Animal & plant cells
Animal cell structure
The main features of animal cells:
o They contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
o Cells do not have cellulose cell walls
o Their cells do not contain chloroplasts (so they are unable to carry out photosynthesis)
o They contain carbohydrates stored as glycogen
Animal cell diagram
Plant cell structure
The main features of plant cells:
o They contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
o Cells have cell walls made out of cellulose
o They contain chloroplasts (so they can carry out photosynthesis)
o Carbohydrates are stored as starch or sucrose
Plant cell diagram
Plant and animal cell structure and function
Structure Function
Nucleus Contains the DNA (genetic material) which controls the activities of the cell
A gel like substance composed of water and dissolved solutes
Cytoplasm Supports the internal structures of the cell
Site of many chemical reactions (including anaerobic respiration)
Holds the cell together separating the inside of the cell from the outside
Cell membrane
Controls which substances enter or leave the cell
Found in the cytoplasm
Ribosomes
The site of protein synthesis
Mitochondria The site of aerobic respiration
Plant cell structure and function
Structure Function
Made of cellulose (a polymer of glucose)
Cell wall
Gives the cell extra support, defining its shape
Contains the green chlorophyll pigment that absorbs light energy
Chloroplast
for photosynthesis
Contains cell sap: a solution of sugar and salt
Permanent vacuole Used for storage of certain materials
Helps to support the shape of the cell
Bacteria cells
Bacteria cell structure
Bacteria, which have a wide variety of shapes and sizes, all share the following biological
characteristics:
o They are microscopic single-celled organisms
o Possess a cell wall (made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose), cell
membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes
o Lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA that floats in the cytoplasm
o Plasmids are sometimes present - these are small rings of DNA (also floating in the
cytoplasm) that contain extra genes to those found in the chromosomal DNA
o They lack mitochondria, chloroplasts and other membrane-bound organelles found in
animal and plant cells
Some bacteria also have a flagellum (singular) or several flagella (plural). These are long, thin,
whip-like tails attached to bacteria that allow them to move
Examples of bacteria include:
o Lactobacillus (a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk)
o Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia)
Bacteria cell diagram
Identifying cell structures & function
Within the cytoplasm, the following organelles are visible in almost all cells except prokaryotes
when looking at higher magnification (ie using an electron microscope):
o Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles found throughout the cytoplasm
o Ribosomes are tiny structures that can be free within the cytoplasm or attached to a
system of membranes within the cell known as Endoplasmic Reticulum
o Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes looks rough under the microscope; this
gives rise to its name of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (often shortened to R.E.R.)
o Vesicles can also be seen using a higher magnification - these are small circular
structures found moving throughout the cytoplasm
Producing New Cells
The cells in your body need to be able to divide to help your body grow and repair itself
Cells grow and divide over and over again
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
Specialised Cells
Specialised cells in animals
Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics in order to perform
particular functions. These differences are controlled by genes in the nucleus
Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: this is a process by which cells develop the
structure and characteristics needed to be able to carry out their functions
Specialised Cells in Animals Table
Examples of specialised cells in plants:
Levels of Organisation in an Organism
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Most incorrect answers here come from not being able to identify a tissue, so it’s worth making sure you
understand and remember that tissues are always made up of only one type of cell.
Magnification Formula
Calculating magnification and specimen size using millimetres as units
Magnification is calculated using the following equation:
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
A better way to remember the equation is using an equation triangle:
Rearranging the equation to find things other than the magnification becomes easy when you
remember the triangle - whatever you are trying to find, place your finger over it and whatever
is left is what you do, so:
o Magnification = image size / actual size
o Actual size = image size / magnification
o Image size = magnification x actual size
Remember magnification does not have any units and is just written as ‘x 10’ or ‘x 5000’
Examiner Tips and Tricks
This skill most frequently comes up in paper 5 and 6 (although it also comes up in the multiple choice
and occasionally the theory paper) and you will definitely have to calculate either magnification,
drawing size or actual size in a least one paper. To ensure you do not lose marks:
1. Always look at the units that have been given in the question - if you are asked to measure
something, most often you will be expected to measure it in millimetres NOT in centimetres -
double check the question to see!
2. Learn the equation triangle for magnification and write it on the page straight away
3. Don’t forget that magnification has NO UNITS - students often lose a mark because they put one
in
Converting Between Units: Extended
Extended Tier Only
Using millimetres and micrometres as units
The table below shows how millimetres are related to two other measures of length
What this basically means is that 1mm = 1000µm and 1cm = 10,000µm
This usually comes up in questions where you have two different units and you need to ensure
that you convert them both into the same unit before proceeding with the calculation
For example:
1mm = 1000µm and 1cm = 10,000µm