1.

Plate Tectonic Theory

Plate tectonics posits that Earth's outer shell, known as the lithosphere, is divided into rigid plates that move
over the semi-fluid asthenosphere. The movement of these plates is responsible for various geological
phenomena, including earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain formation, and ocean-floor features.

Evidence Supporting Plate Tectonics:

- Matching Coastlines(Fits like puzzles): The coastlines of Africa and South America appear to fit together like
puzzle pieces.
- Fossil Distribution: Similar fossils found on widely separated continents.
- Magnetic Stripe Patterns: Symmetrical patterns of magnetic stripes on either side of mid-ocean ridges.
- Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Concentrated along plate boundaries.

Driving Forces:
- Convection current: Heat from the Earth's interior causes convection currents in the mantle.

2. Continental Fit Theory

Proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 1900s, this theory suggests that continents were once joined
together in a supercontinent called Pangaea.

Evidence:
- Similar Rock Types and Structures: Identical geological formations across continents.
- Matching Fossils: Fossils of species like Mesosaurus found on different continents.
- Past Glacial Deposits: Evidence of glaciation in now-tropical regions.

Wegener's theory lacked a mechanism, which was later explained by plate tectonics through seafloor
spreading and mantle convection.

3. Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Earthquakes and volcanoes predominantly occur along plate boundaries:

- Convergent Boundaries: Characterized by trenches, volcanic arcs, and deep, strong earthquakes.
- Divergent Boundaries: Associated with mid-ocean ridges, shallow earthquakes, and volcanic activity.
- Transform Boundaries: Feature shallow but strong earthquakes with minimal volcanism.

The Philippines is situated on the Pacific "Ring of Fire," which is rich in subduction zones, faults, earthquakes,
and active volcanoes.

4. Plate Movement

Plates can move in three primary ways:

- Divergent: Plates move apart, leading to the creation of new crust.
- Convergent: Plates collide, resulting in subduction zones or mountain formation.
- Transform: Plates slide horizontally past each other, causing displacement.

Plate movements typically occur at rates of a few millimeters to centimeters per year.

5. Types of Plate Boundaries

1. Divergent : Plates move apart, allowing magma to rise and form new crust. Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

2. Convergent : Plates collide, leading to subduction (oceanic-continental) or mountain building (continental-

continental). Example: Himalayas.

3. Transform : Plates slide past each other, resulting in earthquakes without significant volcanism. Example:
San Andreas Fault.

6. Earthquake Seismic Waves

Body Waves:
- P-waves (Primary, Compressional): Fastest seismic waves, can travel through solids, liquids, and gases;
motion is parallel to wave direction.
- S-waves (Secondary, Shear): Slower than P-waves, can only travel through solids; motion is perpendicular to
wave direction.

Surface Waves:
- Love Waves: Exhibit horizontal shearing motion.
- Rayleigh Waves: Produce a rolling, up-and-down motion.

Destructiveness: Surface waves are the most destructive due to their large amplitude and ground motion.
The order of arrival is P → S → Surface.

7. Earth’s Interior

1. Crust: The outermost layer, which is thin and divided into oceanic (thin, dense) and continental (thick,
light) crust.

2. Mantle: Composed of solid rock that behaves plastically; the asthenosphere allows for the movement of the
lithosphere.

3. Core: Divided into the outer core (liquid iron-nickel) and inner core (solid iron-nickel).

Seismic waves have revealed Earth's internal structure: P-waves can travel through all layers, while S-waves
are stopped by the liquid outer core.
8. Earth Mechanics

- Subduction: Occurs when an oceanic plate is forced under a continental plate at convergent boundaries.

- Convection Currents: Heat-driven circulation in the mantle that moves tectonic plates; hot magma rises
while cooler magma sinks.

9. Seismic Destructiveness

- Most Destructive: Surface waves (Love and Rayleigh).

- P-waves: Fastest but least destructive.

- S-waves: More destructive than P-waves but less so than surface waves.

10. Evidence of Plate Movement According to Alfred Wegener

Alfred Wegener proposed several lines of evidence to support his theory of continental drift, which later
contributed to the development of plate tectonics

Evidence:
- Fossil Correlation: Identical fossils of species, such as Mesosaurus, were found on continents that are now
widely separated by oceans.

- Geological Similarities: Similar rock formations and mountain ranges (e.g., the Appalachian Mountains in
North America and the Caledonian Mountains in Scotland) indicate that these landmasses were once
connected.

- Glacial Deposits: Evidence of past glaciation found in now-tropical regions suggests that these continents
were once located closer to the poles.

- Fit of the Continents: The coastlines of continents, such as Africa and South America, fit together like pieces
of a jigsaw puzzle.

11. Subduction and Convection

Subduction:
Subduction occurs at convergent plate boundaries where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another. This
process leads to the formation of deep ocean trenches and volcanic arcs.

- Mechanism: The denser oceanic plate subducts beneath the lighter continental plate, leading to melting of
the subducted plate and the formation of magma, which can result in volcanic activity.

Convection:
Convection is the process by which heat from the Earth's interior causes the movement of mantle material.
- Mechanism: Hot magma rises towards the surface, cools, and then sinks back down, creating convection
currents that drive the movement of tectonic plates.

12. Earth's Interior: Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

Lithosphere:
- Description: The lithosphere is the rigid outer layer of the Earth, comprising the crust and the uppermost
part of the mantle.
- Composition: It is primarily composed of silicate rocks, including:
- Continental Crust: Granitic rocks (less dense, thicker).
- Oceanic Crust: Basaltic rocks (denser, thinner).

Asthenosphere:
- Description: The asthenosphere lies beneath the lithosphere and is composed of semi-fluid rock that can
flow slowly.
- Composition: It consists of partially molten rock

Summary of Earth's Layers:

- Crust: Thin, solid outer layer (continental and oceanic).

- Mantle: Divided into the lithosphere (rigid) and asthenosphere

- Core: Composed of the outer core (liquid iron-nickel) and inner core (solid iron-nickel).