14 Semiconductor

Electronics: Materials,
CHAPTER
Devices and Simple
Circuits

Level - 1 CORE SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ) (1 Mark)

1. Option (D) is correct. ne = Concentration of electrons

Explanation: The number of electrons available for Here,
conduction in a doped semiconductor depends on Concentration of antimony or electrons
factors:
= 1 ppm with Si-atoms
(A) Doping level: Higher doping levels introduce
1
more charge carriers. = 6 × 5 × 10 28 m −3
10
(B) Increase in ambient temperature: At higher
temperatures, more electrons from the valence ne = 5 × 1022 m–3
band gain enough energy to jump to the Concentration of the holes = nh = 4.5 × 109 m–3.
conduction band, increasing conductivity. Now, the concentration of charge carriers in Si-crystal
2. Option (B) is correct. (ni).

Explanation: When ‘‘Ge’’ tetra-valent is doped with ni = ne × nh
‘‘As’’ pentavalent element, the four electrons of ‘As’
makes covalent bond with four neighbouring ‘‘Ge’’. ni = 5 × 10 22 × 4.5 × 10 9
atoms and extra electron of ‘‘As’’ remains free. These
free electrons are known as conduction electrons. ni = 22.5 × 10 31
Therefore, due to this doping the number of free
electrons or conduction electrons increases. = 15 × 1015 m–3
3. Option (C) is correct. ni = 1.5 × 1016 m–3

Explanation: To have n-type ‘Si’, the intrinsic ‘Si’ is 7. Option (C) is correct.
doped with pentavalent element as As, P and Sb. Explanation: When an AC source is connected in series
4. Option (B) is correct. with a p-n junction diode and a load resistor. The circuit
works as half wave rectifier which allows +ve cycle

Explanation: When a p-n junction diode is connected of AC voltage i.e. half cycle of AC voltage. Therefore,
in reverse-bias, the width of depletion increases as well the graph of option (C) is a correct representation of
as value of potential barrier (barrier height increases). output voltage across the load resistances.
5. Option (B) is correct. 8. Option (B) is correct.

Explanation: When Si or Ge is doped with pentavalent Explanation: When an intrinsic semiconductor is
impurity then the extra electron resides on the donor doped with a small amount of trivalent impurity, three
level which is 0.5eV for Si and 0.01eV for Ge below the valence electrons of a dopant atom form covalent
Conduction bank. Hence to set the electron free i.e. to bonds with three neighbouring tetravalent semicon-
send it to conduction band required energy is 0.05eV. ductor atoms. To form the fourth covalent bond, an
electron is drawn from an existing covalent bond,
6. Option (B) is correct. creating a hole there. Thus a free hole becomes avail-
Explanation: ni2 = ne × nh
able and the semiconductor becomes p type extrinsic
semiconductor.
ni = Concentration of charge carrier in intrinsic semi-
conuctor. 9. Option (D) is correct.
nh = Concentration of holes
Explanation: Since, the donor energy level (ED) is lo-
cated just below the conduction band (EC). This energy
 gap (EC – ED) is relatively small as order 0.05 eV to 0.01 (1.5 × 1016 )2
eV for n-type Si. Now, ne = m −3
4.5 × 10 22
10. Option (C) is correct.
1.5 × 1.5 × 10 32
Explanation: ne × nh = ni2
=
4.5 × 10 22
Where, ne = number density of electrons
= 0.5 × 1010 m–3
nh = number density of holes
ne = 5.0 × 109 m–3
ni = number density of intrinsic charge carriers
13. Option (C) is correct.
Here, ni = 1.2 × 1015 m–3, nh = 4 × 1020 m–3, ne = ?

Explanation: The width of the depletion region leads
Now, ne × 4 × 1020 = (1.2 × 1015)2
to potential barrier. When a p-n junction diode is
1.2 × 1.2 × 10 30 connected in reverse bias, the width of the depletion
ne =
20
4 × 10 region as well as the potental barrier increases.
9 –3 14. Option (A) is correct.
ne = 3.6 × 10 m
11. Option (B) is correct.
Explanation: In forward biasing, the p-side of diode is

Explanation: During the formation of p-n junction, the connected to +ve terminal of a battery or a cell and
electrons from n-region diffuse across the junction into n-side of diode to the –ve terminal of a battery or a cell.
the p-region and holes from the p-region diffuse across Therefore in the circuit the diode (p-n junction diode)
the junction into the n-region and recombine. This is in forward biasing.
diffusion and recombination of electrons and holes Since the threshold voltage of the given diode 0.7 V is
leave behind immobile ionized dopant atoms near to greater than applied voltage 0.5V, the diode will not
the junction. This region is called depletion region. conduct. Therefore the current in the circuit will be
12. Option (C) is correct. zero or 0A.
Explanation: Since, ne × nh = ni2
15. Option (D) is correct.
Where, ni = Concentration of intrinsic charge carrier
Explanation: During the formation of p-n junction, the
nh = the concentration of holes diffusion current and drift current are reached at equi-
librium. At equilibrium, the net current through the
ne = the concentration of electrons
junction is zero. The diffusion current is not constant
Here, ni = 1.5 × 1016 m–3
which is decreasing over the time and drift current is
nh = 4.5 × 1022 m–3 not constant which increases till then the both current
ne = ? become equal.

ASSERTION-REASON QUESTIONS (1 Mark)

1. Option (D) is correct. band, increasing charge carriers and conductivity. So

Explanation: Since, the conduction band is always the temperature coefficient of resistance is negative.
above to the valence band. Thus, the electrons in the The charge carriers in metals are free electron, whereas
conduction band passess higher energy than the elec- in the p-type semiconductor are positively charged
trons in the valence band. Therefore, the assertion is ‘‘holes’’ in majority.
false.
Therefore, the assertion and reason both are true but
Since the donar energy level are located just below the
reason does not explain assertion.
conduction band. Therefore, the reason is true.
3. Option (A) is correct.
2. Option (B) is correct.

Explanation: In the extrinsic semiconductor (n-type

Explanation: In metals, resistance increases with tem-
perature due to increase in atomic vibrations hinder- or p-type) the charge of charge carrier is balanced by
ing electron flow. So the temperature coefficient of charge on dopant. So the n-type or p-type semicon-
resistance is positive. In semiconductors, resistance ductor are electrically neutral crystal. Therefore, the
decreases with temperature because more thermal assertion and reason both are true and reason explains
energy promotes electrons to jump to the conduction the assertion correctly.
 4. Option (A) is correct. tron-hole pairs. i.e. more charge carriers. It increases

Explanation: On increasing the temperature of intrinsic conductivity and decreases resistance. Therefore, the
assertion and reason both are true and reason explain
semiconductor the thermal energy increases, due to
which more electrons being excited jump from the assertion correctly.
valence band to the conduction band, creating elec-

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 Marks)

1. (i) Decreases: 3.(i)
Justification: An acceptor energy level is formed
just above the top of the valence band.

Forward biasing

(ii) Decreases:
Justification: A donor level is formed just below
the bottom of conduction band.
Alternatively:

EC
{ ED
 0.01 eV
Electron energy

(ii) I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias:

Eg

EV

2. ni = Concentration of intrinsic charge carrier

nh = the concentration of holes
ne = the concentration of electrons 4. Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconduc-
Here, ni = 1.5 × 1016 m-3 tor (Any one)
Concentration of boron or holes
nh = 1 ppm with Si-atoms Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor
= 10-6 × 5 ×1028 1. Pure semiconductor. Semiconductor is doped
with impurities.
nh =5 × 1022 m-3
nenh = ni2 2. L ow conductivity at High conductivity at
room temperature. room temperature.
ni2
ne = 3. ne = nh ne ≠ nh
nh
5. The diffusion current due to concentration gradient at
(1.5 × 1016 )2 the junction forms a space charge region consisting of
ne =
5 × 10 22 immobile charge carriers. Due to this an electric field
is generated at the junction giving rise to drift current
ne = 4.5 × 109 /m3 in a direction opposite to diffusion current.
nh > ne, it is a p-type crystal.
The potential at which diffusion current becomes equal
to drift current is called potential barrier.
 6.

0.01 – 0.5 eV

(a) n-type semiconductor (b) p-type semiconductor

7. (i) Due to strong current, a junction diode gets heated, biased condition makes it suitable for rectifying alter-
consequently large number of covalent bonds are nating voltages.
broken and the junction is damaged.
The half-wave rectifier gives output only for half of
(ii) Deliberate addition of impurity atoms in intrinsic
the input cycle. The full-wave rectifier gives output
semiconductor increases its conductivity and con-
verts it to suitable extrinsic semiconductor. Thus it for both the halves of the input cycles.
becomes suitable for making electronic devices. Half wave rectifier uses only one diode. But two diodes
8. p-n junction’s ability to conduct in only in forward are used in full wave rectifier.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 Marks)

1. (i) X = Full wave rectifier (ii)

Y = Filter

Vp
Output of X
t
Output of waveform

Due to Due to
(across RL)

Due to D2 Due to D2
D1 D1
Vp
Output of Y t t

2. (i)
Electron energy

C.B.
Electron energy

C.B.

Acceptor level
Acceptor level

V.B.
V.B.

At 0K temperature At room temperature

(ii) Answer will be (a) When the switch is open, the bulb
will glow.
As when the switch is closed, the diode will be
forward biased and current will by-pass the bulb.
3.
Micro ammeter

Reverse biasing
Salient features:

(i) Forward biasing: After threshold voltage or
When input voltage at A with respect to the centre
cut in voltage diode current increases sig-
tap at any instant is positive, at that instant voltage
at B, will be negative. So, during the positive half nificantly (exponentially), even for a small
cycle diode D1 gets forward biased and conducts increase in the diode bias voltage.
while diode D2 gets reverse biased and does not
(ii) Reverse biasing: Current is very small (~µA)
conduct.
and almost remains constant and it increases
Hence during positive half cycle an output current
and output voltage across RL is obtained. rapidly after breakdown voltage.
During second half of the cycle when voltage at A 5. (i) Energy band diagram for a insulator:
becomes negative with respect to centre tap, the
voltage at B would be positive. Hence D1 will be
reverse biased and D2 will be forward biased. So,
during negative half cycle also an output current
and output voltage in the same direction across
RL will be obtained.
We get output voltage in both positive and nega-
tive half cycles.

(ii) Energy band diagram for a semiconductor:

Waveform at B Waveform at A

t (iii) Energy band diagram for a conductor:
(Output waveform

Due to Due to Due to Due to

across RL)

D1 D2 D3 D4 Conduction and
valance band
t overlapping

4. The circuit diagrams for obtaining the V – I charac-

teristics of a p-n junction diode in forward biasing 6. (i) A p-n junction diode is suitable for use as a rectifier
: due to its unidirectional conductivity. This means
it allows current to flow easily in one direction
(forward bias) while blocks current flow in the
opposite direction (reverse bias).
(ii)

Forward biasing
The circuit diagrams for obtaining the V – I charac-
teristics of a p-n junction diode in reverse biasing :
 When input voltage at A, with respect to the centre giving an output current and output voltage across
tap at any instant is positive, at that instant voltage RL in the same direction. Thus output voltage is
obtained during both halves of the cycle.
at B, will be negative, diode D1 gets forward biased
7. (i) Charge of additional charge carriers is just equal
and conducts while D2 being reverse biased does
and opposite to that of the donor / acceptor ions.
not conduct. Hence during positive half cycle an
(ii) Under equilibrium, the diffusion current is equal
output current and output voltage across RL is to the drift current.
obtained. During second half of the cycle when
(iii) Reverse current is limited due to concentration
voltage at A becomes negative with repect to centre
of minority charge carriers on either side of the
tap, the voltage at B would be positive. Hence D1
will be reverse biased but D2 will be forward biased junction.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

1. (i) With proper level of doping, the number of con- (ii) V-I characteristic.

duction electrons can be made much larger than I(mA)
the number of holes. Due to this conductivity of Forward bias
the doped crystal increases.

EC
{ ED
 0.01 eV
V
Electron energy

Eg

EV
Reverse bias I(A)
This diagram shows that the diode conducts when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse
biased. This characteristics makes it suitable for use
(ii) Two processes for rectification.
(a) Diffusion, (b) drift (iii) In carbon, the valence electrons are tightly bound

Diffusion: Due to concentration gradient major- in the second shell, making them unavailable for
ity charge carrier that is electron moves from n → conduction. So, carbon is an insulator. In silicon
p side and holes to p → n side. This movement of valence electrons are in the third shell are are more
charges is called diffusion. easily available. So, silicon is a semiconductor.
Drift: Due to the junction field, an electron on 3. The circuit diagrams for obtaining the V – I charac-
p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole teristics of a p-n junction diode in forward biasing:
on n-side of the junction moves to p-side. The
Voltmeter (V)
motion of the charge carrier due to electric field
is called drift.
(iii) (1) decreases.
(2) increases. p n
2. (i)
Milliammeter
(mA)
Switch
(i)
The circuit diagrams for obtaining the V – I charac-
teristics of a p-n junction diode in reverse biasing :

Working: When the input voltage to A with respect

to the centre tap at any instant is positive then the
voltage at B will be negative. So diode D1 gets for-
ward biased and conducts, while D2 being reverse
biased does not conduct. Similarly during second Micro ammeter
half of the cycle polarity get reversed so only D2
conducts. In both the cases an output current and
output voltage across RL in the same direction is
obtained. (ii)
 I(mA) Forward bias (i) Majority carrier injection: Under forward bias

electrons from n-side cross the depletion region

and reach p-side. Similarly, holes from p-side cross

V
the junction and reach the n-side.

(ii) Breakdown voltage: It is the voltage reverse bias

Reverse bias I(A) for which reverse current increases sharply.

ADVANCED COMPETENCY
Level - 2 FOCUSED QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs) (1 Marks)

1. Option (A) is correct. V 10 10 × 3 30 3

I = = = = = A
Explanation: At equilibrium, the diffusion current Rtotal 140 140 140 14
3
and drift current balance each other exactly:
3. Option (D) is correct
Idiffusion = Idrift
Explanation: For positive cycle, anode of D1 gets
Thus, the net current is zero, but both drift and positive voltage and the anode of D2 gets zero
diffusion currents exist and are equal in magnitude. voltage. So, no current flows. For negative cycle,
2. Option (D) is correct. anode of D1 gets zero voltage and the anode of D2
gets negative voltage. So, no current flows.
Explanation: D1 is forward biased. D2 is reversed
4. Option (D) is correct
biased. The total resistance in the circuit: Explanation: Given:
200 • Initial energy of the electron = 0.9 eV
Rtotal = 40 + • Potential barrier = 0.7 eV
30
The energy of the electron when it reaches the
140 p-side will be:
Rtotal = Ω Energy on p-side = Initial energy − Potential barrier
3
= 0.9 eV − 0.7 eV = 0.2 eV
The total current in the circuit is given by Ohm’s So, the energy of the electron when it just diffuses
Law: to the p-side is 0.2 eV.

ASSERTION-REASON QUESTIONS (1 Mark)

1. Option (A) is correct. higher conductivity. Reason (R) is true and correctly

Explanation: In an n-type semiconductor, the explains the assertion.
majority carriers are electrons, while in a p-type 2. Option (D) is correct.
semiconductor, the majority carriers are holes. Explanation: An n-type semiconductor is electrically
Since electrons have higher mobility than holes, neutral as a whole. However, although there are
extra free electrons available for conduction, the
n-type silicon has a higher conductivity compared
overall charge of the material remains neutral
to p-type silicon for the same doping concentration.
because the positively charged nuclei of the dopant
So, Assertion is true.
atoms balance the negative charge of the extra
The electrons in the conduction band (free electrons. So, the assertion is false.
electrons) are less tightly bound than those in Silicon has 4 valence electrons, while an n-type
the valence band. The “holes” we talk about in dopant (such as phosphorus or arsenic) has 5
semiconductors are not actual particles, but rather valence electrons.
a concept representing the absence of an electron - The extra valence electron becomes a free electron,
in the valence band. The mobility of electrons (μe) is increasing conductivity.
significantly higher than that of holes (μh) in silicon. - This correctly describes why n-type semiconductors
For the same doping level, an n-type material has have extra electrons for conduction.
more mobile charge carriers (electrons), leading to Therefore, the reason is correct.
 VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 Marks)

1. Intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 2.4 × 1013 cm–3 V = VR + VD

Donor concentration ND = 12 × 1017 cm–3 VR = 2 – 0.7 = 1.3 V
Number of electrons = 12 × 1017 cm–3
At cut-in voltage the current through the diode is
1mA
ni2 V

Number of holes = \
Rmax = R
ND I
(2.4 × 1013 )2 1.3

Number of holes = Rmax =
(12 × 1017 ) 1 × 10 −3

= 4.8 × 108 cm–3
= 1.3 × 1000 = 1300 W
Hence, at 1000 W the diode will operate above its cut-

2. (i) Since the concentration of electrons increases in voltage.
on doping, it makes germanium an n-type
5. In circuit I:
semiconductor.
Hence, Q is a pentavalent element.
VD1 = 0.3 V
(ii) Doped semiconductor is n-type. One electron is
VD2 = 0.7 V
provided by 1 donor atom, Q.
So, Vo = 10 – VD1 – VD2 = 10 – 0.3 – 0.7 = 9 V
Concentration of Q atoms = 6 × 1022 m–3 V 9
ID = o = = 2.25 mA
Ratio of Q atoms and germanium in doped R 4 × 10 −3
6 × 10 22
In circuit II:
semiconductor = = 1 : 10 8
6 × 10 30
D1 is forward biased whereas D2 is reverse biased,
3. The concentration of the holes never becomes equal this means that the overall circuit is open circuit.
in the p-region and n-region and hence diffusion
So ID = 0
current does not become zero. Vo = 0
This is because as the holes diffuse into the n-region V
they recombine with the electrons. Hence, the 6. (i) Electric field =
d
decrease in the concentration of holes from the
V = E.d = 16 × 105 × 500 × 10–9 volt = 0.8 volt
p-region to the n-region is maintained by the
recombination of holes and electrons. (ii) (a) if the junction is unbiased :
KE required = 0.8 eV
4. We shall find the maximum value of R for which
(b) if the junction is forward biased at 0.5 V
the diode operates at a voltage just above its cut-in
voltage. KE required = (0.8 – 0.5) eV = 0.3 eV
Since the diode and resistor are connected in series (c) if the junction is reverse biased at 0.5 V
we get, KE required = (0.8 + 0.5) eV = 1.3 eV

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 Marks)

1. (i) The potential drop across the 30 Ω resistor = 30 × connected in series to the diode, the voltage drop
10 × 10–6 V = 300 ×10–6 = 0.0003 V across the resistor will be: 4.2 – 0.2 = 4 V
Potential drop across the diode = 3 – 0.0003 4
Current through resistor & diode = I =
= 2.9997 V 1000
(ii) The diode is reverse-biased in the circuit
= 0.004 = 4 mA. The diode does not burn out in
this case.
(ii) When a battery of 6.2 V and resistor of 0.6 k-ohm
connected in series to the diode, the voltage drop
across the resistor will be: 6.2 – 0.2 = 6 V
p-n junction diode 6
Current through resistor & diode = I =
600
= 0.01 A = 10 mA.
2. (i) The given non-ideal diode causes a voltage drop The diode will burn out in this case as the current
of 0.2 V. exceeds the maximum safe limit of 8 mA.
So when a battery of 4.2 V and resistor of 1 k-ohm 3. (a) Only D2 will be conducting.
 (b) D1 will offer infinite resistance (open circuit). D2 (c) Voltage across R and S = 12 V
will offer zero resistance (forward biased) V1 + V2 = 12
Equivalent circuit will be : (here V1 is p.d across 1 k ohm and V2 is p.d across
+ 2 k ohm)
V1 R1 1
R Also = =
V2 R2 2

2V1 = V2
1 k Substituting and solving,
3 k V1 = 4 V
V2 = 8 V
P These will be output voltages across 1kΩ and 2kΩ
Vi
respectively.
2 k The output voltage across 3 kΩ, will be same as
that of Vi that is, 12 V.

– S

CASE BASED QUESTIONS (4 Mark)

1. (i) Option (A) is correct. Explanation: For –5V – 0V, the diode remains
Explanation: A full-wave rectifier inverts the nega- reverse biased and does not conduct. So, the
tive half-cycles of the AC waveform, making the output remains 0V.
entire waveform positive. When voltage increases above 0V, the diode
The RMS value of the rectified output voltage is conducts and corresponding output becomes
given by: available.
2. (i) Option (B) is correct.
∫ T0 / 2 (V0 sin ωt )
2
V0
Vrms = = Explanation: In germanium, the typical donor
T/2 2
ionization energy is around 0.01 eV.
(ii) Option (B) is correct. (ii) Option (D) is correct.
Explanation: During the positive half-cycle of the Explanation: ni = 2.0 × 1010 × 106 = 2.0 × 1016 m–3
AC input, one diode conducts while the other is
nh = 8.0 × 103 × 106 = 8.0 × 109 m–3
reverse-biased.
Apply mass action law
During the negative half-cycle, the roles of the
diodes switch: the previously conducting diode is [Link] = ni2
now reverse-biased, and the other diode conducts. ne × (8.0 × 109) = (2.0 × 1016)2
This means each individual diode conducts only ne × 8.0 × 109 = 4.0 × 1032
during one half-cycle of the input signal. 4.0 × 10 32
ne =
(iii) Option (C) is correct. 8.0 × 10 9
Explanation: During the positive half-cycle of the ne = 5.0 × 1022 m–3
AC input, one diode conducts while the other is
(iii) (a) Option (C) is correct.
reverse-biased.
Explanation: As electrons move into the p-region,
During the negative half-cycle, the roles of the
they recombine with holes, leaving behind posi-
diodes switch: the previously conducting diode is
tively charged donor ions in the n-region.
now reverse-biased, and the other diode conducts.
As holes move into the n-region, they recombine
(iv) (a) Option (B) is correct.
with electrons, leaving behind negatively charged
Explanation: A half-wave rectifier allows only one acceptor ions in the p-region.
half-cycle (either positive or negative) to pass and
This results in a depletion region, where no free
blocks the other half. charge carriers exist, and an electric field develops
This means that for every full cycle of AC input, that opposes further diffusion
only one pulse appears in the output. OR
As a result, the output retains the same frequency (b) Option (A) is correct.
as the input, which is 50 Hz. Explanation: Due to the concentration gradient,
electrons from the n-region diffuse into the
OR p-region, and holes from the p-region diffuse into
(b) Option (D) is correct. the n-region.
 This movement of charge carriers causes a large 2pf = 100p
diffusion current initially. 100 π
(iv) Option (D) is correct. f = = 50 Hz
2π
Explanation: The applied AC voltage is:
V = 0.5 sin(100 pt) For Half-Wave Rectifier: Output frequency = 50
Comparing with the standard sine wave equation: Hz.
V = V0 sin(2pft) For Full-Wave Rectifier: Output frequency = 2 ×
We see that: 50 Hz = 100 Hz.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

1. During the positive half cycle, diodes D1 and D3 Total resistance = 3R

conduct while D2 does not. The circuit can be redrawn Power delivered = 1/2(V2/3R)
as follows: Total power delivered = 1/2(V2/R) + 1/2(V2/3R)
2R
= 2V2/3R
2. (a) Semiconductor
R
The valence electrons will gain energy equal to or
more than Eg and jump from the valence band
R
onto the conduction band.
With the rise in temperature of the semiconductor,
the conductivity increases due to increase in the
number of electrons Ne in the conduction band.
From the expression, vd = I/NeeA , as Ne increases,
Total resistance = R the drift speed vd of the electrons decreases.
Power delivered = 1/2(V2/R) (b) Temperature coefficient of resistivity of material X

During the negative half cycle, diodes D1 and D3 do is negative.
not conduct while D2 conducts. The effect of an increase in the number of charge
The circuit can be redrawn as follows: carriers (electrons and holes) exceeds the effect
2R
of increased lattice thermal vibrations, hence the
resistivity decreases with the rise in temperature
R of material X.