History Notes

MODULE 1: The Cold War

Lesson 1: Introduction to Grade 12 History

✅ Purpose of the Course

 History helps you understand past events, the forces that shaped them, and the
different perspectives people had.

 You will study both global and South African historical content.

✅ By the end of the course you should be able to:

 Understand how the curriculum is structured.

 Analyse historical sources.

 Recognise multiple perspectives.

 Evaluate interpretations of historical events.

 Construct well-argued, evidence-based essays.

2.1 Skills & Knowledge

History trains you to:

 Understand different types of sources.

 Extract and interpret information from sources.

 Judge usefulness, bias, reliability, and subjectivity.

 Recognise different viewpoints on the same event.

 Explain why interpretations differ.

 Organise evidence into a logical, balanced argument.

 Engage critically with heritage and historical representation.

2.2 Exit-Level Outcomes (ELOs)

By the end of Grade 12, you should be able to:

General Historical Skills

 Compare perspectives.

 Interpret sources.
  Analyse historical arguments.

 Write coherent historical essays.

 Reflect on the historical content studied.

Topic-Specific Outcomes

Evaluate or assess:

 Cold War and its impact on the world.

 Vietnam War and US involvement.

 Congo and Angolan independence.

 Women’s liberation & peace movements (1950s–1970s).

 Civil Rights and Black Power Movements.

 Civil resistance in South Africa (after 1960s).

 Negotiated settlement in South Africa.

 Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC).

 Collapse of the Soviet Union.

 Globalisation and capitalism.

2.3 Course Structure

Topics covered (6 total)

1. The Cold War (1945–1975)

2. Independent Africa (Congo & Angola)

3. Civil society protests (1950s–1970s)

4. Civil resistance in South Africa (1970s–1980s)

5. Negotiated democracy in SA & TRC

6. End of the Cold War & New World Order (1989–present)

Each topic includes:

 Context

 Causes

 Key events

 Consequences

 Perspectives (important!)
2.4 Assessments

Types of assessments:

 Written tasks

 Cycle tests

 Research project

 Exams (mid-year, prelims, final)

Exam rules

Each paper (P1 & P2):

 6 questions (3 source-based, 3 essays)

 You answer 3 questions

o At least 1 source-based

o At least 1 essay

What you must do

 Choose 1 topic from the options.

 Write a 1300–1600 word research essay.

 Submit:

o Cover page

o Contents page

o Essay (introduction → background → body → conclusion)

o Reflection

o Bibliography

 May use sub-headings and visuals (with captions).

Topics to choose from

1. Independent Africa
(challenges faced by newly independent African states)

2. Coming of democracy in South Africa

(negotiations between ANC, other groups, and Apartheid government)
 3. Peace movements
(anti-war movements, student protests, nuclear disarmament)

Skills assessed

 Understanding of topic

 Use of relevant evidence

 Logical structure & planning

 Ability to develop an argument

 Use of sources

 Referencing

 Reflection

 Clear writing, logical flow

4.1 Source-Based Questions

Key instruction words (examples):

 Analyse – examine the source critically

 Explain – give reasons

 Discuss – give a detailed argument

 Evaluate – make a judgement based on evidence

 Quote – copy exactly from the source

 Compare – show similarities/differences

Mark allocations

 (x1) → short/simple answers

 (x2) → answer + explanation

 (x3) → answer + explanation + outcome

No half marks
No marks for Yes/No without explanation

4.2 Essays

Structure
Introduction

 Roadmap of your argument

 State your stance

Body

 Follow your introduction structure

 Use PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explain, Link)

 Include factual evidence

 Link back to main argument

Conclusion

 Summarise argument

 Show how you proved your stance

Essay marking focuses on:

 Structure & coherence

 Historical content & accuracy

 Argument development

 Use of evidence

 Clarity of writing

 Logical flow

📘 Activity 1: “What is History?”

1. What does it mean to look at the past “from above”?

Answer:
Looking at the past “from above” means studying history from the perspective of
powerful people—such as leaders, governments, kings, presidents, and
decision-makers. It focuses on the actions of those who had authority and influence.

2. What does it mean to look at the past “from below”?

Answer:
Looking at the past “from below” means studying history from the viewpoint of ordinary
people—such as workers, women, children, protestors, and communities. It focuses on
how ordinary people experienced events and how they influenced change.
3. According to the video, why is it worth knowing History?

Answer:
History is worth knowing because it helps us understand how the world became
what it is today, learn from past mistakes, recognise multiple perspectives, and make
better decisions for the future. It also helps us understand identity, society, conflict,
and change.

📘 Activity 2: Primary and Secondary Sources

1. What do primary sources provide for historical enquiry?

Answer:
Primary sources provide first-hand evidence from the time of the event. They give
direct, original information such as letters, photographs, speeches, diaries, government
documents, or interviews.

2. What do secondary sources provide for historical enquiry?

Answer:
Secondary sources provide interpretations, explanations, or analysis of historical
events. They are created after the event by historians, researchers, or authors.
Examples include textbooks, documentaries, and articles.

3. Why is it important to use both primary and secondary sources when writing
a research paper?

Answer:
Using both types of sources ensures your research is accurate and balanced.

 Primary sources give direct evidence.

 Secondary sources help you understand, interpret, and explain that evidence.
Together, they allow you to develop a strong, well-supported historical argument.

4. When should you use primary sources?

Answer:
You should use primary sources when you need original evidence, first-hand accounts,
or when you want to understand what people thought, felt, or experienced at the
time of the event.
5. When should you use secondary sources?

Answer:
You should use secondary sources when you need context, explanations, background
information, or when comparing different historians’ interpretations of an event.

Lesson 2: Why did a Cold War develop?

1. Introduction to the Cold War

Key question:

👉 How did the Cold War shape international relations after World War II?

Definition: Cold War

A long period (1945–1991) of political, economic and ideological tension between:

 USA (Capitalist, Democratic West)

 USSR (Communist East)

⚠️There was no direct fighting between them – only threats, spying, propaganda, and
proxy wars.

Why “Cold”?

 Because the USA and USSR never fought directly.

 Nuclear weapons made a real war too dangerous.

2. Why Did a Cold War Develop? (2.1)

Although the USA and USSR were allies in WWII, their relationship was always uneasy.

Main reasons the Cold War developed:

1. Competition for power / spheres of influence

2. Opposing ideologies: capitalism vs communism

3. Mistrust and suspicion from before and during WWII

4. Nuclear weapons increased fear and tension

5. Competition to spread their own beliefs globally

3. Ideologies of the Cold War (2.2)

What is an ideology?

A system of beliefs or principles that shapes how a society is run.

⭐ USA = Capitalism + Democracy

 Private ownership

 Free market (profit-driven)

 Many political parties

 Free speech, free media

 Higher living standards (but uneven wealth)

⭐ USSR = Communism + One-party rule

 No private ownership

 State controls economy

 Only the Communist Party allowed

 Strict censorship

 Lower standards of living (but wealth more equal)

4. Comparing Communism & Capitalism (Table Summary)

Communist East (USSR) Capitalist West (USA)

One-party state Multi-party democracy

Limited civil rights Many rights protected

Equal wealth, lower avg. Unequal wealth, higher avg.

standard standard

Government controls farms,

Private ownership
factories

Strict censorship Free media

5. Visual Symbols of the Cold War (2.3)

Common Soviet (USSR) symbols

 🔴 Red colour

 🛠 Hammer & Sickle (industry + agriculture)

 🐻 Bear

 👨🏻‍🦳 Stalin or other Soviet leaders

 🚩 Red Soviet flag

Common American (USA) symbols

 🇺🇸 American flag

 💲 Dollar sign (capitalism)

 🧔🏻‍♂️Uncle Sam

 🗽 Statue of Liberty

 🦅 Bald eagle

 US presidents

6. Relations Before WWII (4.1)

Even before WWII, there was deep mistrust.

🇺🇸 Why the West mistrusted the USSR:

 Communism threatened capitalism.

 USSR pulled out of WWI early.

 Stalin’s dictatorship (purges, executions).

 Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939).

🇷🇺 Why USSR mistrusted the West:

 West supported the anti-communist White Army (1917–1922).

 West gave away Russian land in the Treaty of Versailles (1919).

 USSR excluded from Munich Conference (1938).

 Believed West wanted Hitler to destroy communism.

7. World War II and the Grand Alliance (4.2)

USA + Britain + USSR = Allies

But this was only a “marriage of convenience.”

Reasons for tension during WWII:

1. US delayed opening a second front → USSR suffered huge casualties

2. USA cut off Lend-Lease supplies

3. USA hid information about the atomic bomb

4. Arguments over post-war Europe

Stalin believed the West wanted the USSR to weaken, so they waited intentionally before
helping.

8. Why They Pretended to Be United (Figure 9 Question)

They showed unity to:

 Maintain public support during the war

 Avoid encouraging Nazi Germany

 Look strong to enemies

 Prevent weakening the war effort

Lesson 3: The wartime conferences

1. Introduction

As World War II was coming to an end, the allies — known as the Big Three:

 USA (Roosevelt)

 USSR (Stalin)

 Britain (Churchill)

— met in several major wartime conferences to discuss how to defeat Germany and
how to manage the post-war world.

Even though they were allies, there was deep mistrust, especially between the West
and the USSR.

These meetings exposed cracks in their relationship, showing early signs of the
upcoming Cold War.

Why These Conferences Matter

The conferences:

 Show how disagreements started before the Cold War officially began.

 Reveal how ideology (capitalism vs communism) shaped decisions.

 Explain why tensions grew over Europe, Germany, and future world power.

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

✔️Analyse the results of the wartime conferences of:

  Tehran (1943)

 Yalta (Feb 1945)

 Potsdam (July–Aug 1945)

These conferences laid the foundation for:

 The division of Europe

 The start of mistrust

 The rise of the Cold War

1. Background: Before Tehran (The Atlantic Charter)

⭐ The Atlantic Charter (August 1941)

Before the USA officially entered WWII, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British
Prime Minister Winston Churchill met on the ship USS Augusta.

Key points discussed:

 Roosevelt wanted colonies to become independent so the USA could trade

freely.

 Churchill wanted the USA to help Britain defeat Germany and Italy.

 Churchill agreed to Roosevelt’s post-war vision of freedom, democracy, and

self-determination in exchange for American support.

 Their agreement became the Atlantic Charter, a declaration of shared goals for a
peaceful post-war world.

⭐ USA enters the war

 At first, the USA stayed neutral, only helping through the Lend-Lease
Programme.

 This changed when Japan attacked Pearl Harbour (December 1941).

 USA then joined the war fully on the side of the Allies.

⭐ Tension with Stalin

 Stalin wanted the Allies to open a second front in Western Europe.

 The USSR was suffering massive casualties on the Eastern Front.

 Stalin believed the West was delaying on purpose.

2. The Tehran Conference (November 1943)

📍 Location:
Tehran, Iran – at the Soviet Embassy

👥 The Big Three:

 Joseph Stalin (USSR)

 Franklin D. Roosevelt (USA)

 Winston Churchill (Britain)

This was the first major meeting of all three leaders together.

⭐ Main Decisions Taken at Tehran

1. Second Front in Europe

The leaders agreed that:

 The USA and Britain would invade German-occupied France (this became
D-Day in 1944).

 This invasion would be coordinated with a Soviet offensive on the Eastern Front.

2. No invasion through the Balkans

 Britain and the USA would NOT invade Germany through the Balkans.

 This left the USSR as the only force fighting the Nazis in Eastern Europe.

3. Power shift in Eastern Europe

Because the West agreed not to interfere in the Balkans or Eastern Europe:

 It limited Western influence in the region.

 Stalin believed he had a “free hand” to control Eastern Europe.

 Stalin felt the West accepted Soviet dominance there.

⭐ 3. Why Tehran Increased Tensions

The conference strengthened Stalin’s belief that:

 The West didn’t care about Eastern Europe.

 The USSR had the right to create a sphere of influence there.

 After the war, the USSR could dominate these territories.

This contributed to:

 The division of Europe into East vs West

 Growing mistrust
  The start of the Cold War

✔️Quick Exam Revision Points

Causes of Tehran tensions

 Disagreement over second front.

 Stalin suspicious of Western motives.

 USA only recently entered the war.

 USSR suffering huge losses.

Outcomes of Tehran

 Second front planned (Normandy).

 No Balkan invasion.

 USSR influence in Eastern Europe increased.

 Western influence decreased.

 Laid foundations for Cold War mistrust.

1. WWII Comes to a Close (Context)

By 1944, Germany was losing on both fronts:

Western Front

 June 1944: USA + Britain successfully invaded Normandy (D-Day).

 France was liberated soon after.

Eastern Front

 USSR pushed Germany out of:

o Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania

o Poland, Romania, Bulgaria

o Hungary & parts of Belarus

By the end of 1944, Germany was clearly on the defensive, so the Big Three prepared
to discuss Europe’s future.

2. The Yalta Conference (February 1945)

📍 Location: Yalta, Crimea

👥 Big Three:
  Roosevelt (USA)

 Churchill (Britain)

 Stalin (USSR)

Even though they appeared friendly, there was deep underlying tension. Many
decisions were only temporary compromises, not long-term solutions.

⭐ 3. Key Decisions Made at Yalta

3.1 Division of Germany

Germany would be divided into four occupation zones:

 USA

 Britain

 USSR

 France

Even though Germany was divided, the Allies did NOT agree on a single government
system, which created future problems.

Berlin divided too

 Berlin (inside the Soviet zone) was also split into four zones.
This later led to:

 Berlin Blockade

 Berlin Airlift

 The Berlin Wall

3.2 Poland and Eastern Europe

This was the most controversial and tense issue.

What the USSR did

 The USSR occupied Poland in 1944.

 Installed a pro-Soviet provisional government.

What Stalin promised

 Free and democratic elections in Poland and Eastern Europe.

However:
➡️Stalin’s idea of “democracy” meant only communist parties could win.
➡️The West wanted truly free elections with multiple parties.

Allied Declaration on Liberated Europe

 All liberated countries were supposed to choose their own governments.

 In reality, the USSR tightened control over Eastern Europe.

3.3 USSR in the United Nations & War Against Japan

The USSR agreed to:

 Join the United Nations (UN) after the war.

 Enter the war against Japan once Germany was defeated.

This helped the USA because the Pacific War was still ongoing.

3.4 Reparations and Borders

Reparations

 Stalin wanted huge reparations from Germany.

 The West disagreed — they feared massive reparations would damage Germany
(like after WWI).

Borders

 Stalin wanted the Soviet border pushed west into Poland.

 Poland’s border would then move west into former German territory.

This caused more tension.

⭐ 4. Why Yalta Increased Tensions

Even though agreements were made, they were vague and contradictory.

This led to tension because:

 The West believed Stalin would betray the agreement and force communism on
Eastern Europe.

 Stalin believed the West was trying to limit Soviet influence.

 Decisions about Germany and Poland were unclear, creating future conflict.

➡️Yalta did not solve problems — it postponed them.

✔️Quick Exam Pointers (Use These in Answers!)

Short summaries

 Germany divided into 4 zones.

 Berlin divided despite being inside Soviet zone.

 Free elections promised in Eastern Europe (Stalin broke this).

 USSR to join UN and fight Japan.

 Reparations + borders unresolved.

 Created seed of mistrust → early Cold War.

1. Context: Between Yalta and Potsdam (Early 1945)

⭐ Shift in Power

 By early 1945, the Red Army (USSR) was the strongest military force in Europe.

 USSR had already occupied much of Eastern Europe and was moving towards
Berlin.

 Stalin demanded control over rebuilding Poland, and the West agreed in order to
keep him cooperative.

⭐ Leadership Changes

 Roosevelt died (April 1945) → replaced by Harry Truman (USA).

 Truman was more anti-communist and more suspicious of Stalin.

 In Britain, Clement Attlee replaced Churchill during the Potsdam Conference

(after winning the UK election).

⭐ End of WWII in Europe

 April 1945: Hitler committed suicide.

 May 1945: Germany surrendered.

 8 May 1945 = VE-Day (Victory in Europe Day).

This set the stage for a very tense Potsdam meeting.

2. The Potsdam Conference (July–August 1945)

📍 Location: Potsdam, Germany

👥 The new Big Three:

 Harry Truman (USA)

  Clement Attlee (Britain)

 Joseph Stalin (USSR)

The atmosphere was more hostile than at Yalta. Trust between the Allies had almost
completely collapsed.

⭐ 3. Agreements Made at Potsdam

3.1 Germany

 Final confirmation of four occupation zones:

o USA

o Britain

o France

o USSR

 An Allied Control Council would run Germany jointly.

 Each power would collect reparations from its own zone.

 Because the Soviet zone was mostly rural, the USSR would receive additional
goods from the Western zones.

3.2 Poland

 Poland’s western border would be moved to the Oder–Neisse line.

 This significantly increased Poland’s territory.

 The USSR gained territory in the east.

3.3 Population Transfers

 Germans living in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary were ordered to return

to Germany.

⭐ 4. Major Disagreements at Potsdam

Despite agreements, the conference exposed deep conflict between Truman and Stalin.

❌ 1. Germany

 Stalin wanted Germany crippled and weak.

 Truman refused — he didn’t want to repeat the mistakes of the Treaty of

Versailles (1919).

❌ 2. Reparations
  Stalin wanted huge reparations due to the 20 million Soviet deaths.

 Truman feared harsh reparations would destroy Germany’s economy again.

❌ 3. Eastern Europe

 Yalta had allowed the USSR to have a “sphere of influence,” but Truman was now
against pro-Soviet governments dominating Eastern Europe.

⭐ 5. Why Potsdam Increased Cold War Tensions

 Truman was openly more anti-communist than Roosevelt.

 Truman did not trust Stalin, especially after discovering the USSR’s influence in
Eastern Europe.

 Stalin refused to give up territories or allow truly free elections.

 The USA successfully tested the atomic bomb during the conference — without
informing Stalin in advance — making Stalin even more suspicious.

 Both sides believed the other wanted to expand its influence.

Historians argue that:

 Stalin’s refusal to abandon his wartime gains, and

 Truman’s hardline anti-Soviet approach

… both contributed to the start of the Cold War.

✔️Quick Exam Revision Points

Agreements

 Germany divided into 4 zones

 Oder–Neisse border for Poland

 Germans sent back to Germany

 Reparations based on zones

 Allied Control Council created

Disagreements

 Future of Germany

 Reparations

 Eastern Europe / “free elections”

Why Potsdam was tense

  New, tougher Western leaders

 USA tested atomic bomb

 Stalin more uncompromising

 Mutual mistrust at its highest

Comparison Table: Tehran vs Yalta vs Potsdam

Tehran Conference Yalta Conference (Feb Potsdam Conference

Feature
(1943) 1945) (July–Aug 1945)

Germany already
First wartime meeting
Context Germany close to defeat defeated (VE Day: May
of the Big Three
1945)

Truman (replaced
Roosevelt (USA) Roosevelt (USA) Roosevelt)
Leaders
Churchill (Britain) Churchill (Britain) Attlee (replaced
Present
Stalin (USSR) Stalin (USSR) Churchill)
Stalin (USSR)

Finalise post-war
Main Plan military strategy Plan post-war Europe
settlement; deal with
Purpose to defeat Germany and Germany’s future
disagreements

Agreement to open the

Japan still fighting; USA
Key Military Second Front in USSR to help in war
secretly tested atomic
Decision Western Europe against Japan
bomb during conference
(Normandy invasion)

Zones finalised; Allied

Germany to be divided Control Council
Germany No detailed plans yet
into 4 zones created; reparations by
zone

Berlin also divided into 4 Confirmed and put into

Berlin Not discussed
zones practice

West accepts USSR Stalin promises free Truman objects to

Eastern
dominance in Eastern elections in Poland & Stalin's control; tensions
Europe
Europe (indirectly) Eastern Europe increase

Poland to have free

Poland’s Oder–Neisse
USSR allowed influence elections; USSR keeps
Poland border confirmed;
in Eastern Europe eastern Poland; Poland
Germans expelled
shifts west
 No agreement on
Disagreement: Stalin
Reparations Not discussed in detail amount; each zone to
wanted large reparations
take its own reparations

Most tense of all

Relations Friendly on the surface
Cooperative but three conferences;
Between but major suspicion
mistrust begins Truman openly distrusts
Powers underneath
Stalin

Gave USSR confidence Ambiguous agreements Clear split between East

Importance
to dominate Eastern lead to conflicting and West; beginning of
for Cold War
Europe expectations open Cold War hostility

Lesson 4: Establishing spheres of influence

1. Introduction

After World War II, relations between the USA and USSR dramatically
worsened.
Instead of working together as they had during the war, both superpowers
began to compete for influence and power in Europe.

⭐ Key idea: Spheres of Influence

A sphere of influence is when a powerful country controls — politically,

economically, and militarily — a region or group of countries.

After 1945:

 USSR created a sphere of influence in Eastern Europe.

 USA strengthened its influence in Western Europe.

This division of Europe laid the foundation for the Cold War.

⭐ 2. Why the Tension Increased

The growing suspicion between the two superpowers came from:

🔴 Ideological Competition

 USSR = Communism
→ One-party rule
→ State controls economy
→ Limited political freedoms

 USA = Capitalism & Democracy

→ Multi-party system
 → Free markets
→ Individual rights & freedoms

Because these systems are opposites, each side viewed the other as a threat.

⭐ 3. What This Lesson Will Cover

In this topic, you will learn:

 How the USA and USSR each tried to assert dominance in Europe.

 How their policies and actions increased global tension.

 How Europe became divided into East vs. West, leading to the Cold War.

🎯 End-of-Lesson Goal

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

✔ Assess how ideological competition and conflict increased world tensions.

This means you must be able to explain:

 Why the USA and USSR did not trust each other

 How their actions in Europe increased hostility

 How this competition contributed to the start of the Cold War