CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 1

B. Tech.: IV Year-VII& VIII Semester

8TT6-60.2 : DISASTER MANAGEMENT

S. No Content

1 Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.

2 Understanding Disasters and Hazards and related issues social and

environmental. Risk and Vulnerability. Types of Disasters, their
occurrence/ causes, impact and preventive measures:

3 Natural. Disasters-Hydro-meteorological Based Disasters like Flood,

Flash Flood, Cloud Burst, Drought, Cyclone, Forest Fires; Geological
Based Disasters like Earthquake, Tsunami, Landslides, Volcanic
Eruptions.

Man-made Disasters: Textile Processing Industrial Hazards, Major Power

Break Downs, Traffic Accidents, Fire Hazards.
4

5 Management roll in mitigating Disaster in Indian Textile Industries. Roll

of production people in Disaster Management.

CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 2

CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity

TERMINOLOGY
This section will explain the meaning of the following terms used in disaster
management: 1) Hazard
2) Vulnerability
3) Capacity
4) Risk Hazard

Hazards
Hazards are defined as physical phenomena that pose a threat to people, structures, or
economic assets and may cause a disaster. Generally speaking, there are two types of hazards,
namely:
 ∙ Natural: These are hazards caused by nature, such as floods, droughts, earthquakes,
cyclones, tsunamis, landslides, etc.

∙ Human-made hazards: these are hazards that are caused by human beings either
deliberately or by accident, such as industrial and chemical accidents, road and
railway accidents, aviation disasters, fire, building collapse, communal violence,
bomb blasts, etc. More and more, the distinction between natural and human-made
hazards is becoming harder to delineate.
Some hazards are natural in nature but are exacerbated by human activities such as flooding
and drought. These can be caused by deforestation, unplanned development, improper
drainage systems, etc. For example, flooding may be increased through landfills, drainage, or
groundwater extraction; storm surge may be worsened by the destruction of mangroves.
However, the High Powered Committee on Disaster Management that was constituted in
August 1999 under the Chairmanship of Shri J.C. Pant identified five major groups of
hazards in its final report. This exhaustive classification of Over thirty hazards are as follows:

Group 1: Water and climate-related hazards

1) Floods and Drainage Management
2) Cyclones
3) Tornadoes and hurricanes
4) Hailstorm
5) Cloud Burst
6) Heat Wave and Cold Wave
CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 3

7) Snow Avalanches
8) Droughts
9) Sea Erosion
10) Thunder and lightning

Group II: Geologically Related Hazards

1) Landslides and mudflows
2) Earthquakes
3) Dam Failures/Dam Bursts
4) Mine Fires

Group III: Chemical, Industrial, and Nuclear Hazards

1) Chemical and Industrial Disasters
2) Nuclear disasters

Group IV: Accident-Related Hazards

1) Forest fires
2) Urban fires
3) Mine Flooding
4) Oil Spill
5) Major Building Collapse
6) Serial Bomb Blasts
Festival-related disasters
8) Electrical Disasters and Fires
9) Air, road, and rail accidents
10) Boat sizing
11) Village Fires

Group V: Biologically Related Hazards

1) Biological Disasters and Epidemics
2) Pest attacks
3) Cattle Epidemics
4) Food poisoning
CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 4

Vulnerability

It is the extent to which a community, structure, service, or geographic area is likely to be

damaged or disrupted by the impact of a particular hazard on account of its nature,
construction, and proximity to hazardous terrain or a disaster-prone area. It is the likely extent
of damage due to a hazard. In the face of a particular hazard, it is important to determine how
each hazard interacts with each and every dimension of vulnerability. Therefore, a study of
vulnerability is a study of what might happen to people or communities, and while it is not
certain that a crisis might occur, it definitely affects different populations in different ways.
Vulnerability represents the interface between exposure to any physical threats to human
well-being and the capacity of people and communities to cope with those threats. Threats
may arise from a combination of social and physical processes. Human vulnerability thus
integrates many environmental concerns and may undermine the entire sustainable
development process in developing countries. The extent to which a population is affected by
a calamity does not purely lie in the physical components of vulnerability but is also
contextualised by the prevailing social and economic conditions and its consequential effect
on human activities within a given society. Research in areas affected by earthquakes
indicates that single-parent families, women, handicapped people, children, the elderly, and
poor people are particularly vulnerable social groups. For example, coastal communities are
more likely to experience cyclone-induced flooding than communities in other parts of the
country. However, among the same coastal communities, some families have strong houses
that can withstand the impact of floods better or are aware of upcoming floods so they can
relocate temporarily. Others, after having their houses destroyed by floods, may be able to
rebuild more quickly because of their savings, innovations, family, or other external support,
but the poorest tend to live in the most exposed places, have the weakest houses, and have the
fewest assets to rebuild, and therefore are likely to be the most vulnerable. It captures
people’s inadequate options or ability to protect them against possible damage or recover
from the consequences of natural phenomena without outside help.

Vulnerabilities can be of varied types, like:

1) Physical vulnerability: Depending on the physical location of people and element sat
risk and the technical capacity of buildings, structures, and infrastructure. It varies
according to construction techniques, materials used, and location.
2) Economic vulnerability: Poor people are considered to be more vulnerable. as their
houses are built of weak material and in dangerous areas. They do not .have the essential
CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 5

safety nets to recover as an affluent population. Their loose the essential tools and
equipment of their livelihood as well.
3) Social Vulnerability: Some sections of the population are more vulnerable. than the
others, like women, children, the elderly, and t in hose who are physically and mentally
challenged and those dependent on critical facilities
4) Other types of vulnerability: Some other types of vulnerability have also been
identified, like environmental vulnerability, cultural vulnerability, Educational
vulnerability, attitudinal vulnerability, and political vulnerability
Disaster
As per the 2004 Disaster Management Act, "disaster is defined as a catastrophe, mishap,
calamity, or grave occurrence in any area arising out of natural or man-made causes, or by
accident or negligence, which results in substantial loss of life and human suffering, damage
to, destruction of, or degradation of the environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as
to be beyond the coping capacity of the affected community of the affected area. The term
"disaster management" is a collective term referring to all aspects of planning and responding
to disasters, including both pre- and post-disaster activities. It may refer to the management
of both the risks and consequences of disasters.
When a hazard is not managed properly, it turns into a disaster. So, while hazards can be
considered natural, disasters are generally human-made. Earthquakes, cyclones, etc. are all
natural hazards, and we can prevent them from becoming disasters.
Relationship between hazards, vulnerability, and disaster
A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on a vulnerable population and causes damage,
casualties, and disruption. An earthquake in an uninhabited desert cannot be considered a
disaster, no matter how strong the intensity might be. An earthquake is disastrous when it
affects people, infrastructure, and activities.
hazard × vulnerability = disaster
When extent of hazard and vulnerability is low, the resulting disaster will also be of small
magnitude.
HAZARD × vulnerability = disaster
When extent of hazard is high but vulnerability is low then the disaster will be of small
magnitude.
Hazard × VULNERABILITY = disaster
When vulnerability is high but extent of hazard is small then the resulting disaster will also be
of small magnitude.
CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 6

HAZARD × VULNERABILITY = DISASTER

When the extent of hazard is very high and the vulnerability is also high, it will result in a
huge disaster.

Capacity
Vulnerability is one side of a coin; the other side represents the resources people have to
resist, cope with, or recover from a hazard, or "capacities". Vulnerability is about "not
having" while capacities are about "having". Capacity is knowledge, skills, resources,
abilities and strength, present in individuals, households, and the communities, which enable
them to prevent, prepare for, stand against, survive and recover from a disaster. People’s
capacities are also highlighted by what are known as "coping strategies". These are responses
linked to capacities (or resources) which, in the face of a hazard determine how vulnerable or
resilient an individual or household becomes.
Some examples of capacity are:

∙ Permanent houses

∙ Adequate food and income sources

∙ Fire stations

∙ Developed health infrastructure,

∙ Good community networks for support

∙ Local knowledge

∙ Strong community leadership and organisations

Risk
Risks have always been part of daily life for humans. However, both the level of acceptance
and the perception of risk vary from one individual to another. Perception also varies between
regions, societies, and cultures; therefore, there is no universally valid definition of risk. Risk
is the expected damage or loss due to the combination of vulnerability and hazards. People
are considered at ‘risk’ when they are unable to cope with a hazard. A disaster occurs when a
significant number of vulnerable people experience a hazard and suffer severe damage and/or
disruption of their livelihood systems in such a way that recovery is unlikely without external
assistance. Risk is the probability of harmful consequences or expected losses (deaths,
injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted, or the environment damaged)
resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable
conditions (HPC Report, 2001). As far as disaster risk is concerned, it refers to the probability
CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 7

of the occurrence of a disaster. It is subject to the extent of hazard, vulnerability, and

capacity. In relation to disasters, Kotze and Holloway (1996) define risk as the expected
losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property, and disruption of economic activity or
livelihood) caused by a particular phenomenon. Risk is a function of the hazard's occurrence
and the projected losses. A societal element is said to be ‘at risk’ or vulnerable when it is
exposed to hazards and is likely to be adversely affected by the impact of those hazards if and
when they occur, especially in situations of limited capacity.
HAZARD ASSESSMENT
A hazard is measured and defined by its nature (type of hazard), location and extent, scope
and intensity (damage potential), probability of occurrence, duration, and frequency
(repetition cycles). Hazard analysis refers to prioritising disasters based on their frequency
and the analysis of the estimated losses. This can be carried out with the help of the elderly
people in the village. The community can analyse the losses that they have incurred during
various disasters and learn the best practises carried out. This is an important activity as it
forms the basis for preparedness and mitigation plans. The community can be asked to review
and analyse the occurrence of past disasters. and hazards. Group discussions can be held with
the elderly population, teachers, and children, focusing on the disasters and hazards faced by
the community for the past one year to the past fifteen years, the kind and nature of disasters
and hazards faced, experience with the last hazard faced, warnings issued, damage caused,
response to the disaster, relief and rehabilitation processes, traditional methods of coping by
the community, gaps in management of the hazard, and lessons learned. It can be useful in
understanding the nature, intensity, and behaviour of past disasters and hazards. The elderly
population can share vital information and experience about the past, while the presence of
children in the group discussion can ensure that the experience is passed on to the next
generation. The community can identify both natural and human-made hazards to which the
area is prone. Natural hazards may include floods, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones,
sandstorms, cloudbursts, etc. Human-made hazards for the community may include industrial
and chemical accidents, road and railway accidents, fire, epidemics, building collapses,
communal violence, etc.
CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 8

Tools for Hazard Analysis

Some of the tools that can be used for hazard analysis are as follows:

1) Hazard Mapping: It is a visual representation of the village by the community. It is a rough

spatial overview and sketch of the area and specific locations, which are vulnerable to various
hazards. The main feature of hazard mapping is to facilitate discussion on issues pertinent to
hazards. It is made by men and women who know the area and are willing to share their
experiences on large sheets.

2) Historical Profile or Timeline: This tool is used to gather information about what happened
in the past. It helps in getting an insight into past hazards and changes in their nature,
intensity, and behaviour. It helps to understand the present situation in the community and
establish the link between hazards and vulnerabilities. The community may also become
aware of the changes that have taken place in the past through a historical profile or timeline.

3) Seasonal Calendar: It involves making a calendar showing different events, primarily the
time of occurrence of hazards throughout the annual cycle. It helps to identify the periods of
stress and prepare for the specific stress in normal times before the threat of hazards looms
large over the community. The facilitator can arrange sessions for the community members
focusing on the issue.

4) Hazard Matrix: This tool aims at gathering compressive information about the past
hazards. It helps in having an insight about the future hazards on the basis of gaps and
lacunae in the management of past hazards and disasters.

VULNERABILITY AND CAPACITY ASSESSMENT (VCA)

VCA is crucial for disaster preparedness and mitigation measures as it gives insight into the
means people employ to cope, and this is the firmest basis on which we can build appropriate
and cost-effective actions for preparedness and mitigation. Finally, and very importantly, the
process of a VCA, if properly conducted, confers advantages to vulnerable people in terms of
raising public awareness, sensitising a community, and empowering them by giving the
community knowledge of risks and capacities. A vulnerability and capacity assessment
should be an ongoing process that addresses risk and those long-term factors that make
people more vulnerable to a hazard. It can be carried out at the "pre-disaster" stage as a
technique of disaster preparedness and made an integral element in the wider process of risk
assessment. The process of vulnerability assessment would involve asking the community
two major questions, namely:

1) Who is vulnerable?
2) 2) What is vulnerable?

The community would be asked to identify the more vulnerable population, identify the
location of women (pregnant, lactating, widows, single), children, the elderly, the
physically and mentally challenged, those dependent on life support systems and
medicines, poor people living by the sea or in kutcha houses, livestock and cattle, etc. The
community would also be asked to identify vulnerable infrastructure like buildings, low-
CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 9

lying areas, areas near water bodies such as the sea and river and the direction of wind,
livelihood assets such as boats and nets, documents, weak structures, drinking water
resources, communication lines, roads, telephone lines, etc.

Tools for Vulnerability Assessment

The various tools for vulnerability analysis are as follows: 1) Transect Walk: The process
involves taking a systematic walk with key informants through the community to explore
spatial differences and land use zones by observing, asking, listening, conducting
informal interviews, and producing a transect diagram.

2) Problem Tree: The tool involves drawing a tree that shows the relationship between
different aspects of vulnerability. It involves identifying major problems and
vulnerabilities as well as their root causes and effects. The trunk represents the problems,
the root depicts the causes, and the leaves signify the effects

3) Livelihood Analysis: The tool focuses on studying the vulnerability of the livelihood of
the community to various disasters. The tool analyses the various livelihood activities that
are spread over the year and the impact of hazards on the livelihood activities. It also
focuses on understanding livelihood strategies, behaviours, decisions, and perceptions of
 risk, capacities, and vulnerabilities from different socio-economic backgrounds.

4) Vulnerability Assessment: The vulnerability assessment would focus on the vulnerable

community and the vulnerable infrastructure. It assesses and maps the more vulnerable
population and the assets of the community.

Capacity assessment focuses on identifying locally available assets and resources that can
be utilised to build the capacities of the community during and after disasters. The local
community has a lot of inbuilt strength and capacity for handling disasters. It is important
to capture the capacity and strength of the community in resource analysis. Apart from
infrastructure and funds, it could be individuals with specific skills, local institutions, and
people’s knowledge, as all these have the capacity to create awareness and bring about
changes in the community. Capacity assessment is therefore not limited to a map
depicting the available resources but also plotting their distribution, access, and use by
taking into consideration the prevailing sensitiveness within the community. Thus, the
assessment of resources would involve two components:

1) Human Resource Assessment

2) Material Resource Assessment

The process would involve identifying safe houses and buildings for shelter, strong
buildings, elevated uplands and structures, safe evacuation routes, health, medical, and
sanitation facilities, swimmers, doctors, nurses, sources of funds to carry out preparedness
activities, volunteers for the task force, etc.

Tool for capacity assessment One of the tools that can be used for capacity assessment is
as follows:
CH 1 Hazard Vulnerability Capacity 10

1) Social and Institutional Analysis: The tool focuses on identifying various government,
non-government, and private organisations working in the field of disaster management in
the local as well as neighbouring areas. Various other aspects can also be studied, such as
the role played by the institutions, their area of interest, their importance in the
management of disasters, the capabilities of such institutions, and the perceptions people
have about them.

RISK ASSESSMENT

Risk assessment is necessary so as to determine the nature and extent of risk by analysing
potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that could pose a
potential threat or harm to people, property, livelihoods, and the environment on which they
depend. A risk assessment provides the factual basis for activities proposed in any strategy to
reduce losses from identified hazards. Local risk assessments must provide sufficient
information to identify and prioritise appropriate mitigation actions to reduce losses from
identified hazards. Risk assessment is a necessary first step for any serious consideration of
disaster. reduction strategies. Its relevance for the planning and development of disaster risk
reduction strategies was explicitly addressed during the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction Risk Identification: This includes activities like hazard data collection and
mapping to determine the frequency, magnitude, and location of any hazard event;
vulnerability assessment of the populations and the assets exposed, and risk assessment to
determine the probability of expected losses. Risk Reduction/Mitigation: Consists of
measures taken to reduce the physical, social, and environmental vulnerability and has been
achieved through a number of ongoing schemes on resource conservation and management
like the Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP), Drought Prone Area
Programme (DPP), Flood Control Programmes, National A-forestation and Eco Development
Programme (NA and ED), Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP), Crop
Insurance, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Yojana (MGNREGY),
etc. Mitigation measures may include structural and non-structural measures like the
construction of cyclone/temporary shelters; the plantation of mangroves and coastal forests
along the coast line, as these fall under the non-structural mitigation measures; the
construction of location-specific sea walls and coral reefs in consultation with experts; the
development of break waters along the coast to provide the necessary cushion against cyclone
and tsunami hazards; the development of tsunami, cyclone detection, forecasting, and
warning dissemination centres, etc. Risk Transfer: Policies that govern relief expenditures are
based on the recommendations of successive financial commissions. The Calamity Relief
Fund (CRF) and the National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) were two main sources
for meeting the relief expenses. Added to these are funds from international or multilateral
donor agencies like the World Bank, USAID, and international and national/local NGOs for
relief and rehabilitation measures apart from government policies on risk insurance,
microfinance, and microcredit schemes. Early Warning and Forecasting: There are two
distinct types of tsunami warning systems: international tsunami warning systems and
regional warning systems to detect hazards like cyclones and tsunamis and issue warnings to
reduce the loss of life and property. Tool for risk assessment One of the tools that can be used
for risk analysis is as follows: 1) Risk Analysis: The tool is based on determining the risk by
analysing the vulnerabilities and capacities of the community related to each hazard. On the
basis of analysis The risk is determined for a particular hazard in a ranking order. While
conducting the risk assessment, one should keep the following points in mind: Determine the
risk by ranking Ask the community about the hazard that poses the highest risk. Explore the
reasons for which a particular hazard poses a risk.
CH 2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE: 11

CH 2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE:

Disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid, the potential losses from hazards, assure
prompt and appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and effective
recovery. Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and
measures which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid
a disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses.

The four disaster management phases illustrated here do not always, or even generally, occur
in isolation or in this precise order. Often phases of the cycle overlap and the length of each
phase greatly depends on the severity of the disaster. The cyclical nature of disaster
management process focuses on the ongoing and continual actions to prevent and manage the
disasters.
∙ Mitigation - Minimizing the effects of disaster.

∙ Examples: building codes and zoning; vulnerability analyses; public

∙ Education.

∙ Preparedness - Planning how to respond.

 ∙ Examples: preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training; warning systems.

∙ Response - Efforts to minimize the hazards created by a disaster.

∙ Examples: search and rescue; emergency relief.

∙ Recovery - Returning the community to normal.

∙ Examples: temporary housing; grants; medical care.

Mitigation; the action of reducing the severity, seriousness, or painfulness of something.

Mitigation activities actually eliminate or reduce the probability of disaster occurrence, or
reduce the effects of unavoidable disasters through proactive measures taken before an
emergency or disaster occurs.
CH 2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE: 12

The mitigation phase, and indeed the whole disaster management cycle, includes the
shaping of public policies and plans that either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate
their effects on people, property, and infrastructure. Mitigation measures may include but
not restricted to:
∙ Enforcement of building codes, floodplain management codes and environmental
regulations.
∙ Public safety measures such as continual maintenance of roadways and dams. ∙

Land-use planning (zoning) and controlling human activities in hazard prone areas ∙
Earthquake resistant construction, permanent houses
∙ Community health and sanitation (improving nutrition, keeping the community clean,
immunization, herbal gardens, training of community health workers)
∙ Deployment of warning systems to alert and notify the public.
Preparedness: Getting ready to cope
Disaster preparedness refers to measures taken to prepare for and reduce the effects of
disasters. These measures can be described as logistical readiness to deal with disasters
Disaster preparedness has the potential to save the maximum number of lives and property
during a disaster.
Preparedness phase coves a wide range of activities;
∙ Individual, family and community preparedness measures: knowing what to do

∙ before, during and after a disaster for earthquake, drought, epidemic

∙ Preparedness can also take the form of ensuring that strategic reserves of food,
equipment, water, medicines and other essentials are maintained in cases of
emergencies and disasters.
∙ Public awareness activities - public awareness campaigns such as community meetings
and house-to-house information dissemination, posters and pamphlets, media
coverage, disaster consciousness day/ week/month.
∙ Formulation of community counter disaster plan or disaster management plan

Response; When disaster strikes.

The assistance and intervention during or immediately after a disaster. Focus is on saving
lives and protecting community assets (buildings, roads, animals, crops, infrastructure).
Usually measured in hours, days or weeks. Humanitarian organizations are often strongly
present in this phase of the disaster management cycle.
∙ Evacuation and evacuation center management

∙ Search and rescue

∙ First Aid and Medical Assistance

∙ Damage Needs Capacity Assessment

∙ Relief delivery (food and drinking water; non-food items such as clothing, blankets,
kitchen utensils...)
∙ Psycho-social counseling (comforting, critical stress debriefing)
CH 2 DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE: 13

Recovery; Getting back to normal

After the disaster - recovery: rehabilitation and reconstruction Disaster recovery has three
distinct but interrelated meanings. First, it is a goal that involves the restoration of normal
community activities that were disrupted by disaster impact. Second, it is a phase, that starts
after the recovery phase and ends when the community has returned to its normal
[Link], it is a process by which the community achieves the goal of returning to
normal routines.
There is no distinct point at which immediate relief changes into recovery and then into long
term sustainable development. There will be many opportunities during the recovery period
to enhance prevention and increase preparedness, thus reducing vulnerability. Recovery
activities continue until all systems return to normal or better. Recovery measures, both short
and long term, include;
∙ Rebuilding and strengthening of damaged structures

∙ Relocation to safe places

∙ Income generating projects

Nodal Agencies for Disaster Management

∙ Floods : Ministry of Water Resources, CWC

∙ Cyclones : Indian Meteorological Department

∙ Earthquakes : Indian Meteorological Department

∙ Epidemics : Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

∙ Avian Flu: Ministry of Health, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture and

Animal Husbandry
∙ Chemical Disasters : Ministry of Environment and Forests

∙ Industrial Disasters : Ministry of Labour

∙ Rail Accidents : Ministry of Railways

∙ Air Accidents : Ministry of Civil Aviation

∙ Fire : Ministry of Home Affairs

∙ Nuclear Incidents : Department of Atomic Energy

∙ Mine Disasters : Department of Mines

CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 14

CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS:
EARTHQUAKE:

Earthquakes are one of the most destructive of natural hazards. An earthquake occurs due to
sudden transient motion of the ground as a result of release of elastic energy in a matter of
few seconds. The impact of the event is most traumatic because it affects large areas, occurs
all of a sudden and is unpredictable. They can cause large scale loss of life and property and
disrupts essential services such as water supply, sewerage systems, communication and
power, transport, etc. They not only destroy villages, towns and cities but the aftermath leads
to destabilize the economy and social structure of the nation.
What is an Earthquake?

An earthquake is the movement or trembling of the ground produced by the sudden

displacement of rock in the Earth's crust. Earthquakes result from crustal strain, volcanism,
landslides, and collapse of caverns. Stress accumulates in response to tectonic forces until it
exceeds the strength of the rock. The rock then breaks along a preexisting or new fracture
called a fault. The rupture extends outward in all directions along the fault plane from its
point of origin (focus). The rupture travels in an irregular manner until the stress is relatively
equalized. If the rupture Page 2 of 52 disturbs the surface, it produces a visible fault on the
surface. Earthquakes are recorded by seismograph consisted of a seismometer, a shaking
detector and a data recorder. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally
reported, or the related and mostly obsolete Richter magnitude, with magnitude 3 or lower
earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large
areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. In India Medvedev
Sponheuer-Karnik scale, also known as the MSK or MSK-64, which is a macroseismic
intensity scale, is used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking on the basis of observed
effects in an area of the earthquake occurrence. Due to earthquake seismic waves are
generated and measurements of their speed of travel are recorded by seismographs located
around the planet.

Causes of Earthquakes
An Earthquake is a series of underground shock waves and movements on the earths surface
caused by natural processes within the earth’s crust. To learn more about the occurrence of
this event lets know more about the interior of the earth.
Earthquakes are caused by natural tectonic interactions within the earth’s crust and it is a
global phenomena. They may arise either due to the release of energy from the strained rock
inside the Earth or tectonic movements or volcanic activity. The sudden release of
accumulated energy or stresses in the earth or sudden movement of massive land areas on the
earth’s surface cause tremors, commonly called earthquakes.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 15

Seismic Waves
Large strain energy released during an earthquake travel as seismic waves in all directions
through the Earth's layers, reflecting and refracting at each interface. These waves are of two
types - body waves and surface waves; the latter is restricted to near the Earth's surface. Body
waves consist of Primary Waves (P-waves) and Secondary Waves (S-waves), and surface
waves consist of Love waves and Rayleigh waves. Under P-waves, material particles undergo
extensional and compressional strains along the direction of energy transmission, but under
S-waves, oscillate at right angles to it. Love waves cause surface motions similar to that by S
waves, but with no vertical component. Rayleigh wave makes a material particles oscillate in
an elliptic path in the vertical plane (with horizontal motion along direction of energy
transmission).

Earthquake Early Warning

Earthquake early warning (EEW) can provide a few seconds to tens of seconds warning prior
to ground shaking during an earthquake. Several countries, such as Japan, Taiwan, Mexico
have adopted this methodology based on the fact that such warning can
(1) rapidly detect the initiation of an earthquake,
(2) determine the size (magnitude) and location of the event,
(3) predict the peak ground motion expected in the region around the event, (4) issued
a warning to people in locations that may expect significant ground motion. Prediction of an
earthquake is still a subject of speculations yet several schools of thoughts are available. In
the effort to predict earthquakes, people have tried to associate an impending earthquake with
such varied phenomena as seismicity patterns, electromagnetic fields, weather conditions and
unusual clouds, radon or hydrogen gas content of soil or ground water, water level in wells,
animal behavior, and the phases of the moon.
Mitigation measures
When an earthquake strikes a building is thrown mostly from side to side, and also up and
down along with the building foundation the building structure tends to stay at rest, similar to
a passenger standing on a bus that accelerates quickly. Building damage is related to the
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 16

characteristics of the building, and the duration and severity of the ground shaking. Larger
earthquakes tend to shake longer and harder and therefore cause more damage to structures.

Structural
No buildings can be made 100% safe against earthquake forces. Instead buildings and
infrastructures can be made earthquake resistant to a certain extent depending upon
serviceability requirements. Earthquake resistant design of buildings depends upon providing
the building with strength, stiffness and inelastic deformation capacity, which are great
enough to withstand a given level of earthquake-generated force. This is generally
accomplished through the selection of an appropriate structural configuration and the careful
detailing of structural members, such as beams and columns, and the connections between
them. There are several different experimental techniques that can be used to test the response
of structures to verify their seismic performance, one of which is the use of an earthquake
shaking table (a shaking table, or simply shake table). This is a device for shaking structural
models or building components with a wide range of simulated ground motions, including
reproductions of recorded earthquakes time-histories.

Nonstructural
The non-engineered traditional construction commonly practiced in different areas of the
country depends greatly on the respective local context of the area. In other words the
technologies vary significantly from area to area. These technologies have evolved and as a
result have got optimized. In India an overwhelming majority of houses, are of non
engineered load bearing type. These structures, especially houses, have been traditionally
built over the past century or longer, using the locally available materials and the locally
practiced technologies that have been most common in the area, including stone, bricks,
earth, lime and timber for walls, and clay tiles, stone or mud for roofing supported on under
structure made of local timber such as Teak, Acacia, Neem, Deodar, Pine and also Bamboo.
In the recently built structures one also finds a mix of the traditional and new
materials/technology such as cement, concrete and steel. The structures have a pitched roof or
flat roof, and are single story or double story. After Bhuj earthquake, significant effort was
taken to repair and strengthening of damaged buildings. A guideline for Repair and
strengthening guide for earthquake damaged low rise domestic buildings in Gujarat is made.

Seismic retrofitting
Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant to
seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes. With better understanding
of seismic demand on the structures and with our recent experiences with large earthquakes
near urban centers, the need of seismic retrofitting is well acknowledged.
The Framework for Earthquake Management
Disaster Management plans in the past were primarily based on intuitive considerations and
past lessons. While past experience provides valuable inputs for the development of risk
reduction strategies, the absence of a rigorous Risk Management framework has resulted in
weak sustainability and inadequate extension of post-earthquake efforts in other earthquake
prone areas in India. The Disaster Management systems in several developed countries have
evolved on the basis of a rigorous Risk Management framework as practiced in Australia,
New Zealand and Canada. The Risk Management framework, which provides the logic for
these Guidelines, places, local communities at the center, helps to interface them with
decision makers and provides the opportunity for continuous and effective feedback between
the community at risk and other stakeholders. The essential feature of this Risk Management
framework is to view earthquake management issues in a holistic and integrated manner by
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 17

identifying, analyzing, evaluating and finally, effectively treating the risks. These steps will
be implemented through a consultative and participatory process by involving the key
stakeholders and will be monitored and reviewed concurrently at various stages of
implementation.
Disaster Management Plans
Central ministries, departments and state governments are required to prepare DM plans to
improve earthquake preparedness, mitigation and emergency response in accordance with
these guidelines. A typical DM plan will, inter alia, include aspects of earthquake
management, like identification of all tasks to be undertaken before, during and after an
earthquake; outline the response mechanism with clearly defined roles and responsibilities of
various stakeholders; and identify the available resources to ensure their effective utilization
in the event of an earthquake. The plans will spell out the strategies for addressing the various
tasks relating to earthquake preparedness and awareness creation, capacity development,
monitoring and enforcement of earthquake-resistant codes and building byelaws. They will
also include emergency response, earthquake-resistant design and construction of new
structures, and selective seismic strengthening and retrofitting of priority and lifeline
structures in earthquake-prone areas. India Disaster Resource Network (IDRN) database f
resource inventories in the districts will be strengthened by the states through regular
updating. States will also integrate this database with their Disaster Management plans.

Guidelines for Earthquake Management

Central ministries and departments and the state governments will prepare DM plans, which
will have specific components of earthquake management, based on these Guidelines. These
plans will cover all aspects of the entire DM cycle, be reviewed and updated at periodic
intervals and implemented through appropriate, well coordinated and time bound actions as
laid down in these Guidelines. As most development activities, especially in high seismic risk
areas, can enhance earthquake risk unless special efforts are made to address these concerns,
all these agencies will make special efforts to ensure the incorporation of earthquake-resistant
features in the design and construction of all new buildings and structures.

Earthquake Safety Tips

Before & during

∙ Make your house earthquake resistant and secure heavy furniture and objects. ∙ Choose
a couple of family meeting places; pick easy to identify, open and accessible places that
you can easily reach.
∙ Prepare to be self-sufficient for a minimum of three days.

∙ If inside, stay inside. "DROP, COVER and HOLD! Drop under firm furniture. ∙ Cover
as much of your head and upper body as you can. Hold onto the furniture. ∙ Move to an
inside wall and sit with your back to the wall, bring your knees to your chest and cover
your head.
∙ Stay away from mirror and window.

∙ Do not exit the building during the shaking.

∙ If outdoors, move to an open area away from all structures, especially buildings,
bridges, and overhead power lines.

After
∙ Move cautiously, and check for unstable objects and other hazards above and around
you.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 18

∙ Check yourself for injuries.

∙ Anticipate aftershocks, especially if the shaking lasted longer than two minutes.

∙ Stay out of damaged buildings.

∙ Listen to the radio or watch local TV for emergency information and additional safety
instructions.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 19

Landslide

Landslides are simply defined as down slope movement of rock, debris and/or earth under the
influence of gravity. This sudden movement of material causes extensive damage to life,
economy and environment. It is the most common and universally accepted collective term
for most slope movements of the massive nature. The term has sometimes been considered
unsuitable as the active part of the word denotes sliding, whereas it connotes even movements
without sliding like fall, topple, flow etc.
Parts of Landslides
Description of Features
∙ Accumulation - The volume of the displaced material, which lies above the original
ground surface
∙ Crown – The practically undisplaced material still in place and adjacent to the highest
parts of the main scarp
∙ Depletion – The volume bounded by the main scarp, the depleted mass and the original
ground surface
∙ Depleted mass – The volume of the displaced material, which overlies the rupture
surface but underlies the original ground surface
∙ Displaced material – Material displaced from its original position on the slope by
movement in the landslide. It forms both the depleted mass and the accumulation. ∙
Flank – The undisplaced material adjacent to the sides of the rupture surface. Compass
directions are preferable in describing the flanks, but if left and right are used, they refer
to the flanks as viewed from the crown.
∙ Foot – The portion of the landslide that has moved beyond the toe of the surface of
rupture and overlies the original ground surface.
∙ Head – The upper parts of the landslide along the contact between the displaced
material and the main scarp.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 20

∙ Main body – The part of the displaced material of the landslide that overlies the
surface of rupture between the main scarp and toe of the surface of rupture. ∙ Main scarp
– A steep surface on the undisturbed ground at the upper edge of the landslide, caused by
 movement of the displaced material away from undisturbed ground. It is the visible part
of the surface of rupture.
∙ Minor scarp – A steep surface on the displaced material of the landslide produced by
the differential movement within the displaced material.
∙ Original ground surface – the surface of the slope that existed before the landslide
took place.
∙ Surface of separation – The part of the original ground surface overlain by the foot of
the landslide
∙ Surface of rupture – The surface that forms the lower boundary of the displaced
material below the original ground surface.
∙ Tip – The point of toe farthest from the top of the landslide.

∙ Toe – The lower, usually curved margin of the displaced material of a landslide, it is
the most distant part from the main scarp.
∙ Top – The highest point of contact between the displaced material and the main scarp.
∙ Toe of surface of rupture – The intersection (usually buried) between the lower part of
the surface of rupture of a landslide and the original ground surface.
∙ Zone of accumulation – The area of landslide within which the displaced material lies
above the original ground surface.
∙ Zone of depletion – The area of the landslide within which the displaced material lies
below the original ground surface.

Landslide types based on process of failure Based on process types, there are
five types of landslides i.e. Fall, Topple, Slide, Spread, Flow and Subsidence.

Causal Factors for Landslides

There can be several different causative factors for the occurrence of landslides which may
work individually or collectively to cause a landslide.

Broadly these factors can categorize into ground conditions, geomorphological processes,
physical processes and man-made processes. A brief list of these causal factors is given in the
table below.

a. Ground Conditions
1. Plastic weak material
2. Sensitive material
3. Collapsible material
4. Weathered material
5. Sheared material
6. Jointed or fissured material
7. Adversely oriented structural discontinuities including faults, unconformities, flexural
shears, sedimentary contacts
8. Adversely oriented mass discontinuities (including bedding, schistosity, cleavage)
9. Contrasts in permeability and its effects on ground water
10. Contrasts in stiffness (stiff, dense material over plastic material)
 CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 21

b. Geomorphological Processes
1. Tectonic uplift
2. Volcanic uplift
3. Glacial Rebound
4. Fluvial erosion of the slope toe
5. Wave erosion of the slope toe
6. Glacial erosion of the slope toe
7. Erosion of the lateral margin
8. Subterranean erosion (solution, piping)
9. Deposition loading of slope at its crest
10. Vegetation removal (by erosion, forest fire, drought)
11. Ground Cracks Subsidence

c. Physical Processes
1. Intense rainfall over a short period
2. Rapid melt of deep snow
3. Prolonged heavy precipitation
4. Rapid drawdown following floods, high tides or breaching of natural dam
5. Earthquake
6. Volcanic eruption
7. Breaching of crater lake
8. Thawing of permafrost
9. Freeze and thaw weathering
10. Shrink and swell weathering of expansive soils

d. Man-Made Processes
1. Excavation of the slope or its toe
2. Loading of the slope or its crest
3. Drawdown of reservoir
4. Irrigation
5. Defective maintenance of drainage system
6. Water leakage from services like water supplies, sewage, storm water drains
7. Vegetation removal (deforestation)
8. Mining and quarrying in open pits or underground galleries
9. Creation of dumps of very loose waste
10. Artificial vibration including traffic, pile driving, heavy machinery, blasting and
explosion
11. Poor maintenance of remedial measures

Landslides Risk Reduction Measure

Drainage Corrections: The most important triggering mechanism for mass movements is the
water infiltrating into the overburden during heavy rains and consequent increase in pore
pressure within the overburden. Hence the natural way of preventing this situation is by
reducing infiltration and allowing excess water to move down without hindrance. As such,
the first and foremost mitigation measure is drainage correction. This involves maintenance
of natural drainage channels, both micro and macro in vulnerable slopes.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 22
Proper land use measures: Adopt effective land-use regulations and building codes based
on scientific research. Through land-use planning, discourage new construction or
development in identifying hazard areas without first implementing appropriate remedial
measures.

Structural measures: Adopt remedial techniques (i.e., buttresses, shear keys, sub-drains, soil
reinforcement, retaining walls, etc.) of existing landslides that are in close proximity to public
structures.

Afforestation: The afforestation program should be properly planned so the little slope
modification is done in the process. Bounding of any sort using boulders, etc. has to be
avoided. The selection of suitable plant species should be such that can with stand the
existing stress conditions of the terrain.

Awareness generation: Educate the public about signs that a landslide is imminent so that
personal safety measures may be taken. Some of these signs include:
(i) Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have not typically been wet before.
(ii) New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or sidewalks. (iii)
Soil moving away from foundations, and ancillary structures such as decks and patios
tilting and/or moving relative to the house.
(iv) Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces.
(v) Broken water lines and other underground utilities.
(vi) Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences.
(vii) Sunken or dropped-down road beds.
(viii) Rapid increase in a stream or creek water levels, possibly accompanied by
increased turbidity (soil content).
(ix) Sudden decrease in creek water levels even though rain is still falling or just
recently stopped.

Landslides Safety Tips:

Before and during:
∙ Avoid building houses near steep slopes, close to mountain edges, near drainage ways
or along natural erosion valleys.
∙ Avoid going to places affected by debris flow. In mud flow areas, build channels to
direct the flow around buildings.
∙ Stay alert and awake. Many deaths from landslides occur while people are sleeping. ∙
Listen for unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees cracking or
boulders knocking together.
∙ Move away from the landslide path or debris flow as quickly as possible. ∙ Avoid river
valleys and low-lying areas. If you are near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden
increase or decrease in water flow and notice whether the water changes from clear to
muddy.

After:
∙ Go to a designated public shelter if you have been told to evacuate.

∙ Stay away from the slide area as there may be danger of additional slides. ∙ Check for
injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide area.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 23
Tsunami

Tsunamis and earthquakes happen after centuries of energy build up within the earth. A
tsunami (in Japanese „tsu‟ means harbor and „nami‟ means wave) is a series of water waves
caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an ocean. In the
Tamil language it is known as “Aazhi Peralai”. Seismicity generated tsunamis are the result
of abrupt deformation of sea floor, resulting vertical displacement of the overlying water.
1Earthquakes occurring beneath the sea level, the water above the reformed area is displaced
from its equilibrium position. The release of energy produces tsunami waves which have
small amplitude but a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometer long). It may be
caused by non-seismic event also such as a landslide or the impact of a meteor.

Characteristics: Tsunami in the deep ocean may have very long wave length of hundred of
kilometer and travels at about 800 km per hour, but an amplitude of only about 1 km. It
remains undetected by ships in the deep sea. However, when it approaches the coast its
wavelength diminishes, but amplitude grows enormously, and it takes very little time to reach
its full height. The Computer model can provide tsunami arrival, usually within minutes of
the arrival time. Tsunamis have great erosion potential, stripping beaches of sand, coastal
vegetation and dissipating its energy through the destruction of houses and coastal structure.

How do landslides, volcanic eruptions, and cosmic collisions generate tsunamis? A

tsunami can be generated by any disturbance that displaces a large water mass from its
equilibrium position. In the case of earthquake-generated tsunamis, the water column is
disturbed by the uplift or subsidence of the sea floor. Submarine landslides, which often
accompany large earthquakes, as well as collapses of volcanic edifices, can also disturb the
overlying water column as sediment and rock slump downslope and are redistributed across
the sea floor. Similarly, a violent submarine volcanic eruption can create an impulsive force
that uplifts the water column and generates a tsunami. Conversely, supermarine landslides
and cosmic-body impacts disturb the water from above, as momentum from falling debris is
transferred to the water into which the debris falls.
Generally speaking, tsunamis generated from these mechanisms, unlike the Pacific-wide
tsunamis caused by some earthquakes, dissipate quickly and rarely affect coastlines distant
from the source area. What happens to a tsunami as it approaches land? As a tsunami leaves
the deep water of the open ocean and travels into the shallower water near the coast, it
transforms. The tsunami's energy flux, which is dependent on both its wave speed and wave
height, remains nearly constant. Consequently, as the tsunami's speed diminishes as it travels
into shallower water, its height grows. Because of this shoaling effect, a tsunami,
imperceptible at sea, may grow to be several meters or more in height near the coast. When it
finally reaches the coast, a tsunami may appear as a rapidly rising or falling tide, a series of
breaking waves, or even a bore.

Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26th December 2004

The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26th December 2004 is one of the most destructive Tsunamis
known to have hit India and 13 other countries in the Indian Ocean region. With a combined
toll of 238,000 casualties (including 51,500 people missing), and roughly more than 1.5
million people displaced in fourteen countries, this tsunami resulted in damage and
destruction of property, assets and infrastructure in the coastal areas. In India 10,749 people
lost their lives due to the tsunami and 5,640 people were missing in the Tsunami affected
areas.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 24

Tsunami Terminology
1. Arrival Time: Time of arrival of the first wave of a tsunami at a particular location. 2.
 Coastal Area: The area of land behind the sea coast up to the zero inundation line during
the estimated future tsunamis and beyond the coast in the sea requiring tsunami
management; the area on the landward side of the mean water line and the area up to 5m.
water depth on the seaward side of the mean water line.
3. Estimated Time of Arrival: Computed arrival time of the first wave of a tsunami at
the coast after the occurrence of specific major disturbance in the ocean like
earthquakes, landslides, volcanic activity in the ocean, meteorite impact on the ocean
surface, etc.
4. Far field Tsunami: A tsunami capable of widespread destruction, not only in the
immediate region of its generation, but across the entire ocean basin.
5. Green's Function: A type of function used to solve inhomogeneous differential
equations subject to boundary conditions.
6. Inundation Distance: The distance that a tsunami wave penetrates onto the shore,
measured horizontally from the mean water line.
7. Intensity: Intensity is the degree of damage caused by a tsunami.
8. Local Tsunami or Near- field Tsunami: A tsunami which has destructive effects
(confined to coasts within 200 Kms of the Source with arrival time less than 30
minutes). Near-Field Tsunami: A tsunami from a nearby source, generally less than
200 km or associated with a short travel time of less than 30 minutes.
9. Regional Tsunami: A tsunami capable of destruction in a particular geographic
region, generally within about1000 km of its source. Regional tsunamis also
occasionally have very limited and localized effects outside the region.
10. Tsunami: A Japanese term meaning "harbour wave", derived from the characters
"tsu" meaning harbour and "nami" meaning wave, to describe a system of ocean
gravity waves having a long wave length and period (time between crests), formed as
a result of large-scale disturbance of the sea caused by an earthquake.
11. Vulnerability Line: Vulnerability line is a setback line to be demarcated on the
coastal stretches, taking into account the vulnerability of the coast to natural and man
made hazards.

Do’s & Dont’s

Before & During
∙ Find out if your home is in the danger zone.

∙ Know the height of your street/house above sea level and the distance from the coast. ∙
People living along the coast should consider an earthquake or strong ground rumbling as
a warning signal.
∙ Try and climb a raised platform or climb the highest floor of any house or building
which you might see.
∙ Make evacuation plans and a safe route for evacuation.

∙ Stay away from the beach.

∙ Never go down near the beach to watch the Tsunami.

∙ Listen to a radio or television to get the latest information and be ready to evacuate if
asked to do so.
∙ If you hear an official warning, evacuate at once.

∙ Return home only after authorities advice it is safe to do so.

CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 25
After
∙ Stay tuned to the battery-operated radio for the latest emergency information.

∙ Help injured and trapped persons.

∙ Stay away from flooded and damaged areas until officials say it is safe to return.

∙ Enter your home with caution.

∙ Use flashlight when entering damaged houses.

∙ Check for electrical short circuit and live wires.

∙ Check food supplies and test drinking water.

CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 26

Volcanoes
A volcano is a vent or chimney which transfers molten rock known as magma from depth to
the Earth's surface. Magma erupting from a volcano is called lava and is the material which
builds up the cone surrounding the vent A volcano is active if it is erupting lava, releasing gas
or generates seismic activity. A volcano is dormant if it has not erupted for a long time, but
could erupt again in the future. Once a volcano has been dormant for more than 10 000 years,
it is termed extinct.
The explosiveness of a volcanic eruption depends on how easily magma can flow and the
amount of gas trapped within the magma. Large amounts of water and carbon dioxide are
dissolved in magma causing it to behave in a similar way to gas expanding in fizzy drinks,
which forms bubbles and escapes after opening. As magma rises quickly through the Earth's
crust, gas bubbles form and expand up to 1000 times their original size.
Volcanoes can be different in appearance with some featuring perfect cone shapes while
others are deep depressions filled with water. The form of a volcano provides a clue to the
type and size of its eruption which is controlled by the characteristics and composition of
magma. The size, style and frequency of eruptions can differ greatly, but all these elements
correlated to the shape of a volcano.

Three common volcanoes are:

Shield volcano When magma is very hot and runny, gases can escape and eruptions are
gentle with considerable amounts of magma reaching the surface to form lava flows. Shield
volcanoes have a broad, flattened dome-like shape created by layers of runny lava flowing
over its surface and cooling. Because the lava flows easily, it can move down gradual slopes
over great distances from the volcanic vents. The lava flows are sufficiently slow for humans
to outrun or outwalk them. This type of magma has a temperature between 800°C and
1200°C and is called basaltic magma.

Composite volcano (Strato) Also known as strato-volcanoes, these volcanoes are

characterised by an explosive eruption style. When magma is slightly cooler it is thick and
sticky, or viscous, which makes it harder for gas bubbles to expand and escape. The resulting
pressure causes the magma to foam and explode violently, blasting it into tiny pieces known
as volcanic ash. These eruptions create steep sided cones. They can also create lava flows, hot
ash clouds called pyroclastic flows and dangerous mudflows called lahars. This type of
magma has a temperature between 800°C and 1000°C and is called andesitic magma.

Caldera volcano These erupt so explosively that little material builds up near the vent.
Eruptions partly or entirely empty the underlying magma chamber which leaves the region
around the vent unsupported, causing it to sink or collapse under its own weight. The
resulting basin-shaped depression is roughly circular and is usually several kilometres or
more in diameter. The lava erupted from caldera volcanoes is very viscous and generally the
coolest with temperatures ranging from 650°C to 800°C and is called rhyolitic magma.
Although caldera volcanoes are rare, they are the most dangerous. Volcanic hazards from this
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 27

type of eruption include widespread ash fall, large pyroclastic surges and tsunami from
caldera collapse into oceans.

Volcanic hazards
Volcanic hazards include explosions, lava flows, bombs or ballistics, ash or tephra,
pyroclastic flows, pyroclastic surges, mudflows or lahars, landslides, earthquakes, ground
deformation, tsunami, air shocks, lightning, poisonous gas and glacial outburst flooding
known as jökulhlaups. Each hazard has a different consequence, although not all occur in all
eruptions or in association with all volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions are measured using a
simple descriptive index known as the Volcano Explosivity Index, which ranges from zero to
eight. The index combines the volume of material ejected with the height of an eruption
column and the duration of the eruption.

What Causes Volcanoes?

Volcanoes occur when material significantly warmer than its surroundings is erupted onto the
surface of a planet or moon from its interior. On Earth, the erupted material can be liquid rock
("lava" when it's on the surface, "magma" when it's underground), ash, cinders, and/or gas.
There are three reasons why magma might rise and cause eruptions onto Earth's surface.
Magma can rise when pieces of Earth's crust called tectonic plates slowly move away from
each other. The magma rises up to fill in the space. When this happens underwater volcanoes
can form. Magma also rises when these tectonic plates move toward each other. When this
happens, part of Earth's crust can be forced deep into its interior. The high heat and pressure
cause the crust to melt and rise as magma. A final way that magma rises is over hot spots.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 28

Hot spots are exactly what they sound like-hot areas inside of Earth. These areas heat up
magma. The magma becomes less dense. When it is less dense it rises. Each of the reasons
for rising magma are a bit different, but each can form volcanoes.

Do’s & Dont’s

Before a Volcano
There is usually plenty of warning that a volcano is preparing to erupt. Scientists monitor the
Cascade range volcanoes as well as those in Hawaii and Alaska for information to help
predict volcanic events. Many communities close to volcanoes now have volcano warning
systems to alert citizens. But, if you live anywhere in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho,
Utah, and possibly Wyoming and Nevada you may be affected by an eruption in the Cascade
range.
Taking a few precautions now won't cost much and are a good idea to do

anyway: ∙ Keep 3 extra air filters and oil filters on hand for your vehicle.

∙ Keep 3 extra filters for your home heating/cooling system.

∙ Keep a roll of plastic wrap and packing tape so you can wrap and protect computers,
electronics, and appliances from ash.
∙ Store emergency food and water in your home. Find out if your community has a
warning system and know the warning signs.
∙ Create an evacuation plan. It is best to head for high ground away from the eruption to
protect against flood danger.
∙ Define an out-of-town contact for all family members to reach to check in. ∙ Besides
your family emergency kit, have disposable breathing masks and goggles for each family
member.
∙ During an Eruption Much like a tsunami, a volcano is usually a sudden, explosive
disaster requiring immediate evacuation to a safer location. The rock debris,
pyroclastic flows, and floods will make the area around the volcano dangerous to
anyone that stays. The lower valleys will be most dangerous.
 ∙ Follow the directions of authorities.

∙ Take your family emergency kit and evacuate.

∙ Evacuate to an area upwind rather than downwind if possible.

∙ When evacuating, if you are in a valley, or close to a stream, or crossing a bridge,

check upstream for mudflows.
∙ A mud flow is extremely heavy and can destroy a bridge quickly. Take a different route

or get to high ground quickly - mudflows can be extremely fast too. ∙ If you are unable to
evacuate, Seek shelter indoors if possible.
∙ Close all windows and doors to keep ash out. Seal up drafts. Do what you can to keep
ash out.
∙ Seek higher ground - flash floods, mud, and poisonous gasses will accumulate in low
lying areas.
∙ Put on long pants, long-sleeved shirt, and hat.

∙ Wear a dust mask or wetted handkerchief to help filter ash.

∙ Leave your vehicles turned off until the eruption has ended and the dust can settle.
CH 3: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 29

∙ Ash destroyed many vehicle engines during the Mount St. Helens eruption.

After an Eruption There is still danger after an eruption even if there is no flowing lava. The
fact is, it may take years for the environment to recover from the changes caused by the
volcano. And, ongoing tremors and further eruptions may make the area uninhabitable for a
long time.
In the short-term, recovery and clean-up includes:
∙ Stay inside and listen for volcano information on your radio or tv.

∙ Minimize your movements and keep all windows and doors closed.

∙ Keep your skin covered with long pants, long-sleeved shirt and hat to avoid irritation
from ash.
∙ If you have to go outside, where a dust mask and eye goggles.

∙ Drive slowly and carefully with your lights on - the ash is slippery and stirring it up
will clog your enginge. If you do any driving in the ash, there is a good chance you
will destroy your engine. Change your oil and air filters after 100 miles at the most
when driving through heavy dust.
 ∙ Remove ash from your roof if you are concerned about its weight. More than 3 or 4
inches may be too much.
∙ Spray your yard with your water hose to dampen the ash. This helps keep it from
blowing around more.
∙ Use as little water as possible.

∙ Check with your neighbors to see what help they need.

∙ Shake off and remove your outdoor clothes in your garage before going inside. ∙

Use your vacuum to dust - dustrags will act like sandpaper rubbing the ash around. ∙

Check in with your emergency contact to let them know your status and plan. ∙
Check with authorities on guidelines for ash removal and disposal.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 30

CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters

FLOODS
Flood Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters. Conditions that cause
floods include heavy or steady rain for several hours or days that saturates the ground. Flash
floods occur suddenly due to rapidly rising water along a stream or low- lying area.

A flood is an excess of water (or mud) on land that's normally dry and is a situation wherein
the inundation is caused by high flow, or overflow of water in an established watercourse,
such as a river, stream, or drainage ditch; or ponding of water at or near the point where the
rain fell. This is a duration type event. A flood can strike anywhere without warning, occurs
when a large volume of rain falls within a short time.

Types of Floods

Flash Floods: Floods occurring within six hours, mainly due to heavy rainfall associated with
towering cumulus clouds, thunderstorms, tropical cyclones or during passage of cold weather
fronts, or by dam failure or other river obstruction. This type of flood requires a rapid
localized warning system.

River Floods: Floods caused by precipitation over a large catchment‟s area, melting of snow
or both. Built up slowly or on a regular basis, these floods may continue for days or weeks.
The major factors of these floods are moisture, vegetation cover, depth of snow, size of the
catchment’s basin, etc.

Coastal Floods:- Floods associated with cyclonic activities like Hurricanes, Tropical
cyclones, etc. generating a catastrophic flood from rainwater which often aggravate wind
induced storm and water surges along the coast.

Urban Flood: As land is converted from agricultural fields or woodlands to roads and
parking lots, it loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Urbanization decreases the ability to absorb
water 2to 6 times over what would occur on natural terrain. During periods of urban flooding,
streets can become swift moving rivers, while basements can become death traps as they fill
with water.

Ice Jam: Floating ice can accumulate at a natural or human-made obstruction and stop the
flow of water thereby causing floods. Flooding too can occur when there the snow melts at a
very faster rate.

Glacial Lake Outbursts Flood (GLOF): Many of the big glaciers which have melted
rapidly and gave birth to the origin of a large number of glacier lakes. Due to the faster rate of
ice and snow melting, possibly caused by the global warming, the accumulation of water in
these lakes has been increasing rapidly and resulting sudden discharge of large volumes of
water and debris and causing flooding in the downstream.

Characteristics of flood
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 31

Depth of water- Building foundations and vegetation will have different degrees of tolerance
to bring inundated water.

Duration – Damage to structures, infrastructure vegetation related to duration l of time with

water inundation.

Velocity – High velocities of flow create erosive forces, hydrodynamic pressure, which
destroy foundation supports and may occur on floodplains or in the main river channel.

Frequency of occurrence – The frequency of occurrence measured over period of time

determines types of construction or agricultural activities on the floodplain.

Seasonality – Flooding during a growing season destroy crops while cold weather, floods
seriously affect the community.

Causes of Floods

Inadequate capacity of the rivers to contain within their banks the high flows brought down
from the upper catchment areas following heavy rainfall, leads to flooding. The tendency to
occupy the flood plains has been a serious concern over the years. Because of the varying
rainfall distribution, many a time, areas which are not traditionally prone to floods also
experience severe inundation. Areas with poor drainage facilities get flooded by
accumulation of water from heavy rainfall. Excess irrigation water applied to command areas
and an increase in ground water levels due to seepage from canals and irrigated fields also are
factors that accentuate the problem of water-logging. The problem is exacerbated by factors
such as silting of the riverbeds, reduction in the carrying capacity of river channels, erosion of
beds and banks leading to changes in river courses, obstructions to flow due to landslides,
synchronisation of floods in the main and tributary rivers and retardation due to tidal effects.

The primary causes for Floods are:

1. Intense rainfall when the river is flowing full.

2. Excessive rainfall in river catchments or concentration of runoff from the
 3. tributaries and river carrying flows in excess of their capacities.
4. Cyclone and very intense rainfall when the EL Nino effect is on a decline.
5. Synchronization of flood peaks in the main rivers or their tributaries.
6. Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course.
7. Poor natural drainage system.
8. Backing water in tributaries at their confluence with the main river.

Flood Preparedness and Mitigation

Since ages, people have coped and learned to live with floods. They have generally settled in
areas away from flood and have adapted agricultural practices which can sustain in flood
waters. Traditional methods based on locally available resources have been used to minimize
the damages during flood. With the increase in population, flood prone areas have been
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 32

occupied and this is a principal factor in the huge losses presently seen. The various
mitigation measures for flood can be categorized into structural and non structural measures.

Regulation and Enforcement

Unplanned and unregulated developmental activities in the flood plains of the rivers and
encroachments into the waterways have led to increase in flood losses as well as flood risk.
The colossal loss of lives and property due to the flooding of the towns and cities and the
areas which get flooded almost every alternate year is a recent phenomenon and effective
steps are required for regulating unplanned growth in the flood plains and preventing
encroachment in the waterways.

Capacity Development

The capacity development covers the aspects of flood education, target groups for capacity
development, capacity development of professionals, training, research and development and
documentation with respect to flood management. The proposals for strengthening the
existing systems are also given therein. An action plan for capacity development has also
been formulated.

Flood Response

An effective and prompt response to floods is very important for minimising the loss of lives
and properties and providing immediate relief to the affected people. The role of communities
and NGOs is vital in search, rescue and relief operations. Immediate medical assistance to the
affected people and steps for prevention of outbreak of epidemics after the floods are
essential components of flood response. As per provisions of the DM Act, 2005, the GOI has
constituted National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for the purpose of specialised response
to disasters. Over and above this, a mechanism for coordinated approach and efforts are
required for effective response.

Structural Measures

Embankments

This has been one of the major structural approaches in which the river is restricted to its
existing course and prevented from overflowing the banks. Usually embankments are
constructed with earth but at some places masonry and concrete walls are also used. However
what is important is to note here that embankments are designed to provide a degree of
protection against flood of a certain frequency and intensity or a maximum recorded flood
depending on the location and economic justification.

During recent times, divergent views have emerged concerning effectiveness of embankment.
While there are serious concerns over their usefulness over a long time frame, there have also
been arguments in favor such as providing only road communication during flood seasons
and shelter in low lying areas. Studies on effectiveness of embankments conducted around
the world, have pointed out some of the problems such as poor congestion in protected areas,
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 33

silting of rivers which not only means rising river bed level and consequent decrease in
carrying capacity but also depriving neighboring agricultural land from fertile soil and ground
water recharge. There have also been concerns on the issue of embankment capacity to
withstand erosion.

Dams, Reservoirs and other Water Storage Mechanism

Dams, reservoirs and other water storages, both natural and man-made, are an effective
means for reducing the flood peaks in the rivers. The important role played by them in flood
moderation and comprehensive mechanism for the operation and regulation of reservoirs,
which takes into account the international, inter-state and inter-regional aspects, have been
dealt with in the fifth chapter. As large dams and reservoirs have potential for huge damage
guidelines for ensuring safety thereof have also been detailed therein. Channel Improvements
The aim of Channel Improvements is to increase the area of flow or velocity of flow or both
to increase carrying capacity. Normally this measure involves high cost and there are also
problems of topographical constraints to execute such a measure.

De-silting and Dredging of Rivers

The de silting approach is still to be perfected in the sense that various committees and expert
groups appointed by Government of India are yet to recommend this measure as an effective
mitigation strategy. However, selective de silting and dredging of rivers at
outfalls/confluences or local reaches can be adopted.

Drainage Improvement

This aims at construction of new channels or improving capacity of existing channels to

decongest and prevent flooding. However, what is important is to ensure that such an
approach do not cause congestion and flooding in downstream areas.

Diversion of Flood Water

This involves diverting all or part of flood water into natural or artificial constructed channels
which may be within or outside the flood plain. The diverted water may or may not be
returned to the river at a down stream. Usually effective to prevent flooding around cities, the
flood spill channel for Srinagar and the supplementary drain in Delhi are examples of this
approach.
Catchments Area Treatment

The aim in this approach is to provide protection to catchment areas through measures such
as afforestation which minimize siltation of reservoirs and silt load in the rivers. This can be a
very useful approach to control flood peaks and suddenness of run offs. Sea Walls/Coastal
Protection Works The construction of Sea walls and other such work, try to prevent flooding
from Sea water. These are highly cost intensive apart from the fact that complexity of sea
behavior and other environmental aspects should also be considered.

Non-Structural Measures
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 34

Flood Plain Zoning

The basic idea here is to regulate land use in the flood plain in order to restrict the damages. It
aims at determining the location and extent of areas for developmental activities so that
damage is minimized. It lays down guidelines for various types of development so that
adequate mitigation is built for the worst flood scenario. There can be different consideration
for preparing flood plain zoning for example, one can locate parks, playgrounds etc. for area
which have a up to 10 year frequency while prohibiting residential colonies, industries, etc.
and allowing residential and other public utilities with specific design guidelines in areas
which have a 25 year frequency.

Flood Forecasting and Warning

A nationwide flood forecasting and warning system is developed by Central Water

Commission (CWC) and this initiative has also been supplemented by states who make
special arrangements for strategically important locations in their states. The forecasts can be
of different types such as forecast for water level (stage forecast), discharge (flow forecast)
and area to be submerged (inundation forecast). The forecast when carries definite risk
information is called warning. The flood forecasting services involve collection of
hydrological data (gauge, discharge), meteorological data such as rainfall.

Flood Proofing

These are measures designed to minimize the impact when flood water comes such as raised
platform for shelter to population, cattle etc., raised platform for drinking water hand pumps,
bore wells above flood level, house/building architecture, provision for relocating vial
installation such as communication, power etc.

Flood Safety Tips

Do’s and Dont’s

Before and During

1. All your family members should know the safe routes to nearest shelter/raised pucca
house.
2. If your area is flood-prone, consider suitable flood resistant building materials. 3. Tune
 to your local radio/TV for warnings and advice. Have an emergency kit ready. 4. Keep dry
food, drinking water and clothes ready. Drink preferably boiled water. Keep your food
covered, don't take heavy meals.
5. Do not let children and pregnant woman remain an empty stomach.
6. Be careful of snakes, as snake bites are common during floods.

After
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 35

1. Pack warm clothing, essential medication, valuables, personal papers, etc. in

waterproof
2. bags, to be taken with your emergency kit.
3. Raise furniture, clothing and valuable onto beds, tables and in attic. 4. Turn off the main
electricity power supply. Do not use electrical appliances, which have
5. been in flood water.
6. Do not get into water of unknown depth and current.
7. Do not allow children to play in, or near flood water.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 36

Drought
It is difficult to provide a precise and universally accepted definition of drought due to its
varying characteristics and impacts across different regions of the world, such as rainfall
patterns, human response and resilience, and diverse academic perspectives. Drought is a
temporary aberration unlike aridity, which is a permanent feature of climate. Seasonal aridity
(i.e. a well-defined dry season) also needs to be distinguished from drought. Thus drought is a
normal, recurrent feature of climate and occurs in all climatic regimes and is usually
characterized in terms of its spatial extension, intensity and duration. Conditions of drought
appear when the rainfall is deficient in relation to the statistical multi-year average for a
region, over an extended period of a season or year, or even more.

Drought differs from other natural hazards such as cyclones, floods, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and tsunamis in that:
∙ No universal definition exists;

∙ Being of slow-onset it is difficult to determine the beginning and end of the event ∙
Duration may range from months to years and the core area or epicentre changes over
time, reinforcing the need for continuous monitoring of climate and water supply
indicators
∙ No single indicator or index can identify precisely the onset and severity of the event
and its potential impacts; multiple indicators are more effective
∙ Spatial extent is usually much greater than that for other natural hazards, making
assessment and response actions difficult, since impacts are spread over larger
geographical areas
∙ Impacts are generally non-structural and difficult to quantify
 ∙ Impacts are cumulative and the effects magnify when events continue from one season
or year to the next.

Types of Drought

Meteorological Drought is defined as the deficiency of precipitation from expected or

normal levels over an extended period of time. Meteorological drought usually precedes other
kinds of drought. According to the legend, meteorological drought is said to occur when the
seasonal rainfall received over an area is less than 25% of its long-term average value. It is
further classified as moderate drought if the rainfall deficit is 26–50% and severe drought
when the deficit exceeds 50% of the normal.

Hydrological Drought is best defined as deficiencies in surface and subsurface water

supplies leading to a lack of water for normal and specific needs. Such conditions arise, even
in times of average (or above average) precipitation when increased usage of water
diminishes the reserves. Agricultural Drought, usually triggered by meteorological and
hydrological droughts, occurs when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate during the crop
growing season causing extreme crop stress and wilting. Plant water demand depends on
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 37

prevailing weather conditions, biological characteristics of the specific plant, its stage of
growth and the physical and biological properties of the soil.

Agricultural drought thus arises from the variable susceptibility of crops during different
stages of crop development, from emergence to maturity. In India, it is defined as a period of
four consecutive weeks (of severe meteorological drought) with a rainfall deficiency of more
than 50% of the long-term average (LTA) or with a weekly rainfall of 5 cm or less from mid
May to mid-October (the kharif season) when 80% of India’s total crop is planted or six such
consecutive weeks during the rest of the year (NRSC, Decision Support Centre).

Prevention and Preparedness

Prevention and Preparedness means pre-disaster activities designed to increase the level of
readiness and improvement of operational and institutional capabilities for responding to a
drought. Drought prevention and preparedness involve water supply augmentation and
conservation (e.g. rainwater harvesting techniques), expansion of irrigation facilities,
effective dealing with drought, and public awareness and education. Transport and
communication links are a must to ensure supply of food and other commodities during and
just after a drought. Successful drought management requires community awareness on the
mitigation strategies, insurance schemes for farmers, crop contingency plans, etc.

Drought Safety Tips

Do’s and Dont’s
∙ Never pour water down the drain, use it to water your indoor plants or garden.

∙ Repair dripping taps by replacing washers.

 ∙ Check all plumbing for leaks and get them repaired.

∙ Choose appliances that are more energy and water efficient.

∙ Develop and use cop contingency plan to meet drought situation

∙ Plant drought-tolerant grasses, shrubs and trees.

∙ Install irrigation devices which are most water efficient for each use, such as micro and
drip irrigation.
∙ Consider implementing rainwater harvesting wherever it is suitable

∙ Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily

∙ Avoid letting the water run while brushing your teeth, washing your face or shaving.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 38

Cyclone

Tropical Cyclone (TC), also known as „Cyclone‟ is the term used globally to cover tropical
weather systems in which winds equal or exceed gale force‟ (minimum of 34 knot, i.e., 62
kmph). These are intense low pressure areas of the earth atmosphere coupled system and are
extreme weather events of the tropics. A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterised by a
large low pressure centre and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and
flooding rain.
Tropical cyclones feed on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of
water vapour contained in the moist air. The term „tropical‟ refers to both the geographic
origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and
their formation in maritime tropical air masses. The term „cyclone‟ refers to such storms‟
cyclonic nature, with counter clockwise rotation in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise
rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical
cyclone is called by many other names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic
storm, tropical depression and simply cyclone. While tropical cyclones can produce
extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are also able to produce high waves and
damaging storm surges. They develop over large bodies of warm water, and lose their
strength if they move over land. This is the reason for coastal regions receiving a significant
damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe from their effect.
Heavy rains, however, can produce significant flooding inland, and storm surges can produce
extensive coastal flooding up to 40 kilometres from the coastline.
Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can also
relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and
transport it toward temperate latitudes, which make them an important part of the global
atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain
equilibrium in the earth's troposphere, and to maintain a relatively stable and warm
temperature worldwide.

Classification of Tropical Cyclones

The criteria followed by Meteorological Department of India (IMD) to classify the low
pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal and in the Arabian Sea as adopted by World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO) are as under:
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 39

Destruction caused by Cyclones

There are three elements associated with cyclones which cause destruction during its
occurrence. These are:

Strong Winds/Squall: Cyclones are known to cause severe damage to infrastructure through
high speed winds. Very strong winds which accompany a cyclonic storm damages
installations, dwellings, communications systems, trees etc., resulting in loss of life and
property. Gusts are short but rapid bursts in wind speed are the main cause for damage.
Squalls on the other hand, are longer periods of increased wind speed and are generally
associated with the bands of thunderstorms that make up the spiral bands around the cyclone.
Torrential rains and inland flooding: Torrential rainfall (more than 30 cm/hour) associated
with cyclones is another major cause of damages. Unabated rain gives rise to unprecedented
floods. Rain water on top of the storm surge may add to the fury of the storm. Rain is a
serious problem for the people which become shelter less due to cyclone. Heavy rainfall from
a cyclone is usually spread over wide area and cause large scale soil erosion and weakening
of embankments.
Storm Surge: A Storm surge can be defined as an abnormal rise of sea level near the coast
caused by a severe tropical cyclone; as a result of which sea water inundates low lying areas
of coastal regions drowning human beings and life stock, causes eroding beaches and
embankments, destroys vegetation and leads to reduction of soil fertility.

Structural Mitigation Measures

An important aspect of cyclone risk reduction is to ensure availability of adequate numbers of
shelters, community centres/school buildings, places of worship, etc., which can be utilised
for moving people from vulnerable areas to safety. Besides this, the structural safety of
various lifeline infrastructure such as roads/culverts/bridges, communication and
transmission towers, power houses, water towers and hospitals will be ensured, so that the
communication system at all levels remains useable, the electricity and water supply systems
do not break down and adequate medical attention is possible. It has been identified that
design and maintenance considerations are the main focal points to be addressed which
would improve the cyclone preparedness.
This will cover:
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 40

∙ Buildings, including multi-purpose cyclone shelters

∙ Road links, culverts and bridges; canals, drains, and surface water tanks, etc.

∙ Saline embankments

∙ Communication towers and power transmission networks.

It is very important to provide safe shelters to protect human life at the time of cyclones.
Many cyclone shelters constructed earlier were not connected by all-weather roads with
nearby habitats from where affected people need to be shifted during emergency evacuation.
There is a need to improve the existing road network and provide at least one link road, in all
weather conditions, for each village that is accessible during cyclone or flooding periods as
well. The importance of coastal canals need not be over-emphasised as it serves as an
alternative to road communication in the event of a cyclone or flood. Failure of even well
engineered structures such as communication and transmission towers during past cyclones
brings the importance of the structural safety of such structures to the forefront.

Safety Tips Dos and Don’ts

Before and During
∙ Listen to radio or TV weather reports and alert everyone through a loud speaker or by
going home to home.
∙ Identify safe shelter in your area. These should be cyclone resistant and also find the
closest route to reach them.
∙ Keep your emergency kit and basic food supply, medicines, torch and batteries etc.
ready.
∙ Doors, windows, roof and walls should be strengthened before the cyclone season
through retrofitting and repairing.
∙ Store adequate food grains and water in safe places.

∙ Conduct Mock Drills for your family and the community.

∙ Do not venture into the sea. Stay Indoors under the strongest part of the house if not
moved to the cyclone shelter.
∙ Remain indoors until advised that the cyclone has passed away.
After
∙ Do not go out till officially advised that it is safe.

∙ If evacuated, wait till advised to go back. Use the recommended route to return to
your home. Do not rush.

∙ Be careful of broken powers lines, damaged roads and house, fallen trees etc.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 41

Avalanche
Snow cover on a slope tends to slide down the slope because of gravity. Conditions affecting
stability include the gravitational force component of the snow and resisting forces, such as
the frictional resistance of the slope or the anchoring effect of shrubs. In general, avalanches
are caused when this balance is lost and when the forces exceed the resistance. Avalanches
are rarely observed closely since they normally occur during a short time period of one or two
minutes.
Major Causes - Major causes of avalanches can be classified into fixed (prime factors) and
variable factors (exciting factors), such as weather conditions and the weight of the snow
cover, Avalanches occur when these factors are combined. The types and scale of avalanches
can differ depending on the combination of these various factors and their scale.

Types of Avalanches
1. Loose Snow Avalanche
2. Slab Avalanche
3. Ice Fall Avalanche
4. Cornice Fall Avalanches
5. Wet Avalanches
6. Glide Avalanches
7. Slush Avalanches

Safety Tips

Before crossing a slope where there is any possibility of an avalanche, fasten all your clothing
securely to keep out snow. Loosen your pack so that you can slip out of it with ease and
remove your ski pole straps. Make sure that your avalanche beacon is on and switched to
"transmit" rather than "receive." Cross the slope one at a time to minimize danger.

If you are caught in an avalanche

∙ Yell and let go of ski poles and get out of your pack to make yourself lighter. Use
"swimming" motions, thrusting upward to try to stay near the surface of the snow.
When avalanches come to a stop and debris begins to pile up, the snow can set as hard
as cement. Unless you are on the surface and your hands are free, it is almost
impossible to dig yourself out. If you are fortunate enough to end up near the surface
(or at least know which direction it is), try to stick out an arm or a leg so that rescuers
can find you quickly.
 ∙ If you are in over your head (not near the surface), try to maintain an air pocket in front
of your face using your hands and arms, punching into the snow. When an avalanche
finally stops, you may have only a few seconds before the snow sets up and hardens.
∙ Many avalanche deaths are caused by suffocation, so creating an air space is one of the
most critical things you can do. Also, take a deep breath to expand your chest and
hold it; otherwise, you may not be able to breathe after the snow sets. To preserve air
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 42

space, yell or make noise only when rescuers are near you. Snow is such a good
insulator they probably will not hear you until they are practically on top of you. ∙ Above
all, do not panic. Keeping your breathing steady will help preserve your air space and
extend your survival chances. If you remain calm, your body will be better able to
conserve energy.

Rescuing a victim
∙ Try to watch the victim as they are carried down the slope, paying particular attention
to the point you last saw them. After the avalanche appears to have finished and
settled, wait a minute or two and observe the slope carefully to make sure there is no
further avalanche danger. If some danger does still exist, post one member of your
party in a safe location away from the avalanche path to alert you if another avalanche
falls.
∙ When traveling with a large party, you may want to send someone for help immediately
while the rest of you search. If you are the only survivor, do a quick visual search. If
you don't see any visual clues, and you don't have transceivers, then go for help.
∙ Begin looking for clues on the surface (a hand or foot, piece of clothing, ski pole, etc.),
beginning with the point where they were last seen. As you move down the slope,
kick over any large chunks of snow that may reveal clues. Since equipment and items
of clothing may be pulled away from a victim during an avalanche, they may not
indicate their exact location, but can help determine the direction the avalanche
carried them. Mark these spots as you come across them. Be sure that all rescuers
leave their packs, extra clothing, etc., away from the search area so as not to clutter or
confuse search efforts.
∙ Once the victim is found, it is critical to unbury them as quickly as possible. Survival
chances decrease rapidly depending on how long a victim remains buried. Treat them
for any injuries, shock, or hypothermia if necessary.
∙ If you lost sight of the victim early during the avalanche, or if there are no visible clues
on the surface, mark where the victim was last seen. Look at the path of the snow and
try to imagine where they might have ended up. For those wearing avalanche
transceivers, switch them to "receive" and try to locate a signal.
∙ For those using probes, begin at the point the victim was last seen at. Or if you have a
 good idea of where they were buried, begin in that area. Stand in a straight line across
the slope, standing shoulder to shoulder. Repeatedly insert the probes as you move
down slope in a line. Pay particular attention to shallow depressions in the slope and
the uphill sides of rocks and trees, since these are terrain traps where they may have
been buried.
∙ It may be necessary to probe certain areas more than once if you don't locate the victim
the first time around, but this takes more time and decreases the victim's chances for
survival. Similar to using transceivers, this method of rescue is much more effective if
those involved have experience or have practiced finding buried victims using probes.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 43

∙ After searching for clues, or using transceivers and/or probes, still does not reveal the
location of the victim, it may be time to rely on outside help. Nearby ski resorts will
be staffed with personnel experienced to handle these situations. They will have
equipment to locate the victims and dig them out (if your party did not bring shovels
or probes), and they may also have avalanche dogs that can help find victims. Ski area
patrollers will also have first aid equipment, but unfortunately, by the time they can
usually reach out of bounds avalanche accidents, too much time has elapsed to save
the victim.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 44

Heat Wave
A heat wave is typically defined as a period of excessively hot weather. Heat wave is thought
of as being generally uncomfortably hot for the population and may adversely affect human
health for those vulnerable to such conditions. However, threshold conditions for a heat wave
vary across India and around the world. A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot
weather, which may be accompanied by high humidity. There is no universal definition of a
heat wave; the term is relative to the usual weather in the area. Temperatures that people from
a hotter climate, consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are
outside the normal climate pattern for that area. The term is applied both to routine weather
variations and to extraordinary spells of heat which may occur only once a century. Severe
heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures, thousands of deaths from hyperthermia,
and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning. The definition
recommended by the World Meteorological Organization is when the daily maximum
temperature of more than five consecutive days exceeds the average maximum temperature
by 5 °C (9 °F), the normal period being 1961 - 1990.

Criteria for Heat Waves

Severe heat wave: Departure of maximum temperature by 5°C for regions where normal
temperature is above 40°C; +7°C for regions where normal maximum is less than 40°C. ∙
Heat Wave: Departure of maximum temperature by 3 to 4°C or more for regions above
40°C.
∙ Heat Index: A number in degrees Fahrenheit (F) that tells how hot it feels when
 relative humidity is added to the air temperature. Exposure to full sunshine can
increase the heat index by 15 degrees.
∙ Heat Cramps: Muscular pains and spasms due to heavy exertion. Although heat
cramps are the least severe, they are often the first signal that the body is having
trouble with the heat.
∙ Heat Exhaustion: It typically occurs when people exercise heavily or work in a hot,
humid place where body fluids are lost through heavy sweating. Blood flow to the
skin increases, causing blood flow to decrease to the vital organs. This results in a
form of mild shock. If not treated, the victim's condition will worsen. Body
temperature will keep rising and the victim may suffer heat stroke.
∙ Heat Stroke: Heat stroke life-threatening condition. The victim's temperature control
system, which produces sweating to cool the body, stops working. The body
temperature can rise so high that brain damage and death may result if the body is not
cooled quickly.

Effects
∙ Heat-related illness is Hyperthermia, also known as heat stroke.

∙ Heat Cramps

∙ Heat syncope is believed to result from intense sweating, which leads to dehydration

∙ Severe Sunburn

∙ Mortality
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 45

Preparedness
To prepare for extreme heat, you should:
1. Install window air conditioners snugly; insulate if necessary.
2. Check air-conditioning ducts for proper insulation.
3. Install temporary window reflectors (for use between windows and drapes), such as
aluminum foil-covered cardboard, to reflect heat back outside.
4. Weather-strip doors and sills to keep cool air in.
5. Cover windows that receive morning or afternoon sun with drapes, shades, awnings, or
louvers. (Outdoor awnings or louvers can reduce the heat that enters a home by up to
80 percent.)

Heat Wave Safety Do's and Don’ts

Before:
∙ Install temporary window reflectors, such as aluminum foil-covered cardboard, to
reflect heat back outside.
 ∙ Cover windows that receive morning or afternoon sun with drapes, shades. ∙ Listen to
local weather forecasts and make yourself aware of upcoming temperature changes.
∙ Know those in your neighborhood who are elderly, young, sick or overweight. They are
more likely to become victims of excessive heat and may need help.
∙ Get trained in first aid to learn how to treat heat-related emergencies.
During:
∙ Never leave children or pets alone in closed vehicles. Stay indoors as much as possible
and limit exposure to the sun.
∙ Stay on the lowest floor out of the sunshine.

∙ Eat well-balanced, light and regular meals.

∙ Drink plenty of water; even if you do not feel thirsty.

∙ Persons with epilepsy or heart, kidney, or liver disease; are on fluid-restricted diets; or
have a problem with fluid retention should consult a doctor before increasing liquid
intake.
∙ Protect face and head by wearing a hat or cloth.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 46

COLD WAVE

A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air.

Specifically, as used by the U.S. National Weather Service, a cold wave is a rapid fall in
temperature within a 24 hour period requiring substantially increased protection to
agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities. The precise criterion for a cold wave is
determined by the rate at which the temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls. This
minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year.

Criteria for cold wave

Severe Cold Wave: -5 C deviation from normal for regions where normal temperature is less
than 10.
Cold Wave: Departure of minimum temperature by -3 to -4 C from normal where normal
minimum temperature is less than 10 C.

Safety Tips Do’s and Don’ts

Before and During

∙ Keep ready the Emergency Kit along with snow shovels, wood for your fireplace and
adequate clothing.
∙ Listen to local Radio Station for weather updates.
 ∙ Stay indoors; minimize travel.

∙ Keep dry.

∙ Change wet clothing frequently to prevent loss of body heat.

∙ Watch for symptoms of frostbite like numbness, white or pale appearance on fingers,
toes, ear lobes, and the tip of the nose.
∙ Maintain proper ventilation when using kerosene heaters or coal oven to avoid toxic
fumes.
∙ Go to a designated public shelter, if your home loses power or heat during extreme
cold.
∙ Protect yourself, from frostbite and hypothermia by wearing warm, loose fitting,
lightweight clothing in layers.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 47

FOREST FIRES
The word “wildfire” originated as a synonym for Greek fire, a napalm-like substance used in
medieval Europe as a naval weapon. Forests face many hazards but the most common hazard
is fire. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime of fauna
and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity, the ecology and environment of a region.
During summer, when there is no rain for months, the forests become littered with dry
senescent leaves and twigs, which would burst into flames ignited by the slightest spark. The
Himalayan forests particularly Garhwal Himalayas of Uttaranchal State have been burning
regularly during the last few summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of that region.
Forest fires can be either natural or controlled and caused by heat generated in the litter and
other biomes in summer through carelessness of people (human neglect). Sometimes, forest
fires are intentionally or purposely caused by local inhabitants for their selfish motives.

Causes
Forest Fires are, not an unusual phenomenon, they occur regularly, especially in summers,
throughout the world. Forest fires can broadly be classified into three categories: 1. Natural or
controlled forest fires.
2. Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer through
carelessness of people (human neglect)
3. Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.

Many forest fires start from natural causes such as “Lightning” which set trees on fire.
Periodic lightning induced fires have been recorded throughout history from India, South
eastern and Central United States, Australia, Finland and Eastern and Southern Africa. Most
forest fires are the result of human neglect caused by casual throwing away of a smoldering
bidi, cigarette butt or a spark from a picnicker's open hearth in a desiccated forest can often
be sufficient to start a fire in summer. Such fires usually start on the ground as the dry litter
(senescent leaves and twigs) catches fire easily. Then, flamed by strong winds, the flames
soon engulf vast tract forest turning them to ashes and, therefore, cause extensive damage
unless controlled in time

Do’s and Don’ts:

What to do BEFORE and DURING Fire:
∙ Try to maintain FOREST BLOCKS to prevent dry litter from forests during summer
season.
∙ Try to put the fire out by digging or circle around it by water, if not possible to call a
Fire brigade.
∙ Move farm animals and movable goods to safer places.

∙ During fire listen regularly to Radio for advance information and obey the instructions
cum advice.
∙ Forests Officials, Local people and Tribals living in Forests should play a constructive
role before, during and after the fire of the Forest.
CH 4: Hydro-Meteorological Disasters 48

∙ Follow the effective monitoring and warning systems (including remote sensing for
curing or drying out of vegetation).
∙ Teach the causes and harm of fire to your family and others.

∙ Do not be scared when a sudden fire occurred in the Forest, be calm, encourage others
and community to overcome the problem patiently.
∙ Do apply seasonal mitigation measures i.e. Fuel reduction.

∙
What one should not do:
∙ One should not throw smouldering cigarette butt or bidi in the forests.

∙ Do not leave the burning wood sticks.

∙ Don’t enter the forest during the fire.

∙ Do not leave the dry litter during summer season.

∙ Tribals should not use Slash and Burn method indiscriminately on large scale.
CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER 49

CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER

CHEMICAL DISASTERS
Industrial disasters are disasters caused by chemical, mechanical, civil, electrical or other
process failures due to accident, negligence or incompetence, in an industrial plant which
may spill over to the areas outside the plant or with in causing damage to life, property and
environment. Chemical disasters are occurrence of emission, fire or explosion involving one
or more hazardous chemicals in the course of industrial activity (handling), storage or
transportation or due to natural events leading to serious effects inside or outside the
installation likely to cause loss of life and property including adverse effects on the
environment. These accidents involved chemicals like chlorine, ammonia, LPG and other
Hazardous chemicals.

Following the Bhopal Gas Disaster in 1984, major incidences of chemical disasters in India
include:

∙ A fire in an oil well in Andhra Pradesh (2003).

∙ A vapour cloud explosion in the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited

∙ Refinery (HPCL), Vishakhapatnam (1997).

∙ An explosion in the Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited (IPCL)

∙ Gas Cracker Complex, Nagothane, Maharashtra (1990).

Causes

Industrial (chemical) hazards are threats to people and life-support systems that arise from the
mass production of goods and services. When these threats exceed human coping capabilities
or the absorptive capacities of environmental systems they give rise to industrial disasters.
Industrial hazards can occur at any stage in the production process, including extraction,
processing, manufacture, transportation, storage, use, and disposal. Losses generally involve
the release of damaging substances (e.g. chemicals, radioactivity, genetic materials) or
damaging levels of energy from industrial facilities or equipment into surrounding
environments. This usually occurs in the form of explosions, fires, spills, leaks, or wastes.
Releases may occur because of factors that are internal to the industrial system (e.g.
engineering flaws) or they may occur because of external factors (e.g. extremes of nature).
Releases may be sudden and intensive, as in a power-plant explosion, or gradual and
extensive, as in the build-up of ozone-destroying chemicals in the stratosphere or the
progressive leakage of improperly disposed toxic wastes

Causes of Chemical Disaster

CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER 50

A number of factors could trigger chemical accidents, some of which are Process and Safety
Control System Failures: (1) Technical errors (2) Human errors, Natural calamities: For
example, Release of acrylonitrile at Bhuj, during earthquake in 2001, and damage to
Phosphoric acid sludge containment during Orissa Supercyclone in 1999 and Terrorist
attacks/Sabotage.

Sources of Chemical Disasters

The sources could be Manufacturing and Formulation Facility (including during

Commissioning and Process Operation, Maintenance, Disposal and Waste Management),
Material Handling and Storage, Bulk Storages in manufacturing facilities and isolated
storages (including tank farms in Ports and Docks), Storages of Small Containers. In
manufacturing facilities, in isolated warehouses and godowns, Storage of Fuels (LPG Depots
etc.) and Pipelines, and Transportation (road, rail, air and waterways)

Impact

The impact from such emergencies may range from death, injury, physiological health effects
and losses, damage to environmental resources, like land/soil, land- use, water
bodies/resources, air-quality and movements, local-climate, crops/forests and bio-products,
disruption of environmental services, e.g. water supply, aesthetic

and recreation, environmental and public health, sanitation, garbage management, damage
and losses to structures, buildings, machines/equipment, facilities, psychological trauma,
stress and lack of well-being, insurance losses, and economic losses related to disruption of
productivity, wages, remuneration, incentives, increase in vulnerability to other hazards
including natural and environmental exposures and/ or law and order instability, community
outcries, litigations and public governance disruption.

Preparedness Strategies

Chemical disaster management has two major components, viz.

(a) Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

(b) Emergency Preparedness, Response and litigations.

In order to effectively organize the preparedness and responses to likely chemical

emergencies, an objective, systematic, written and applicable plan need to be in place at
different levels, viz. the industry, local, district, state and Central level. Development of
policy directives, guidelines and strategic tools, [Link] (EIA, Audit, LCA, Risk
Analysis, Multi-hazard vulnerability analysis), fiscal (PLI, Cess, Levi), market based
CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER 51

(labeling, ISO), planning (on-site and off- site, carrying capacity based developmental
planning, land-use governance, industrial estate planning, site selection), enforcement (law,
rules, protocols), policy (industrial ecology,) and voluntary arrangements are to be made
more integrated, practical and effective.
A holistic risk management framework for chemical-disaster prevention and management,
thus, is a multi-disciplinary state of affairs, involving expertise from hard and soft disciplines
of environmental studies; as mentioned below:

Off-site perspectives: geo-hydrology, atmospheric science, geography/land-use/ regional

planning, geo-informatics, disaster risk mitigation, environmental law, emergency planning,
emergency medicine system, socio-psychological and trauma care, emergency
communication, etc.

On-site perspectives: environmental system, chemistry, process engineering, incident-control

system, fire, occupational health care and emergency medical system, internal transport,
communication, etc.
CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER 52

NUCLEAR DISASTERS (Other Including Human Made)

The occurrence of nuclear or radiological disaster is of the great concern. It is accompanied

with sudden release of huge amount of harmful radiations or radioactive materials (Isotopes
of Cesium, Cobalt, Iridium, Iodine, Srontium, Uranium, Plutonium etc.) or both together in
environment in a small area. It is described as a disaster caused due to an extraordinary
emission of radioactive material or radiation either through explosion of a nuclear bomb or in
the operation of nuclear reactors and other nuclear related activities.

Causes

Intentional Use of Nuclear Weapons in the event of war: With the advancementof scientific
research, several countries have acquired the technology to produce Nuclear Arms, which are
more destructive and harmful than the atom bomb used more than half a century ago. Nuclear
bombs have openly been used twice, both times by the United State against Japan during
World War II (1939-1945). On August 6, 1945, the city of Hiroshima was almost completely
destroyed, and three days later the city of Nagasaki was bombed. Accidental Explosion of
Nuclear Weapons: Nuclear weapons are designed with great care to explode only when
deliberately armed and fired. Nevertheless, there is always a possibility that, as a result of
accidental circumstances, an explosion will take place inadvertently and such accidents might
occur in areas where weapons are assembled and stored, during the course of loading and
transportation on the ground, or when actually in the delivery vehicle, e.g., an airplane or a
missile. Accidents in Nuclear Power Project: There is also a risk of accidental exposure to
harmful radiation from the several nuclear reactors used for generation of power. The
potential threat from an accident at a nuclear power plant is exposure to radiation which
would occur from the release of radioactive material into the environment and the area
affected would depend on the amount of the release, wind direction and speed and weather
conditions. Terrorist Attacks or Dirty Bombs: Through use of 'Radiological Dispersion
Device' (ROD), an expedient weapon, wherein radioactive material is disseminated by using
conventional explosives and debris is subsequently scattered across the targeted area. Also
through other modes like attack of the nuclear power plant or facility using or processing
radioactive material via air craft strike or bombardment with heavy munitions or sabotage
(Source: India Disaster Knowledge Network Portal, 2008 [Link]

Response

The emergency response actions will focus on reducing the effects of immediate effect that
shall comprise- fire, destruction, damaged vegetation, dead, wounded human beings and
animals, psychological phobia. This demands judicious planning, and multi-faceted
preparations that shall include store management, training, communication and command, etc
surmount the nuclear emergency.
CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER 53

Do’s and Don’ts

Do’s:

∙ Plug ears, save skin from heat, put on head gear, know the explosion site and go away
from ground zero, breath normally, stay calm.
∙ Lie down on ground with face down - head away from ground zero, cover face with
handkerchief. It will avoid internal contamination
∙ If in shelter, close doors/windows, switch off AC and remain inside, evacuate, relocate,

fallout may continue for more than 24 hours depending upon weather. ∙ Go underground
to reduce external radiation and avoid external contamination. (Wet sand and 30 cm earth
give 20 P.F.).
∙ If contaminated, remove clothes and put them in poly bags, take showers, stay in
tunnels, trenches, foxholes, tents vehicles decontaminate food or areas. (Covered
items like bread, butter, jam can be consumed after removing wrapper.
∙ Put on mask to avoid inhaling contaminated air.

∙ Put on protective suits, if available help injured. Become part of rescue team. ∙
Consume Bio-protectors like KI, KIO3, Beer, Tulsi, Arnica, Caffein, Diltiazem, Vitamin
C/E, podophylum.
∙ Get treatment for burn, cut and other injuries.

∙ Keep monitoring radiation level/radiation dose

Don'ts:

∙ Do not look at blinding flash, don’t go in to cloud/rain/fog.

∙ Do not run or get panicky.

 ∙ Do not spread rumours.

∙ Do not crowd the site: Keep away.

∙ Do not crowd hospitals/road/areas.

∙ Know the explosion site and do not go in downwind direction.

∙ Do not go to radioactive contaminated area.

∙ Do not remain in open air. Water is a good neutron shield.

∙ Do not spread radioactive contamination (External and Internal).

CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER 54

Industrial Disasters
Industrial hazards consist of four principle hazards. The hazards encountered are fire,
explosion, toxic release and environmental damage. This is because industries engage in
different processes involving a wide range of different raw materials, waste products and
final products. Danger originates from technological or industrial accidents, dangerous
procedures, infrastructure failures or certain human activities. It may cause the loss of life or
injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.

Fire: This is the most frequent hazard. Fire can also produce toxic fumes like Acrolein,
Carbon monoxide and Cyanides. Physical structures can be damaged either by the intensity of
the heat or combustion. It may also have an effect on essential services like power and
instrumentation.

Explosion: Explosions is the result of a shock wave. This overpressure can kill people but
usually the indirect effects of collapsing buildings, breaking of glasses and falling of debris
causes far more loss of life and severe injuries. There are different types of explosions which
include gas explosions and dust explosions. Gas explosions occur when a flammable gas
mixes with air. Dust explosions occur when flammable solids, especially metals, in the form
of fine powders are intensively mixed with air and ignited.

Chemical release: Sudden release of toxic vapours has the potential to cause death and
severe injuries several kilometres from the release point. They are carried by water and air.
Their release into public sewage systems, rivers, canals and other water courses, either
directly or through contaminated water used in fire fighting can result in serious threat to
public. The number of casualties depends on the weather conditions, population density in the
path of the cloud and the effectiveness of the emergency arrangements.

Environmental Damage: Release of other substances, not directly toxic to humans can cause
major pollution problems. It is becoming increasingly recognized that damage to natural
resources such as plant and animal life can have serious long term consequences. E.g.
destruction of trees is increasing the effect of global warming and extinction of animals are
severely disrupting food webs and causing an increase in pests.

Means of reducing the industrial hazards

Process of Safety Management: Reliability assessment of process equipment, incorporating
safety tips, scrubbing system, etc, should be done before effecting major process changes.

Safety Audits: Periodical assessment of safety procedures, performance of safety systems

and gadgets along with follow up measures should be carried out.

Emergency Planning: A comprehensive risk analysis indicating the impact of consequences

and practiced emergency procedures should be done. This can be done by communities as
well as national or regional corporation authorities.

Training: Proper training of employees and protective services should be done.

CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER 55

Factors causing industrial emergency are:-on-site emergency

Human error which are acts of omission or commission by an operator, designer,
constructor or other person creating a hazard that could possibly result in a release of
hazardous or flammable material.

Equipment failure: in which a mechanical, structural or operating failure results in the

release of hazardous or flammable material.

External Events in which items outside the unit being reviewed affect the operation of the
unit to the extent that the release of hazardous or flammable material is possible.

External events include upsets on adjacent units affecting the safe operation of the unit (or
node) being studied, loss of utilities, and exposure from weather and seismic activity

Technical errors are due to

1. design against internal pressure was not based on the worst-case scenarios 2. relief
valve sizing is based on the single-phase flow, which underestimates the sizing of the
relief valves
3. Back pressure is not considered in the sizing of the relief system
4. stress analysis calculations have not been taken into consideration
5. standard specifications are not adhered to in the design phase, e.g. the separating
distance between the high risk facilities, and between the high risk facility and other
facilities, and the drainage system and final discharge location
6. lack of consideration of alarms to warn the operator in case of any deviations from the
normal operation
7. High-risk spots were not identified by detailed process hazard analysis
8. failure of the instrument to detect the operation deviation
9. The reliability of control system was not considered in many instances.

Warnings are the signals to the organization’s management that the plant is not operating in
safe conditions.
 ∙ Internal warnings are those errors that occur at the organization and appear as mistakes,
violations, near misses, accidents, etc.
∙ External warning sare those mistakes, and accidents, which occur at similar
organizations and the recommendations from an inspection authority.

Hazard and operability study (HAZOP) is a structured and systematic examination of

existing process or operation in order to identify and evaluate problems that may represent
risks to personnel or equipment.
CH 5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTER 56

Assembly point is a pre-determined place, which is safe and away from the plant. In case of
emergency, personnel evacuated from the affected areas are to be assembled •Alarm system
varies and will depend on the size of the works area. Simple fire bell, hand operated siren –
break open type, fire alarm etc. Automatic alarm may be needed for highly hazardous nature
of plant.

Communication is a key component to control an emergency. Walky Talky and Telephone

(internal & external & satellite phone) are mandatory for a plant.

Siren for emergency should be different from the normal siren. The emergency siren should
be audible to a distance of 5 KM radius. The emergency siren should be used only in case of
emergency.

Evacuation of all non-essential staff should be carried from the emergency site. As soon as
the emergency siren rings the workers have to shut down the plant and move to the assembly
point. The plant shut down procedure in case of emergency should be prepared and kept
ready and responsible person should be nominated for the purpose.

∙ Escape route from each and every plant should be clearly marked. The escape route is
the shortest route to reach out of the plant area to open area, which leads to assembly
point.
∙ Counting of Personnel: Time office person should collect the details of personnel
arriving at the assembly point. These should be checked with the attendances of
regular workers, contract workers present in the site on the day of emergency.
∙ All Clear Signal: After control of emergency the Work Incident Controller will

communicate to the works main controller about the cessation of emergency. ∙ Mutual
Aid System: should be introduced among industries so that in case of emergency
necessary help from mutual aid partner may be extended
∙ Off-site Emergency Plan: shall be prepared by the District Collector in consultation
with the factory management and Govt. agencies.