0 V
Therefore, there is a large potential difference between the live wire and the electrician, so, a
current would pass through the electrician's body to reach the earth
Even if a device is switched off but the mains supply is on, the live wire can still cause an electric
shock
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