LECTURE NOTES

Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines

[Link], 4th Semester, ME

Collected by:
Dr. Chinmay Deheri
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VikashInstitute ofTechnology, Bargarh

(ApprovedbyAICTE,NewDelhi&AffiliatedtoBPUT,Odisha)
BarahagudaCanalChowk,Bargarh,Odisha-768040
[Link]
 DISCLAIMER

 This document does not claim any originality and cannot be

used as a substitute for prescribed textbooks.

 The information presented here is merely a collection by Dr.

Chinmay Deheri with the inputs of students for their respective
teaching assignments as an additional tool for the teaching-
learning process.

 Various sources as mentioned at the reference of the document

as well as freely available materials from internet were
consulted for preparing this document.

 Further, this document is not intended to be used for

commercial purpose and the authors are not accountable for
any issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this
document.

 The author makes no representations or warranties with respect

to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this
document and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

*******
 COURSE CONTENT
Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines
[Link], 4thSemester, ME

 Module I {PageNo. 5}

Introduction: Scope of fluid mechanics; Properties of fluids (density, specific

gravity, specific weight, specific volume, surface tension and capillarity,
viscosity, compressibility and bulk modulus); Fluid classification
Fluid Statics: Pressure, Pascal’s law, Pressure variation for incompressible
fluid,Atmospheric pressure, Absolute pressure. Gauge pressure and vacuum
pressure, Manometers, Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces, Force on a
horizontal submerged plane surface, force on a vertical submerged plane
surface, Buoyancy and flotation, Archimedes’ principle, Stability of immersed
and floating bodies, Determination of metacentric height.

 Module II {PageNo. 31}

Fluid Kinematics: Introduction, Description of fluid flow, Classification of fluid

flow, Reynolds number, Acceleration of fluid flow, Flow rate, Continuity
equation, Differential equation of continuity, Mathematical description of
irrotational and rotational flow, Circulation, Potential function and stream
function, Flow net.

 Module III {PageNo. 31}

Fluid Dynamics: Introduction to Navier Stokes equation, Non-dimensional

numbers, Euler’s equation along a streamline, Energy equation, Bernoulli’s
equation and its application to venturimeter, Orificemeter, Pitot tube and siphon,
Flow in pipes and ducts, Hydraulic gradient lines (HGL), Total energy line
(TEL), Power transmission in fluid flow through pipes, Fluid flow in pipes in
series and parallel.

 Module IV {PageNo. 81}

Impact of Jets: Flat, inclined and curved plates with stationary and moving
cases.
Hydraulic Turbines: Classifications, Impulse and Rection turbines, Efficiency
and performance curves.
Reaction Turbines: Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine, velocity triangle and
efficiencies, performance curve, Function of draft tube and casing cavitation.
*******
 Module V {PageNo. 130}

Centrifugal Pump: Constructional features, Vane shapes, Velocity triangles,

efficiencies, Multistaging, Pump characteristics, NPSH and Cavitation.
Positive Displacement Pumps: Reciprocating pumps, Working principles,
Discharge, Work done and Power requirement, Slip, Indicator diagram.

REFERENCES

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, (Autonomous
Institution-UGC, Govt. of India), Secunderabad-500100, Telangana State,
India.
 Fluid Mechanics, [Link],Publisher: TMH.
 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, Modi and Sheth.
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines, [Link] and G.
Biswas, TMH.
 Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines, A. K. Jain, Khanna Publications.
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Fox, McDonald, Willey Publications.
 An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, G.K. Batchelor, Cambridge
University Press.
 Fluid Mechanics, J.F. Douglas, J.M. Gasiorek, J.A. Swaffield and L.B.
Jack, Pearson Education.

*******
 UNIT 1
FLUID STATICS
Course Objective:

To give insight knowledge on fluid statics

Course Outcome:

Students will gain the knowledge on fluid mechanics fundamentals like fluid statics.

INTRODUCTION:
Fluid Mechanics is basically a study of:
1) Physical behavior of fluids and fluid systems and laws governing their behavior.
2) Action of forces on fluids and the resulting flow pattern.
Fluid is further sub-divided in to liquid and gas. The liquids and gases exhibit different
characteristics on account of their different molecular structure. Spacing and latitude of the motion
of molecules is large in a gas and weak in liquids and very strong in a solid. It is due to these aspects
that solid is very compact and rigid in form, liquid accommodates itself to the shape of the
container, and gas fill up the whole of the vessel containing it.
Fluid mechanics cover many areas like:
1. Design of wide range of hydraulic structures (dams, canals, weirs etc) and machinery
(Pumps, Turbines etc).
2. Design of complex network of pumping and pipe lines for transporting liquids. Flow of water
through pipes and its distribution to service lines.
3. Fluid control devices both pneumatic and hydraulic.
4. Design and analysis of gas turbines and rocket engines and air–craft.
5. Power generation from hydraulic, stream and Gas turbines.
6. Methods and devices for measurement of pressure and velocity of a fluid in motion.
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS:
A dimension is a name which describes the measurable characteristics of an object such as mass,
length and temperature etc. a unit is accepted standard for measuring the dimension. The
dimensions used are expressed in four fundamental dimensions namely Mass, Length, Time and
Temperature.
Mass (M) – Kg
Length (L) – m
Time (T) – S
Temperature (t) – 0C or K (Kelvin)
1. Density: Mass per unit volume=kg/m3
2. Newton: Unit of force expressed in terms of mass and acceleration, according to Newton’s
2nd law motion. Newton is that force which when applied to a mass of 1 kg gives an
acceleration 1m/Sec2. F=Mass x Acceleration = kg – m/sec2 = N.
3. Pascal: A Pascal is the pressure produced by a force of Newton uniformly applied over an
area of 1 m2. Pressure = Force per unit area = N/ m2 = Pascal or Pa.
4. Joule: A joule is the work done when the point of application of force of 1 Newton is
displaced Work = Force per unit area = N m = J or Joule.

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 5. Watt: A Watt represents a work equivalent of a Joule done per second.
Power = Work done per unit time = J/ Sec = W or Watt.

Density or Mass Density: The density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of
the fluid to its volume. Thus the mass per unit volume of the fluid is called density. It is denoted by ℓ

The unit of mass density is Kg/m3

Mass of fluid
𝜌=
Volume of fluid

The value of density of water is 1000Kg/m3.

Specific weight or Specific density: It is the ratio between the weights of the fluid to its volume. The
weight per unit volume of the fluid is called weight density and it is denoted by w.

Weight of fluid Mass of fluid × Acceleration due to gravity

w= Volume of fluid
= Volume of fluid

Mass of fluid ×g
= Volume of fluid
=ρ×g

Specific volume: It is defined as the volume of the fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit
mass of fluid is called Specific volume.

Volume of the fluid 1 1

Specific volume = = Mass of fluid
=
Mass of fluid ρ
Volume of the fluid

Thus the Specific volume is the reciprocal of Mass density. It is expressed as m3//kg/ and is commonly
applied to gases.

Specific Gravity: It is defined as the ratio of the Weight density (or density) of a fluid to the Weight
density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids the standard fluid taken is water and for gases the
standard liquid taken is air. The Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is a dimension less
quantity and it is denoted by ѕ.

weight density of liquid

S (for liquids) =
weight density of water

weight density of gas

S (for gases) = weight density of air

Weight density of liquid=S × weight density of water = S×1000 ×9.81 N/ m 3

Density of liquid= S × density of water = S × 1000 Kg/ m 3
If the specific gravity of fluid is known, then the density of fluid will be equal to specific gravity of the
fluid multiplied by the density of water

Example: The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6

Hence density of mercury = 13.6 ×1000 = 13600 Kg/ m 3

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VISCOSITY: It is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of the fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When the two layers of a fluid, at a
distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u+du. The viscosity
together with relative velocities causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes
a shear stress on the adjacent top layer.
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y. it is denoted by
symbol τ (tau)
du
τ ∝
dy
du
τ=μ
dy
Where µ is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity or
du
only viscosity. dy represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity
gradient.
τ
From the above equation, we have μ= du
( )
dy

Thus, viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required producing unit rate of shear strain.

The unit of viscosity in CGS is called poise and is equal to dyne-see/ cm2

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY: It is defined as the ratio between dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is
denoted by symbol 𝜗 (nu)

viscosity μ
𝜗 = =
density ρ

The unit of kinematic viscosity is m2 /sec

1 2
Thus one stoke = cm2/sec = (100) m2/sec= 10-4 m2/sec

NEWTONS LAW OF VISCOSITY: It states that the shear

stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to
the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is
called the co- efficient of viscosity .It is expressed as:
Fluids which obey above relation are known as
NEWTONIAN fluids and fluids which do not obey the above relation are called NON-NEWTONIAN
fluids.

UNITS OF VISCOSITY
The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the quantities in equation
𝜏
µ = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
Shear stress
μ = Change of velocity
change of distance

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 Force/Area Force/(Length)2 Force × Time
= Length 1 = 1 = (Length)2
( )× Time
Time Length

In MKS System Force is represented by (Kg f) and Length by meters (m)

In CGS System Force is represented by dyne and length by cm and
In SI System Force is represented by Newton (N) and Length by meter (m)

Kg f −Sec
MKS unit of Viscosity = m2
dyne − sec
CGS Unit of Viscosity =
cm2
Newton – sec N
S I Unit of Viscosity = m2
= ms2
(dyne−sec)
The unit of Viscosity in CGS is called Poise, which is equal to cm2
.

The numerical conversion of the unit of viscosity from MKS units to CGS unit is as follows:

One Kg f−sec 9.81N−sec

m2
= m2
(1Kgf = 9.81 Newton)

m
But one Newton = One Kg (mass) × one ( ) (Acceleration)
sec2

(1000gms × 100cm)
=
sec2
gm−cm
= 1000 × 100
sec2
cm
= 1000 × 100 dyne (dyne = gm × sec2 )

One Kg f−sec dyne−sec

m2
= 9.81 × 100000 cm2
.

dyne−sec dyne−sec
= 9.81×100000 = 9.81 ×100000
cm2 100×100×cm2
dyne−sec
= 98.1 cm2
(dyne−sec)
= 98.1 Poise cm2
= Poise
One Ns 9.81
m2
= 9.81
Poise = 10 Poise

1 Ns
Or 1 Poise = 10 m2

VARIATION OF VISCOSITY WITH TEMPERATURE:

Temperature affects the viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of
temperature, while the viscosity of gases increases with the increase of temperature. The viscous
forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids cohesive
forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer, due to closely packed molecules and with
the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases resulting in decreasing of viscosity. But,
in case of gases the cohesive forces are small and molecular momentum transfer predominates with
the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases.
The relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are:

1
i) For liquids µ = µ0 (1+∝t+βt2 )

Where, µ = Viscosity of liquid at t c in Poise.

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 µ0 = Viscosity of liquid at о c
α and β are constants for the Liquid.
For Water, µ0 = 1.79 x 10-3 poise, α =0.03368 and β = 0.000221
The above equation shows that the increase in temp. The Viscosity decreases.

ii) For gases µ = µ0 + α t -βt2

For air µ0 =0.000017, α =0.056 x 10-6 , β = 0.118 x 10-9
The above equation shows that with increase of temp. The Viscosity increases.

TYPES of FLUIDS: The fluids may be classified in to the following five types.

1. Ideal fluid 2. Real fluid [Link] fluid 4. Non-Newtonian fluid 5. Ideal plastic fluid
1. Ideal fluid: A fluid which is compressible and is having no viscosity is known as ideal fluid. It is
only an imaginary fluid as all fluids have some viscosity.

2. Real fluid: A fluid possessing a viscosity is known as real fluid.

All fluids in actual practice are real fluids.

3. Newtonian fluid: A real fluid, in which the stress is directly

proportional to the rate of shear strain, is known as Newtonian
fluid.

4. Non-Newtonian fluid: A real fluid in which shear stress is not

Proportional to the rate of shear strain is known as Non-
Newtonian fluid.

5. Ideal plastic fluid: A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the
yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain
is known as ideal plastic fluid.

SURFACE TENSION:

Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid is contact with a gas
or on the surface behaves like a membrane under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit
length of free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by 𝜎
(sigma). In MKS units it is expressed as Kg f/m while in SI units as N/m

Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet:

Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’ on the entire surface of the droplet, the
tensile force due to surface tension will be acting
Let σ = surface tension of the liquid
p= pressure intensity inside the droplet (In excess of outside pressure intensity)
d= Diameter of droplet
Let, the droplet is cut in to two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be
i) Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion
= σ ×circumference = σ × 𝜋d

𝜋 𝜋
ii) Pressure force on the area 4
d2 = p × 4 d2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

These two forces will be equal to and opposite under equilibrium conditions i.e.
𝜋 σ 𝜋d 𝟒𝛔
𝑝× d2 = σ 𝜋d, p= 𝜋 2 p=
4 d 𝐝
4

Surface Tension on a Hallow Bubble: A hallows bubble like soap in air has two surfaces in contact
with air, one inside and other outside. Thus, two surfaces are subjected to surface tension.
𝜋 𝟖𝛔
𝑝× d2 = 2(σ𝜋𝑑 ) p=
4 𝐝

SURFACE TENSION ON A LIQUID JET:

Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ length ‘L’

Let, p = pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside
pressure
σ = surface tension of the liquid
Consider the equilibrium of the semi- jet

Force due to pressure = p × area of the semi-jet = p × L × d

Force due to surface tension = σ × 2L
p × L × d = σ× 2L,
𝟐𝛔
p=
𝐝

CAPILLARITY
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface
is known as capillary rise, while the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary depression. It is
expressed in terms of ‘cm’ or ‘mm’ of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid,
diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid.

EXPRESSION FOR CAPILLARY RISE:

Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d’ opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid; the
liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid outside the
tube.
Let ‘h’ be the height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of
equilibrium, the weight of the liquid of height ‘h’ is balanced by the
force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But, the force at the
surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.
Let σ = surface tension of liquid
Ѳ = Angle of contact between the liquid and glass tube

The weight of the liquid of height ‘h’ in the tube

𝜋
= (area of the tube × h) × 𝜌 × g = 4
d2 × h × 𝜌 × g
Where ‘𝜌′ is the density of the liquid.
The vertical component of the surface tensile force = (σ× circumference) × cosѲ = σ × 𝜋d × cosѲ

𝜋 𝜎𝜋𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ѳ 4𝜎 cos ∅

For equilibrium, d2 × h × 𝜌 × g = σ 𝜋d cosѲ, ℎ= 𝜋 2 = .
4 𝑑 𝜌×g 𝜌 × g ×𝑑
4

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 𝟒𝝈
The value of Ѳ is equal to ‘0’ between water and clean glass tube, then cosѲ = 1, 𝒉 = 𝝆 × 𝐠 ×𝒅

EXPRESSION FOR CAPILLARY FALL:

If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the Level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the
general level of the outside liquid.
Let, h = height of the depression in the tube. Then, in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the
mercury inside the tube. First one is due to the surface tension acting in the downward direction =
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × cos 𝜃
The second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
depth ‘h’ × area = 𝑝 × 4
𝑑 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 4
𝑑 (p = 𝜌𝑔ℎ),
𝜋𝑑 2
σ 𝜋d cosѲ = 𝜌gh 4
(The value of Ѳ for glass and mercury 1280)
σπd cosθ
h= πd2
ρgh
4

𝟒𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
h= 𝛒𝒈𝒅

VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as Vaporizations. The vaporization
(which depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occurs because of
continuous escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface.

Consider a liquid at a temp. of 20°C and pressure is atmospheric is confined in a closed vessel.
This liquid will vaporize at 100°C, the molecules escape from the free surface of the liquid and get
accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated
vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the
liquid or pressure at which the liquid is converted in to vapours.

Consider the same liquid at 20° c at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel and the pressure
above the liquid surface is reduced by some means; the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the
pressure is reduced to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the
boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C. Thus, the liquid may boil
at the ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or
less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature.

Now, consider a flowing system, if the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes equal
to or less than the vapour pressure, the vapourisation of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these
vapours are carried by the flowing liquid in to the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving
rise to impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the
material from the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This
phenomenon is known as CAVITATION.

Hence the cavitations is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a
region where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of
these vapour bubbles in a region of high pressure,. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

pressure is created. The metallic surface, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high
pressures, which cause pitting actions on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic
surface and hence the name is cavitation.

ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC and VACCUM PRESSURES

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different

systems. In one system, it is measured above the absolute
zero or complete vacuum and it is called the Absolute
pressure and in other system, pressure is measured above
the atmospheric pressure and is called Gauge pressure.
1. ABSOLUTE PRESSURE: It is defined as the pressure
which is measured with reference to absolute vacuum
pressure
2. GAUGE PRESSURE: It is defined as the pressure, which is measured with the help of a pressure
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric on
the scale is marked as zero.
3. VACUUM PRESSURE: It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure
i) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure+ gauge pressure
pab = patm + pguag
ii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure

The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 150C is 10.13N/cm2 or

101.3KN/m2 in S I Units and 1.033 Kg f/cm2 in M K S System.
The atmospheric pressure head is 760mm of mercury or 10.33m of water.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the fallowing devices.
1. Manometers [Link] gauges.
1. Manometers: Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point
in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of fluid. They are classified
as:
a) Simple Manometers b) Differential Manometers.
2. Mechanical Gauges: are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by balancing the
fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used Mechanical pressure gauges are:
a) Diaphragm pressure gauge b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
c) Dead – Weight pressure gauge d) Bellows pressure gauge.
Simple Manometers: A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected
to a point where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere.
The common types of simple manometers are:
1. Piezo meter.
2. U-tube manometer.
3. Single column manometer.
1. Piezometer: It is a simplest form of manometer used for
measuring gauge pressure. One end of this manometer is
connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other
end is open to the atmosphere. The rise of liquid in the Piezometer
gives pressure head at that point A.
The height of liquid say water is ‘h’ in piezometer tube, then

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 𝐍
Pressure at A = 𝛒 g h 𝐦𝟐
2. U- tube Manometer:
It consists of a glass tube bent in u-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere. The tube generally
contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the
liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
a) For Gauge Pressure: Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p. The
datum line A – A
Let h1 = height of light liquid above datum line
h2 =height of heavy liquid above datum line
S1 = sp. gravity of light liquid
ρ1 = density of light liquid = 1000 S1
S2 = sp. gravity of heavy liquid
ρ2 = density of heavy liquid = 1000 S2

As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence the pressure above the horizontal
datum line A – A in the left column and the right column of U – tube manometer should be same.

Pressure above A—A ion the left column = p + 𝜌1 gh1

Pressure above A – A in the left column = 𝜌2 gh2

Hence equating the two pressures p + 𝜌1 gh1 = 𝜌2 gh2

p = 𝝆𝟐 gh2 - 𝝆𝟏 gh1

(b) For Vacuum Pressure:

For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of heavy fluid in the manometer will be as shown in fig.
Pressure above A A in the left column = 𝜌2 g h2 + 𝜌1 g h1+ P
Pressure head in the right column above A A = O
𝜌2 g h2 + 𝜌1 g h1 + P = O

p = - (𝝆𝟐 g h2 + 𝝆𝟏 g h1)

(a) For Gauge Pressure (b) For Vacuum Pressure

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER:

Single column manometer is a modified form of a U- tube manometer in which a reservoir, having a
large cross sectional area (about. 100 times) as compared to the area of tube is connected to one of
the limbs (say left limb) of the manometer. Due to large cross sectional area of the reservoir for any
variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be very small which may be
neglected and hence the pressure is given by the height of the liquid in the other limb. The other
limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus, there are two types of single column manometer

1. Vertical single column manometer. 2. Inclined single column manometer.

VERTICAL SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER:

Let X – X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right limb of the manometer, when it is
connected to the pipe, when the Manometer is connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A The
heavy in the reservoir will be pushed downwards and will rise in the right limb.

Let, ∆ h= fall of heavy liquid in the reservoir

h2= rise of heavy liquid in the right limb

h1= height of the centre of the pipe above X – X

pA= Pressure at A, which is to be measured.

A = Cross- sectional area of the reservoir

a = cross sectional area of the right limb

S1= Specific. Gravity of liquid in pipe

S2= sp. Gravity of heavy liquid in the reservoir and right limb

𝜌1 = density of liquid in pipe

𝜌2 = density of liquid in reservoir

Fall of heavy liquid reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb

A × ∆h = a ×h2

𝑎×ℎ2
∆h = 𝐴
-------- (1)

Now consider the datum line Y –Y

The pressure in the right limb above Y – Y

= 𝜌2 ×g × (∆h+h2)

Pressure in the left limb above Y—Y

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 = 𝜌1 × g × (∆h+h1) + PA

Equating the pressures, we have

𝜌2 g × (∆h+h2) = 𝜌1 × g × (∆h+h1) + pA
pA = 𝜌2 × g × (∆h+h2) - 𝜌1 × g × (∆h+h1)

= ∆h (𝜌2 g 𝜌1 g) + h2𝜌2 g - h1𝜌1 g

𝑎×ℎ2
But, from eq (1) ∆h = 𝐴

𝑎×ℎ2
PA = 𝐴
(𝜌2 g - 𝜌1 g) + h2𝜌2 g - h1𝜌1 g

a
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence the ratio becomes very small and can be
A
neglected Then,

pA = h2𝝆𝟐 g - h1𝝆𝟏 g ---- (2)

INCLINED SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER:

The manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclination the distance moved by heavy liquid in the right
limb will be more.
Let L= length of heavy liquid moved in the rite limb
Ѳ = inclination of right. Limb with horizontal.
H2 = vertical rise of heavy liquid in the right limb above X – X
= L sinѲ
From above eq (2), the pressure at A is
pA = h2𝜌2 g - h1𝜌1 g
Substituting the value of h2
pA = L sin Ѳ 𝜌2 g - h1𝜌1 g

DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS:

Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressure between two
points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing
heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of pressure is to be
measured. The common types of U- tube differential manometers are:

1. U- Tube differential manometer 2. Inverted U- tube differential manometer.

1. U- Tube differential manometer:

a) Let the two points A and B are at different levels and also contains liquids of different [Link].
b) These points are connected to the U – Tube differential manometer.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Let the pressure at A and B are pA and pB.

Let h = Difference of mercury levels in the u – tube

y = Distance of centre of B from the mercury level in the
right limb
x = Distance of centre of A from the mercury level in the
left limb
𝜌1 = Density of liquid A
𝜌2 = Density of liquid B
𝜌𝑔 = Density of heavy liquid or mercury

Taking datum line at X – X

Pressure above X – X in the left limb =𝜌1 g(h + x) + pA (where pA = Pressure at A)
Pressure above X – X in the right limb = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌2 g y + PB (where pB = Pressure at B)
Equating the above two pressures, we have

𝜌1 g(h + x) + pA = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌2 g y + pB

pA - pB = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌2 g y - 𝜌1 g ( h + x)

= h g (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌1 ) + 𝜌2 g y - 𝜌1 g x

∴ Difference of Pressures at A and B = h g (𝜌𝑔 - ℓ1) + 𝜌2 g y - 𝜌1 g x

Let the two points A and B arte at the same level and contains the
same liquid of density ℓ1
Then pressure above X – X in the right limb = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌1 g x + PB
Pressure above X—X in the left limb = 𝜌1 g (h + x) + PA
Equating the two pressures
𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌1 g x + pB = 𝜌1 g (h + x) + pA

PA - PB = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌1 g x - 𝜌1 g( h + x)

= g h (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌1 )

Difference of pressure at A and B = g h (𝝆𝒈 - 𝝆𝟏 )

Inverted U – Tube differential manometer

It consists of a inverted U – tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are
connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring
difference of low pressures. Let an inverted U – tube differential manometer connected to the two
points A and B. Let pressure at A is more than pressure at B.

Let h1 = Height of the liquid in the left limb below the datum line X-X

h2 = Height of the liquid in the right limb.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 h = Difference of height of liquid

𝜌1 = Density of liquid A

𝜌2 = Density of liquid B

𝜌𝑠 = Density of light liquid

pA = Pressure at A

pB= Pressure at B

Taking x – x as datum line

The pressure in the left limb below x – x = pA - 𝜌1 g h1

Pressure in the right limb below x –x = pB - 𝜌2 g h2 - 𝜌𝑠 g h

Equating the above two pressures

pA - 𝜌1 g h1 = pB - 𝜌2 g h2 - 𝜌𝑠 g h

pA – pB = 𝜌1 g h1 - 𝜌2 g h2 - 𝜌𝑠 g h

Difference of pressure at A and B = 𝝆𝟏 g h1 - 𝝆𝟐 g h2 -𝝆𝒔 g h

PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one liter of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7

Sol: i) Density of a liquid = S × Density of water = S x 1000 kg/ m3

𝜌= 0.7 × 1000

𝜌 = 700Kg/m3

ii) Specific weight w = 𝜌 × g = 700 × 9.81 = 6867 N/ m3

1000 3 =
iii) Weight (w) Volume = 1 liter = 1 × 1000 cm3 = 106
m 0.001m3

weight of fluid
We know that, specific weight w = volume of the fluid

Weight of petrol = w× volume of petrol

= w × 0.001

= 6867 × 0.001 = 6.867 N

2. Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space between them being filled with oil of
viscosity 14 poises. Calculate shear stress in oil, if the upper plate is moved velocity of 2.5 m/sec.

Sol: Given distance between the plates dy= 1.25 cm = 0.0125m

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 14
Viscosity µ = 14 poise = 10 N s/m2

Velocity of upper plate u = 2.5 m/sec

du
Shear stress τ = µ dy

Where du = change of velocity between plates = u – 0 = u = 2.5 m/sec

14 2.5
τ = 10 × 0.0125

Shear stress τ = 280 N/m2

3. The dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft
dia. is 0.4m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of
90mm. The thickness foil film is 1.5mm

6 Ns Ns
Sol: Given, Viscosity µ = 6 poise = 10 m2 = 0.6 m2

Dia. of shaft D = 0.4M

Speed of shaft N = 190 rpm

Sleeve length L = 90mm = 90 × 10-3 m

Thickness of a film t= 1.5mm = 1.5mm = 1.5 × 10-3 m

πDN π×0.4×190
Tangential velocity of shaft = u = 60
= 60
= 3.98 m/sec

du
Using the relation τ = µ
dy

Where du = change of velocity = u – 0 = u = 3.98 m/sec

dy = change of distance = t = 1.5 × 10-3m

3.98
τ = 0.6 × 1.5 ×10−3 = 1592 N/m2

This is the shear stress on the shaft

Shear force on the shaft F = shear stress × area =1592 × π DL = 1592 × π × 0.4 x 90 × 10-3 = 180.05
N

D 0.4
Torque on the shaft T = Force × 2 = 180.05 × 2
= 36.01 Nm

2πNT 2π×190
Power lost = 60
= 36.01 × 60
× 36.01

Power lost = 716.48 W

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

4. A cylinder 0.12m radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 0.13 m radius. Both
cylinders are 0.3m long. Determine the viscosity of liquid which fills the space between the cylinders,
if a torque of 0.88 Nm is required to maintain an angular velocity of 2 π rad / sec.
Sol : Diameter of inner cylinder = 0.24m
Diameter of outer cylinder = 0.26 m
Length of cylinder L = 0.3 m
Torque T = 0.88 NM
w = 2 π N/60 = 2 π
N = speed = 60rpm
Let the viscosity = µ
πDN π×0.24×60
Tangential velocity of cylinder u = 60
= 60
= 0.7536 m/sec
Surface area of cylinder A = π DL = π × 0.24 x 0.3 = 0.226 m2
du
Now using the relation τ = µ dy
Where du = u – 0 = 0.7536 m/sec
0.26−0.24
dy = 2
= 0.02 = 0.01 m
0.7536
τ= µ × 0.01
Shear force, F = shear stress x area
= µ × 75.36 × 0.226 = 17.03 µ
0.24
Torque T = F ×D/2 = 17.03 µ ×
2
0.88 = µ × 2.0436
0.88
µ = 2.0436
= 0.4306 Ns/ m2
= 0.4306 × 10 poise
Viscosity of liquid = 4.306 poise

5. The right limb of a simple U – tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere,
while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of [Link].0.9 is flowing. The centre of pipe
is 12cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the
pressure of fluid in the pipe, if the difference of mercury level in
the two limbs is 20 cm.
Given, [Link]. of liquid S1= 0.9
Density of fluid 𝜌1 = S1 × 1000 = 0.9 × 1000 =900 kg/ m3
[Link]. of mercury S2 = 13.6
Density of mercury 𝜌2 =13.6× 1000 = 13600 kg/m3
Difference of mercury level h2 = 20cm = 0.2m
Height of the fluid from A – A h1 = 20 – 12 = 8cm = 0.08 m
Let ‘P’ be the pressure of fluid in pipe
Equating pressure at A – A, we get
p + 𝜌1 gh1 = 𝜌2 gh2
p + 900 × 9.81 × 0.08 = 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2
p = 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2 – 900 × 9.81 × 0.08
p = 26683 – 706
p = 25977 N/m2
p = 2.597 N/cm2
Pressure of fluid = 2.597 N/ cm2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

6. A simple U – tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of [Link].
0.8 And having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the manometer is open to atmosphere.
Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 40cm. and the
height of the fluid in the left tube from the centre of pipe is 15cm below.

Given,
[Link] of fluid S1 = 0.8
[Link]. of mercury S2 = 13.6
Density of the fluid = S1 × 1000 = 0.8 × 1000 = 800
Density of mercury = 13.6 × 1000
Difference of mercury level h2 = 40cm = 0.4m
Height of the liquid in the left limb = 15cm =0.15m
Let the pressure in the pipe = p
Equating pressures above datum line A-- A
𝜌2 gh2 + 𝜌1 gh1 + P = 0
P = - [𝜌2 gh2 + 𝜌1 gh1]
= - [13.6 ×1000 × 9.81 × 0.4 + 800 × 9.81 × 0.15]
= 53366.4 + 1177.2
= -54543.6 N/m2
P = - 5.454 N/cm2
7. What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3m below the surface of a liquid
having a density of 1.53 x 103 kg/m3? If the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750mm of
mercury. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water 1000 kg/m3
Given:
Depth of the liquid, z1 = 3m
Density of liquid 𝜌1 = 1.53 × 103 kg/ m3
750
Atmospheric pressure head z0 = 750 mm of mercury = 1000 = 0.75m of Hg
Atmospheric pressure patm = 𝜌0 × g × z0

Where 𝜌0 = density of Hg = [Link]. of mercury x density of water

= 13.6 × 1000 kg/ m3

And z0 = pressure head in terms of mercury = 0.75m of Hg

Patm = (13.6 × 1000) × 9.81 × 0.75 N/m2
= 100062 N/ m2

Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3m from the free surface of the liquid is
P = 𝜌1 × g × z1 =1.53× 103 × 9.81 × 3
Gauge pressure P = 45028 N/ m2
Absolute Pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
= 45028 + 100062
Absolute Pressure = 145090 N/m2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

8. A single column manometer is connected to the pipe containing liquid of [Link].0.9. Find the
pressure in the pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100 times the area of the tube of manometer.
[Link]. of mercury is 13.6. Height of the liquid from the centre of pipe is 20cm and difference in level
of mercury is 40cm.
Given,
[Link]. of liquid in pipe S1 = 0.9
Density 𝜌1 = 900 kg/ m3
Area of reservoir A
Area of right limb
= a = 100

Height of the liquid h1 = 20cm = 0.2m

Rise of mercury in the right limb h2 = 40cm = 0.4m
Pressure in pipe A
A
pA = a
× h2[𝜌2 g - 𝜌1 g] + h2 𝜌2 g - h1 𝜌1 g
1
= 100
× 0.4 [13600 × 9.81 – 900 x 9.81] + 0.4 ×
13600 × 9.81 – 0.2 × 900 × 9.81
0.4
= 100
[133416 – 8829] + 53366.4 – 1765.8

= 533.664 + 53366.4 – 1765.8

= 52134 N/m2
Pressure in pipe A= 5.21 N/ cm2
9. A pipe contains an oil of [Link].0.9. A differential manometer is connected at the two points A
and B shows a difference in mercury level at 15cm. find the difference of pressure at the two points.

Given: [Link]. of oil S1 = 0.9: density 𝜌1 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/ m3

Difference of level in the mercury h = 15cm = 0.15 m

[Link]. of mercury = 13.6, Density = 13.6 × 1000 = 13600 kg/m3

The difference of pressure pA – pB = g × h × (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌1 )

= 9.81 x 0.15 (13600 – 900)

pA – pB = 18688 N/ m2

10. A differential manometer is connected at two points A and B .At B

air pressure is 9.81 N/cm2. Find absolute pressure at A.
Density of air = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Density of mercury = 13.6 × 103 kg/ m3
Let pressure at A is pA
Taking datum as X – X
Pressure above X – X in the right limb
= 1000 × 9.81 × 0.6 + pB = 5886 + 98100 = 103986

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Pressure above X – X in the left limb
= 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.1 +0900 × 9.81 × 0.2 + pA
= 13341.6 +1765.8 +pA
Equating the two pressures heads
103986 = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + pA
= 15107.4 + pA
pA = 103986 – 15107.4
= 88878.6 N/m2
pA = 8.887 N/cm2
11. Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted differential manometer having
an oil of [Link]. 0.8 is connected. The pressure head in the pipe A is 2m of water. Find the pressure in
the pipe B for the manometer readings shown in fig.

p
Given: Pressure head at A = ρA = 2m of water
g

pA = ρ × g × 2 = 1000 × 9.81 × 2 = 19620 N/m2

Pressure below X – X in the left limb
= pA - 𝜌1 gh1
= 19620 – 1000 × 9.81 × 0.3 = 16677 N/m2
Pressure below X – X in the right limb
= pB – 1000 × 9.81 × 0.1 – 800 × 9.81 × 0.12
= pB – 981 – 941.76 = pB – 1922.76
Equating the two pressures, we get,
16677 = pB - 1922.76
pB = 16677 + 1922.76
pB = 18599.76 N/m2
12. A different manometer is connected at two points A and B of two pipes. The pipe A contains
liquid of [Link]. = 1.5 while pipe B contains liquid of [Link]. = 0.9. The pressures at A and B are 1
kgf/cm2 and 1.80 Kg f/cm2 respectively. Find the difference in mercury level in the differential
manometer.

[Link]. of liquid at A S1 = 1.5

[Link]. of liquid at B S2 == 0.9

Pressure at A pA= 1 kgf/c m2 = 1 × 104 × kg/m2 = 1 × 104 ×

9.81N/m2

Pressure at B pB = 1.8 kgf/cm2 = 1.8 × 104 × 9.81 N/m2 [1kgf =

9.81 N]

Density of mercury = 13.6 × 1000 kg/m3

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Taking X – X as datum line

Pressure above X – X in left limb

= 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × h + 1500 × 9.81(2+3) + (9.81 x 104)

Pressure above X – X in the right limb = 900 × 9.81(h + 2) + 1.8 × 9.81 × 104

Equating the two pressures, we get

13.6 × 1000 × 9.81h + 1500 × 9.81 × 5 + 9.81 × 104 = 900 × 9.81(h + 2) + 1.8 × 9.81 × 104

Dividing both sides by 1000 × 9.81

13.6 h + 7.5 +10 = 0.9(h+2) + 18

(13.6 – 0.9)h = 1.8 + 18 – 17.5 = 19.8 – 17.5 =2.3

2.3
h = 12.7 = 0.181m

h = 18.1 cm

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
1. Specific pressure monitoring applications

2. Visual monitoring of air and gas pressure for compressors.

3. Vacuum equipment and specialty tank applications such as medical gas cylinders, fire
extinguishers.

4. In power plants, mercury absolute manometer have been used to check condenser efficiency by
monitoring vacuum at several points of the condenser

5. Manometers Used for the research of atmosphere of other planets.

6. And many more applications such as in whether studies, research labs, gas analysis and in
medical equipment's.

7. Never operate damage equipment.

8. Manometers Meter and its tubing should be free from any breaking and blockage.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. A piston 9.95 cm diameter works in a cylinder 10cm diameter, 12cm long. The space
between the two is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 0.65 poise. Calculate the
speed of piston through the cylinder under the action of an axial force of 5N.
2. Find the height through which water rises by capillary action in a glass tube of 2mm
bore if the surface tension ate the prevailing temperature is 0.075 N/m.
3. A plate of 0.05mm distant from a fixed plate moves at 1.2m/s and requires a force of
2.2N/m to maintain this speed. Find the viscosity of the fluid between the plates.
4. The space between two parallel square plates each of side 0.8m is filled with an oil of
specific gravity 0.8. If the space between the plates is 12.5mm and the upper plate
which moves with velocity of 1.25m/s requires a force of 51.2 N. Determine (i)
Dynamic viscosity of oil in poise (ii) Kinematic viscosity in stokes.
5. A U-tube differential manometer connects two pressure pipes A & B. Pipe A contains
carbon tetrachloride having a specific gravity 1.594 under a pressure of 11.772 N/cm 2
and pipe B contains oil of specific gravity 0.8 under a pressure of 11.772 N/cm 2. The
pipe A lies 2.5m above pipe B. Find the difference of pressure measured by mercury as
filling U-tube.
6. List all the properties of fluid and derive Newton’s law of viscosity.
7. Explain atmospheric, gauge and vaccum pressure with the help of a neat sketch.
8. What are differential manometers? Explain how they could be used for measuring the
pressure difference.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Two large planes are parallel to each other and are inclined at 30° to the horizontal with the
space between them filled with a fluid of viscosity 20 cp. A small thin plate of 0.125 m square
slides parallel and midway between the planes and reaches a constant velocity of 2 m/s. The
weight of the plate is 1 N. Determine the distance between the plates.

2. A U- tube mercury manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil flowing through a pipe
whose specific gravity is 0.85. The center of the pipe is 15 cm below the level of mercury. The
mercury level difference in the manometer is 25 cm, determine the absolute pressure of the oil
flowing through the pipe. Atmospheric pressure is 750 mm of Hg.

3. A single column vertical manometer is connected to a pipe containing oil of specific gravity 0.9.
The area of the reservoir is 80 times the area of the manometer tube. The reservoir contains
mercury of sp. gr. 13.6. The level of mercury in the reservoir is at a height of 30 cm below the
center of the pipe and difference of mercury levels in the reservoir in the right limb is 50 cm. find
the pressure in the pipe.

4. Find the height through which water rises by capillary action in a glass tube of 2mm bore if the
surface tension ate the prevailing temperature is 0.075 N/m.

5. The space between two parallel square plates each of side 0.8m is filled with an oil of specific
gravity 0.8. If the space between the plates is 12.5mm and the upper plate which moves with
velocity of 1.25m/s requires a force of 51.2 N. Determine (i) Dynamic viscosity of oil in poise (ii)
Kinematic viscosity in stokes.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT 2
FLUID KINEMATICS &
DYNAMICS
Course Objective:

To gain knowledge on fluid kinematics and dynamics.

Course Outcome:

Have basic idea about the fundamental equations used in fluid dynamics and able to apply
these concepts in real working environment.

INTRODUCTION:

Kinematics is defined as a branch of science which deals with motion of particles without considering
the forces causing the motion. The velocity at any point in a flow field at any time is studied in this.
Once the velocity is known, then the pressure distribution and hence the forces acting on the fluid
can be determined.

Stream line: A stream line is an imaginary line drawn in a flow field such that the tangent drawn at
any point on this line represents the direction of velocity vector. From the definition it is clear that
there can be no flow across stream line. Considering a particle moving along a stream line for a very
short distance ‘ds’ having its components dx , dy and dz, along three mutually perpendicular co-
ordinate axes. Let the components of velocity vector Vs along x, y and z directions be u, v and w
respectively. The time taken by the fluid particle to move a distance ‘ds’ along the stream line with a
velocity Vs is:

ds dx dy ds
𝑡 = Vs Which is same as 𝑡 = u = v = w
Hence the differential equation of the steam line may be written
as:
dx dy ds
= =
u v w
Path line: A path line is locus of a fluid particle as it
moves along. In other words a path line is a curve traced
by a single fluid particle during its motion. A stream line
at time t1 indicating the velocity vectors for particles A
and B. At times t2and t3 the particle A occupies the
successive positions. The line containing these various
positions of A represents its Path line

Streak line: When a dye is injected in a liquid or smoke in a gas, so as to trace the subsequent
motion of fluid particles passing a fixed point, the path fallowed by dye or smoke is called the streak
line. Thus the streak line connects all particles passing through a given point.

In steady flow, the stream line remains fixed with respect to co-ordinate axes. Stream lines in
steady flow also represent the path lines and streak lines. In unsteady flow, a fluid particle will not,
in general, remain on the same stream line (except for unsteady uniform flow). Hence the stream
lines and path lines do not coincide in unsteady non-uniform flow.

Instantaneous stream line: in a fluid motion which is independent of time, the position of stream
line is fixed in space and a fluid particle fallowing a stream line will continue to do so. In case of time

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

dependent flow, a fluid particle fallows a stream line for only a short interval of time, before
changing over to another stream line. The stream lines in such cases are not fixed in space, but
change with time. The position of a stream line at a given instant of time is known as Instantaneous
stream line. For different instants of time, we shall have different Instantaneous stream lines in the
same space. The Stream line, Path line and the streak line are one and the same, if the flow is
steady.

Stream tube: If stream lines are drawn through a closed curve, they form a boundary surface across
which fluid cannot penetrate. Such a surface bounded by stream lines is known as Stream tube.
From the definition of stream tube, it is evident that no fluid can
cross the bounding surface of the stream tube. This implies that the
quantity of fluid entering the stream tube at one end must be the same
as the quantity leaving at the other end. The Stream tube is assumed to
be a small cross-sectional area, so that the velocity over it could be
considered uniform.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWS
The fluid flow is classified as:
i) Steady and unsteady flows.
ii) Uniform and Non-uniform flows.
iii) Laminar and Turbulent flows.
iv) Compressible and incompressible flows.
v) Rotational and Ir-rotational flows.
vi) One, two and three dimensional flows.

i) Steady and Un-steady flows: Steady flow is defined as the flow in which the fluid characteristics
like velocity, pressure, density etc. at a point do not change with time.
Thus for a steady flow, we have
∂V ∂p ∂ρ
( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, ( ) =0
∂t x,y,z ∂t x,y,z ∂t x,y,z
Un-Steady flow is the flow in which the velocity, pressure, density at a point changes with
respect to time. Thus for un-steady flow, we have
∂V ∂p ∂ρ
( ) ≠ 0, ( ) ≠ 0, ( ) ≠0
∂t x,y,z ∂t x,y,z ∂t x,y,z

ii) Uniform and Non-uniform flows:

Uniform flow is defined as the flow in which the velocity at any given time does not change with
respect to space. ( i.e. the length of direction of flow )
∂V
For uniform flow ( ∂s ) =0
t=const
Where 𝜕𝑉 = Change of velocity
𝜕s = Length of flow in the direction of – S
Non-uniform is the flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect to space.
∂V
For Non-uniform flow ( ) ≠0
∂s t=const

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

iii) Laminar and turbulent flow:
Laminar flow is defined as the flow in which the fluid particles move along well-defined paths or
stream line and all the stream lines are straight and parallel. Thus the particles move in laminas or
layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. This type of flow is also called streamline flow or
viscous flow.
Turbulent flow is the flow in which the fluid particles move in a zigzag way. Due to the
movement of fluid particles in a zigzag way, the eddies formation takes place, which are responsible
for high energy loss. For a pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by a non-dimensional number
VD
( ) called the Reynolds number.
𝑣

Where D = Diameter of pipe.

V = Mean velocity of flow in pipe.
𝑣 = Kinematic viscosity of fluid.
If the Reynolds number is lessthan2000, the flow is called Laminar flow.
If the Reynolds number is more than 4000, it is called Turbulent flow.
If the Reynolds number is between 2000 and 4000 the flow may be Laminar or Turbulent flow.

iv) Compressible and Incompressible flows:

Compressible flow is the flow in which the density of fluid changes from point to point or in other
words the density is not constant for the fluid.

For compressible flow, ρ ≠ Constant.

In compressible flow is the flow in which the density is constant for the fluid flow. Liquids are
generally incompressible, while the gases are compressible.

For incompressible flow, ρ = Constant.

v) Rotational and Irrotational flows:

Rotational flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream lines also
rotate about their own axis. And if the fluid particles, while flowing along stream lines, do not rotate
about their own axis, the flow is called Ir-rotational flow.

vi) One, Two and Three – dimensional flows:

One dimensional flow is a type of flow in which flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time
and one space co-ordinate only, say ‘x’. For a steady one- dimensional flow, the velocity is a function
of one space co-ordinate only. The variation of velocities in other two mutually perpendicular
directions is assumed negligible.

Hence for one dimensional flow u = f(x), v = 0 and w = 0

Where u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.
Two – dimensional flow is the type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and two space
co-ordinates, say x and y. For a steady two-dimensional flow the velocity is a function of two space
co-ordinates only. The variation of velocity in the third direction is negligible.
Thus for two dimensional flow u = f1 (x, y), v = f2 (x, y) and w = 0.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Three – dimensional flow is the type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and three
mutually perpendicular directions. But for a steady three-dimensional flow, the fluid parameters are
functions of three space co-ordinates (x, y, and z) only.
Thus for three- dimensional flow u = f1 (x, y, z), v = f2 (x, y, z), z = f3 (x, y, z).

Rate of flow or Discharge (Q)

It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of pipe or channel. For an
incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is expressed as the volume of the liquid
flowing cross the section per second. or compressible fluids, the rate of flow is usually expressed as
the weight of fluid flowing across the section.
Thus i) For liquids the unit of Q is m3/sec or Litres/sec.
Ii) For gases the unit of Q is Kg f/sec or Newton/sec.

The discharge Q = A×V

Where, A = Area of cross-section of pipe.
V= Average velocity of fluid across the section.

CONTINUITY EQUATION

The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called Continuity equation. Thus for a
fluid flowing through the pipe at all cross- sections, the quantity of fluid per second is constant.
Consider two cross- sections of a pipe.

Let V1 = Average velocity at cross- section 1-1

ρ1 = Density of fluid at section 1-1
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1-1
And V2, ρ2, A2 are the corresponding values at section 2—2
Then the rate flow at section 1-1 = ρ1A1V1
Rate of flow at section 2—2 = ρ2 A2V2
According to law of conservation of mass
Rate of flow at section 1---1 = Rate of flow at section 2---2

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

This equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids and is called
“Continuity equation”. If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ1 = ρ2 and the continuity equation
reduces to

A1 V1 = A2 V2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE DIMENSIONAL FLOW

Consider a fluid element of lengths dx, dy and dz in the direction of x, y and z. Let u, v and w
are the inlet velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.

Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD per second

= ρ × velocity in x – direction × Area of ABCD

= ρ × u ×(dy×dz)
Then the mass of fluid leaving the face EFGH per second
𝜕
= ρ × u ×(dy×dz) + 𝜕𝑥 (ρ u dy dz)dx
Gain of mass in x- direction
= Mass through ABCD – Mass through EFGH per
second.
𝜕
= ρ u dy dz - ρ u dy dz - (ρ u dy dz)dx
𝜕𝑥

𝜕
= - 𝜕𝑥 (ρ u dy dz)dx

𝜕
= - 𝜕𝑥 (ρ u )dxdydz ___________ ( 1 )

Similarly the net gain of mass in y- direction.

𝜕
= − 𝜕𝑦 (𝜌𝑣) dx dy dz ___________ (2)
∂
In z – direction =− (ρw)dx dy dz ___________ (3)
∂z

∂ ∂ ∂
Net gain of mass = − [∂x (ρu) + ∂y (ρv) + ∂z (ρw)] dxdydz (4)

Since mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid element , the net increase of mass per unit
time in the fluid element must be equal to the rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element. But
𝜕
the mass of fluid in the element is ρ dx dy dz and its rate of increase with time is 𝜕𝑡 (ρ. dx. dy. dz.) or
𝜕ρ
𝜕𝑡
. dx. dy. dz. (5)

Equating the two expressions (4) & (5)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕ρ
-(𝜕𝑥 (ρ u ) + 𝜕𝑦 (ρ v ) + 𝜕𝑧 (ρ w ) )dx dydz = 𝜕𝑡
. dx. dy . dz.

𝝏𝛒 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
+ (𝛒 𝐮 ) + (𝛒 𝐯 ) + (𝛒 𝐰 ) =o ________ (6)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
This equation is applicable to
i) Steady and unsteady flow
ii) Uniform and non- uniform flow , and
iii) Compressible and incompressible flow.
𝝏𝛒
For steady flow 𝝏𝒕 = 0 and hence equation (6) becomes
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
(𝛒 𝐮 ) + (𝛒 𝐯 ) + (𝛒 𝐰 ) =0 _____ (7)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ is constant and the above equation becomes

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒘
𝝏𝒙
+ 𝝏𝒚
+ 𝝏𝒛
=o _____ (8)
This is the continuity equation in three - dimensional flow.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FLUID DYNAMICS

A fluid in motion is subjected to several forces, which results in the variation of the acceleration
and the energies involved in the flow of the fluid. The study of the forces and energies that are
involved in the fluid flow is known as Dynamics of fluid flow.

The various forces acting on a fluid mass may be classified as:

1. Body or volume forces

2. Surface forces
3. Line forces.

Body forces: The body forces are the forces which are proportional to the volume of the body.

Examples: Weight, Centrifugal force, magnetic force, Electromotive force etc.

Surface forces: The surface forces are the forces which are proportional to the surface area which
may include pressure force, shear or tangential force, force of compressibility and force due to
turbulence etc.

Line forces: The line forces are the forces which are proportional to the length.

Example is surface tension.

The dynamics of fluid flow is governed by Newton’s second law of motion which states that the
resultant force on any fluid element must be equal to the product of the mass and acceleration of
the element and the acceleration vector has the direction of the resultant vector. The fluid is
assumed to be in compressible and non- viscous.

∑ F = M. a

Where ∑ F represents the resultant external force acting on the fluid element of mass M and a is
total acceleration. Both the acceleration and the resultant external force must be along same line of
action. The force and acceleration vectors can be resolved along the three reference directions x, y
and z and the corresponding equations may be expressed as ;

∑ Fx = M. ax

∑ Fy = M. ay

∑ Fz = M. az

Where ∑ Fx , ∑ Fy and ∑ Fz are the components of the resultant force in the x, y and z directions
respectively, and ax , ay and az are the components of the total acceleration in x, y and z directions
respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FORCES ACTING ON FLUID IN MOTION:

The various forces that influence the motion of fluid are due to gravity, pressure, viscosity,
turbulence and compressibility.
The gravity force Fg is due to the weight of the fluid and is equal to Mg . The gravity force per
unit volume is equal to “ρ g”.
The pressure force Fp is exerted on the fluid mass, if there exists a pressure gradiant between
the two points in the direction of the flow.
The viscous force Fv is due to the viscosity of the flowing fluid and thus exists in case of all real
fluids.
The turbulent flow Ft is due to the turbulence of the fluid flow.
The compressibility force Fc is due to the elastic property of the fluid and it is important only for
compressible fluids.
If a certain mass of fluid in motion is influenced by all the above forces, then according to
Newton’s second law of motion
The net force Fx =M. ax = (Fg )x + ( Fp )x + ( Fv )x + ( Ft )x + ( Fc )x
i) if the net force due to compressibility(Fc) is negligible, the resulting net force
Fx = (Fg) x + (Fp) x + (Fv) x + (Ft) x and the equation of motions are called
Reynolds’s equations of motion.
ii) For flow where (Ft) is negligible, the resulting equations of motion are known as
Navier – Stokes equation.
iii) If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force (Fv) is zero and the equations of motion are
known as Euler’s equation of motion.
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

In this equation of motion the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken in to
consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of the fluid element along a stream-line as:
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in s-
direction. Consider a cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length
ds.
The forces acting on the cylindrical element are:
1. Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.
∂p
2. Pressure force (𝑝 + ∂s ds) 𝑑𝐴
3. Weight of element 𝜌 g [Link]
Let 𝜃 is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of
action of the weight of the element.
The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of S must be
equal to the mass of fluid element× acceleration in the direction of s.
∂p
𝑝𝑑𝐴 − (𝑝 + ∂s 𝑑𝑠) 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 cosθ

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 × 𝑎𝑠 (1)

Whereas is the acceleration in the direction of s.

dv
Now as = dt
where ‘v’ is a function of s and t.
𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑣 𝑣𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜕𝑡 = 𝜕𝑠
+ 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑣
If the flow is steady, then 𝜕𝑡
=0
𝑣𝜕𝑣
as =
𝜕𝑠
Substituting the value of as in equation (1) and simplifying, we get
∂p ∂v
− ∂s dsdA − ρgdAds cosθ = ρdAds × ∂s
1 ∂p v ∂v
Dividing by 𝜌 [Link] , − ( ) × ( ) − g cosθ =
ρ ∂s ∂s
1 ∂p v ∂v dz
( ) × ( ) + g cosθ + =0 But we have cosθ = ds
ρ ∂s ∂s
1 ∂p dz v ∂v
( )×( )+g + =0
ρ ∂s ds ∂s
𝛛𝐩
𝛒
+ 𝐠𝐝𝐳 + 𝐯𝐝𝐯 = 𝟎
∴ This equation is known as Euler’s equation of motion.

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FROM EULER’S EQUATION

Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation of motion as

𝑑𝑝
∫ + ∫ 𝑔𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌

If the flow is incompressible, 𝜌 is constant and

p v2
+ gz + = constant
ρ 2
p v2
+z+ = constant
ρg 2g
p v2
+ + z = constant
ρg 2g
The above equation is Bernoulli’s equation in which
p
= Pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head.
ρg

v2
2g
= Kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid or Kinetic head.

z = Potential energy per unit weight of fluid or Potential head.

The following are the assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation.

i. The fluid is ideal. i.e. Viscosity is zero.

ii. The flow is steady.
iii. The flow is incompressible.
iv. The flow is Irrotational.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MOMENTUM EQUATION
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum principle, which
states that the net force acting on a fluid mass equal to the change in the momentum of the flow per
unit time in that direction. The force acting on a fluid mass ‘ m ‘ is given by Newton’s second law of
motion.
F=m×a
Where a is the acceleration acting in the same direction as force F.
𝑑𝑣
But 𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
(Since m is a constant and can be taken inside differential)
𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
𝐹= _________ is known as the momentum principle.
𝑑𝑡
F. dt = d(mv) _________ Is known as the impulse momentum equation.
It states that the impulse of a force F acting on a fluid mass m in a short interval of time dt is equal to
the change of momentum d(m v) in the direction of force.

Force exerted by a flowing fluid on a pipe-bend:

The impulse momentum equation is used to
determine the resultant force exerted by a flowing fluid on a
pipe bend.
Consider two sections (1) and (2) as above
Let v1 = Velocity of flow at section (1)
P1= Pressure intensity at section (1)
A1 = Area of cross-section of pipe at section (1)
And V2, P2, A2 are corresponding values of Velocity, Pressure, Area at section (2)
Let Fx and Fy be the components of the forces exerted by the flowing fluid on the bend in x and y directions
respectively. Then the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the directions of x and y will be equal to FX
and FY but in the opposite directions. Hence the component of the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in
the x – direction = - Fx and in the direction of y = - Fy. The other external forces acting on the fluid are p1 A1
and p2 A2 on the sections (1) and (2) respectively. Then the momentum equation in x-direction is given by
Net force acting on the fluid in the direction of x = Rate of change of momentum in x –direction
p1 A1 – p2 A2 Cos 𝜃 - Fx = (Mass per second) (Change of velocity)
= 𝜌 Q (Final velocity in x-direction – Initial velocity in x-direction)
= 𝜌 Q (V2 Cos 𝜃 - V1)
Fx = 𝜌 Q (V1 - V2 Cos 𝜃) + p1 A1 – p2 A2 Cos 𝜃 (1)
Similarly the momentum equation in y-direction gives
0 - p2 A2 Sin 𝜃 - Fy = 𝜌 Q (V2 Sin 𝜃 - 0)
Fy = 𝜌 Q (-V2 Sin 𝜃) - p2 A2 Sin 𝜃 (2)

Now the resultant force (FR) acting on the bend

FR = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2

And the angle made by the resultant force with the horizontal direction is given by
𝑭𝒚
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝑭𝒙

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 PROBLEMS

1. The diameter of a pipe at sections 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15cms respectively. Find the discharge
through pipe, if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5m/sec. determine the
velocity at section 2.

Given:

At section 1,

D1 = 10cms = 0.1m
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴1 = 4 (𝐷1 2 ) = 4 (0.1)2 = 0.007254 𝑚 2

V1 = 5m/sec

At section 2, D2 = 15cms =0.15m

𝜋
𝐴2 = 4 (0.15)2 = 0.01767 𝑚 2

Discharge through pipe Q = A1 ×V1

= 0.007854 ×5 = 0.03927 m3/sec

We have A1 V1 = A2 V2
𝐴1𝑉1 0.007854
𝑉2 = 𝐴2
= 0.01767
× 5.0 = 2.22𝑚/𝑠

2. Water is flowing through a pipe of 5cm dia. Under a pressure of 29.43N/cm2 and with mean
velocity of 2 m/sec. find the total head or total energy per unit weight of water at a cross-section,
which is 5m above datum line.

Given: dia. Of pipe = 5cm = 0.05m

Pressure P = 29.43N/cm2 = 29.43 x 104N/m2

Velocity V = 2 m/sec
Datum head Z = 5m

Total head = Pressure head + Kinetic head + Datum head

𝑝 (29.43×104 )
Pressure head = 𝜌𝑔 = (1000×9.81) = 30𝑚

𝑉2 2×2
Kinetic head = 2𝑔
= 2×9.81 = 0.204𝑚

Datum head = Z = 5m

𝑝 𝑉2
𝜌𝑔
+ 2𝑔 + 𝑍 = 30 + 0.204 + 5 = 35.204𝑚

Total head = 35.204m

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. A pipe through which water is flowing is having diameters 20cms and 10cms at cross-sections 1
and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section 1 is 4 m/sec. Find the velocity head at section 1
and 2 and also rate of discharge?
Given: D1 = 20cms = 0.2m
𝜋
A1 = ( ) × (0.2)2 = 0.0314𝑚 2
4
V1 = 4 m/sec
D2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
𝜋
A2 =( 4 ) × (0.1)2 = 0.007854𝑚 2
𝑉12 4×4
i) Velocity head at section 1 = = 0.815𝑚
2𝑔 2×9.81
𝑉2 2
ii) Velocity head at section 2 2𝑔
To find V2, apply continuity equation A1 V1 = A2 V2
𝐴1𝑉1 0.0314×4
𝑉2= 𝐴2
= 0.00785
= 16𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Velocity head at section 2
𝑉22 16×16
= = 13.047𝑚
2𝑔 2×9.81
iii) Rate of discharge
Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
= 0.0314 ×4 = 0.1256 m3/sec
Q = 125.6 Liters/sec

4. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20cms and 10cms at sections 1 and 2
respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 liters/sec. The section 1 is 6m above the datum and
section 2 is 4m above the datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24n/cm2. Find the intensity of
pressure at section 2?
Given: At section 1 D1 = 20cm =0.2m
𝜋
A1 = ( ) × (0.2)2 = 0.0314𝑚 2
4
P1 = 39.24N/cm2 =39.24 x 104N/m2
Z1 = 6m
At section 2 D2 =10cm = 0.1m
𝜋
A2 = ( 4 ) × (0.1)2 = 0.0007854𝑚 2
Z2 = 4m, P2 = ?
Rate of flow Q = 35 lt/sec = (35/1000) m /sec = 0.035 m3/sec
3

Q = A1V1 = A2V2
𝑄 0.035
𝑉1 = 𝐴 = 0.0314 = 1.114𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1
𝑄 0.035
𝑉2 = 𝐴 = 0.007854 = 4.456𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃 𝑉22
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2 𝜌𝑔
+ 2𝑔
+ 𝑍1 = 𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔
+ 𝑍2
(1.114) 2 𝑃 (4.456)2
(39.24 × 104 )(1000 × 9.81) + 2
+ 6 = (1000×9.81) + +4
2×9.81 2×9.81
𝑃2
40 + 0.063 + 6 = 9810 + 1.102 + 4
2 𝑃
46.063 = 9810 + 5.102
𝑃2
9810
= 46.063 – 5.102 = 41.051

P2 = 41.051 ×9810 =402710 N/m2

P2 = 40.271N/cm2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

5)Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300mm and 200mm at the bottom and upper end
respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 24.525N/cm2 and the pressure at the
upper end is 9.81N/cm2. Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of flow through is
40lit/sec?

Given:

section 1 D1= 300mm =0.3m

𝜋
𝐴1 = ( ) × (0.3)2 A1 = 0.07065 m2
4

P1= 24.525N/cm2 = 24.525 × 104N/m2

Section 2 D2 = 200mm 0.2m

𝜋
A2 = ( ) ) × (0.2 )2 = 0.0314 m2
4

P2 = 9.81N/cm2 = 9.81 × 104 N/m2

Rate of flow Q = 40 lit/Sec =40/1000 = 0.04 m3/sec

Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2

Q 0.04
𝑉1 = A1
= 0.07065 = 0.566m/sec

Q 0.04
𝑉2 = A2
= 00.0314 = 1.274m/sec

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

(24.525 × 104 ) (0.566)2 (9.81 × 104 ) (1.274)2

+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
(1000 × 9.81) (2 × 9.81) (1000 × 9.81) (2 × 9.81)

.
25 + 0.32 +Z1 = 10 +1.623 + Z2

Z2 – Z1 = 25.32 – 11.623 = 13.697 or say 13.70m

The difference in datum head = Z2 – Z1 = 13.70m

6)The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 100m

having diameters 600mm at the upper end and 300mm at
the lower end, at the rate of 50lts/sec. the pipe has a slope
of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end, if the
pressure at the higher level is 19.62N/cm2?

Given: Length of pipe L = 100m

Dia. At the upper end D1 = 600mm = 0.6m

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 π
𝐴1 = ( 4 ) × (0.6)2 = 0.2827m2

P1 = 19.62N/cm2 = 19.62 × 104 N/m2

Dia. at the lower end D2 = 300mm = 0.3m

π
𝐴2 = ( 4 ) × (0.3)2 = 0.07065m2

50
Rate of flow Q = 50 Lts/sec = 1000= 0.05 m3/sec

Let the datum line is passing through the centre of the lower end. Then Z 2 = o

1 10
As slope is 1 in 30 means 𝑍1 = (30) × 100 = ( 3 ) m

We also know that Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2

Q 0.05
𝑉1 = A = 0.2827 = 0.177m/sec
1

Q 0.05
𝑉2 = = = 0.707m/sec
A2 0.07065

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃 𝑉22
𝜌𝑔
+ 2𝑔
+ 𝑍1 = 𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔
+ 𝑍2

(19.62×104 ) (0.177)2 10 𝑃2 (0.707) 2

+ + = + +0
1000×9.81 2×9.81 3 1000×9.81 2×9.81

2 P
20 +0.001596 + 3.334 = 9810 + 0.0254

2 P
23.335 = 9810 + 0.0254

P2
9810
= 23.335 – 0.0254 =23.31

P2 = 23.31 × 9810 = 228573N/m2

P2 = 22.857N/cm2

7) A 45° reducing bend is connected to a pipe line, the diameters at inlet and out let of the bend
being 600mm and 300mm respectively. Find the force exerted by the water on the bend, if the
intensity of pressure at the inlet to the bend is 8.829N/cm2 and rate of flow of water is 600 Lts/sec.
Given: Angle of bend 𝜃 = 45°
Dia. at inlet D1 = 600mm = 0.6m
π
𝐴1 = ( 4 ) ×(0.6)2 = 0.2827 m2
Dia. at out let D2 = 300mm = 0.3m
π
A2 = ( 4 ) × (0.3)2 = 0.07065 m2

Pressure at inlet P1 = 8.829N/cm2 = 8.829 × 104N/m2

Q = 600Lts/sec = 0.6 m3/sec

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Q 0.6
V1 = A = 0.2827 = 2.122m/sec
1
Q 0.6
V2 = A2
= 0.07068
= 8.488m/sec
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃 𝑉22
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2, we get 𝜌𝑔
+ 2𝑔
+ 𝑍1 = 𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔
+ 𝑍2
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
But Z1 = Z2 , then + = +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

8.829 × 104 (2.122)2 P2 (8.488)2

+ = =
1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
P
2 P2
9 + 0.2295 = 9810 + 3.672 9810
= 9.2295 - 3.672 = 5.5575 m of water

P2 =5.5575 × 9810 = 5.45 × 104 N/m2

Force exerted on the bend in X and Y – directions
Fx = 𝜌 Q (V1 - V2 Cos 𝜃) + P1 A1 – P2 A2 Cos 𝜃
= 1000 × 0.6 (2.122 – 8.488 Cos45°) + 8.829 ×104 ×0.2827 – 5.45 × 104 × 0.07065 × Cos45°
= - 2327.9 + 24959.6 – 2720.3 =24959.6 - 5048.2 = 19911.4N
Fx = 19911.4 N
Fy = 𝜌 Q (-V2 Sin 𝜃) - P2 A2 Sin 𝜃
= 1000×0.6 (- 8.488 Sin45° ) - 5.45 × 104 ×0.07068 Sin45°
= - 3601.1 - 2721.1 = - 6322.2N
(- ve sign means Fy is acting in the down ward direction)
Fy = - 6322.2N
Therefore the Resultant Force FR = 𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 = (19911.4)2+ (- 6322.2)2 = 20890.9N
FR = 20890.9 N
F
The angle made by resultant force with X – axis is Tan 𝜃 = Fx
y

= (6322.2/19911.4) = 0.3175

𝜽= tan-10.3175= 𝟏𝟕𝟎 𝟑𝟔′

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
• For sizing of pumps: Volute in the casing of centrifugal pumps converts velocity of fluid into
pressure energy by increasing area of flow. The conversion of kinetic energy into pressure is
according to Bernoulli’s equation.

• Carburetor works on principle of Bernoulli’s principle: the faster the air moves, the lower its
static pressure and higher its dynamic pressure.

• Application of the Momentum Equation

 Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend.

 Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe.

 Impact of a jet on a plane surface.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. A pipe 1 of 450mm in diameter branches into two pipes (2&3) of diameter 300mm
and 200mm. If average velocity in 450mm diameter pipe is 3/s. Find (i) Discharge
through 450mm diameter pipe. (ii) Velocity in 200mm diameter pipe if the velocity in
300mm pipe is 2.5m/s.
2. A pipe line ABC 200m long is laid on an upward slope 1 in 40. The length of the
portion AB is 100m and its diameter is 100mm. At B the pipe section suddenly
enlarges to 200mm diameter and remains so for the remainder of its length BC,
100m. A flow of 0.0m3/s is pumped into the pipe at its lower end A and is discharged
at the upper end C into closed tank. The pressure at the supply end is 200kN/m 2.
What is the pressure at C?
3. A 450 reducing bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet and outlet
of the bend being 40cm and 20cm. Find the force exerted by water on the bend if
the intensity of pressure at inlet of bend is 21.58N/cm 2. The rate of flow of water is
500litres/s.
4. Differentiate between Stream line, path line and streak line and stream tube.
5. Differentiate between a) laminar flow and turbulent flow and b) rotational and
irrotational flows c) Steady and unsteady flow d) uniform and non uniform flow.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. A pipe line 300m long has a slope of 1 in 100 and tapers from 1.2m diameter at the high end
to 0.6m at the low end. The discharge through the pipe is 5.4m3/min. If the pressure at the
high end is 70kPa, find the pressure at the lower end. Neglect losses.

2. A pipe 1 of 450mm in diameter branches into two pipes (2&3) of diameter 300mm and
200mm. If average velocity in 450mm diameter pipe is 3/s. Find (i) Discharge through
450mm diameter pipe. (ii) Velocity in 200mm diameter pipe if the velocity in 300mm pipe is
2.5m/s.

3. A pipe line ABC 200m long is laid on an upward slope 1 in 40. The length of the portion AB is
100m and its diameter is 100mm. At B the pipe section suddenly enlarges to 200mm
diameter and remains so for the remainder of its length BC, 100m. A flow of 0.0m3/s is
pumped into the pipe at its lower end A and is discharged at the upper end C into closed
tank. The pressure at the supply end is 200kN/m2. What is the pressure at C?

4. A 450 reducing bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet and outlet of the
bend being 40cm and 20cm. Find the force exerted by water on the bend if the intensity of
pressure at inlet of bend is 21.58N/cm2. The rate of flow of water is 500litres/s.

5. Derive Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation of motion. What are the assumptions
made in deriving Bernoulli’s theorem?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT 3
BOUNDARY LAYER CONCEPTS
&
CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW
Course Objective:

To give basic understanding of boundary layer concept and analyze different types of
losses and measurement of flow.

Course Outcome:

Study the fundamental of boundary layer concepts and apply of losses concept in real life.

Boundary Layer Characteristics

The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by a German scientist, Ludwig Prandtl, in the
year 1904. Although, the complete descriptions of motion of a viscous fluid were known through
Navier-Stokes equations, the mathematical difficulties in solving these equations prohibited the
theoretical analysis of viscous flow. Prandtl suggested that the viscous flows can be analyzed by
dividing the flow into two regions; one close to the solid boundaries and other covering the rest of
the flow. Boundary layer is the regions close to the solid boundary where the effects of viscosity are
experienced by the flow. In the regions outside the boundary layer, the effect of viscosity is
negligible and the fluid is treated as inviscid. So, the boundary layer is a buffer region between the
wall below and the inviscid free-stream above. This approach allows the complete solution of
viscous fluid flows which would have been impossible through Navier-Stokes equation. The
qualitative picture of the boundary-layer growth over a flat plate is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Representation of boundary layer on a flat plate.

A laminar boundary layer is initiated at the leading edge of the plate for a short distance and extends
to downstream. The transition occurs over a region, after certain length in the downstream followed
by fully turbulent boundary layers. For common calculation purposes, the transition is usually
considered to occur at a distance where the Reynolds number is about 500,000. With air at standard
conditions, moving at a velocity of 30m/s, the transition is expected to occur at a distance of about
250mm. A typical boundary layer flow is characterized by certain parameters as given below;

Boundary layer thickness : It is known that no-slip conditions have to be satisfied at the solid surface:
the fluid must attain the zero velocity at the wall. Subsequently, above the wall, the effect of
viscosity tends to reduce and the fluid within this layer will try to approach the free stream velocity.
Thus, there is a velocity gradient that develops within the fluid layers inside the small regions near to
solid surface. The boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance from the surface to a point
where the velocity is reaches 99% of the free stream velocity. Thus, the velocity profile merges
smoothly and asymptotically into the free stream as shown in Fig. 2.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2: (a) Boundary layer thickness; (b) Free stream flow (no viscosity);

(c) Concepts of displacement thickness.

REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT: It consists of a constant head tank filled with water, a small tank
containing dye, a horizontal glass tube provided with a bell-mouthed entrance a and regulating
valve. The water was made to flow from the tank through the glass tube in to the atmosphere and
the velocity if flow was varied by adjusting the regulating valve. The liquid dye having the same
specific weight as that of water was introduced in to the flow at the bell – mouth through a small
tube

From the experiments it was disclosed that when the velocity of flow was low, the dye
remained in the form of a straight line and stable filament passing through the glass tube so steady
that it scarcely seemed to be in motion with increase in the velocity of flow a critical state was
reached at which the filament of dye showed irregularities and began of waver. Further increase in
the velocity of flow the fluctuations in the filament of dye became more intense and ultimately the
dye diffused over the entire cross-section of the tube, due to intermingling of the particles of the
flowing fluid

Reynolds’s deduced from his experiments that at low velocities the intermingling of the fluid
particles was absent and the fluid particles moved in parallel layers or lamina, sliding past the
adjacent lamina but not mixing with them. This is the laminar flow. At higher velocities the dye
filament diffused through the tube it was apparent that the intermingling of fluid particles was
occurring in other words the flow was turbulent. The velocity at which the flow changes from the
laminar to turbulent for the case of a given fluid at a given temperature and in a given pipe is known
as Critical Velocity. The state of flow in between these types of flow is known as transitional state or
flow in transition.
Reynolds discovered that the occurrence of laminar and turbulent flow was governed by
the relative magnitudes of the inertia and the viscous forces. At low velocities the viscous forces
become predominant and flow is viscous. At higher velocities of flow the inertial forces

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

predominance over viscous forces. Reynolds related the inertia to viscous forces and arrived at a
dimension less parameter.
inertia force 𝐹
𝑅𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑒 = viscous force
= 𝐹𝑖
𝑣

According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion, the inertia force Fi is given by

Fi = mass × acceleration
= ρ × volume × acceleration ρ = mass density
L
= ρ × L3 × T2 = ρ L2 V2 ---------- (1) L = Linear dimension

Similarly viscous force FV is given by Newton’s 2nd law of velocity as

FV = τ × area τ = shear stress
dv
= µdy × L2 = µVL ---------------- (2) V = Average Velocity of flow

µ = Viscosity of fluid
ρL2 V2 ρVL
Re or NR = μVL
= μ

In case of pipes L = D
ρDV 𝑉𝐷
In case of flow through pipes 𝑅𝑒 = μ
or 𝑣
𝜈

Where µ/ρ = kinematic viscosity of the flowing liquid ν

The Reynolds number is a very useful parameter in predicting whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent.
Re < 2000 viscous / laminar flow
Re  2000 to 4000 transient flow
Re > 4000 Turbulent flow

FRICTIONAL LOSS IN PIPE FLOW – DARCY WEISBACK EQUATION

When a liquid is flowing through a pipe,

the velocity of the liquid layer adjacent to the
pipe wall is zero. The velocity of liquid goes on
increasing from the wall and thus velocity
gradient and hence shear stresses are
produced in the whole liquid due to viscosity.
This viscous action causes loss of energy,
which is known as frictional loss.

Consider a uniform horizontal pipe having steady flow. Let 1-1, 2-2 are two sections of pipe.
Let P1 = Pressure intensity at section 1-1
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1
L = Length of pipe between section 1-1 and 2-2
d = Diameter of pipe

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 𝑓 ′ = Fractional resistance for unit wetted area per a unit velocity
hf = Loss of head due to friction
And P2, V2 = are values of pressure intensity and velocity at section 2-2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2
Total head at 1-1 = total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between 1-1 and 2-2
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Z1 = Z2 as pipe is horizontal

V1 = V2 as dia. of pipe is same at 1-1 and 2-2

𝑃1 𝑃
𝜌𝑔
= 𝜌𝑔2 + ℎ𝑓 Or
𝑃 𝑃
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜌𝑔1 − 𝜌𝑔2 (1)

But hf is head is lost due to friction and hence the intensity of pressure will be reduced in the
direction flow by frictional resistance.
Now, Frictional Resistance = Frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity
× Wetted Area × (velocity)2

𝐹1 = 𝑓 ′ × 𝜋𝑑𝐿 × 𝑉 2 [∵Wetted area =𝜋𝑑 × 𝐿, Velocity = V=V1=V2 ]

𝐹1 = 𝑓 ′ × 𝑝𝐿𝑉 2 (2) [∵ 𝜋d = perimeter = p ]

The forces acting on the fluid between section 1-1 and 2-2 are
Pressure force at section 1-1 = P1 ×A where A = area of pipe
Pressure force at section 2-2 = P2 ×A
Frictional force = F1
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we have

P1 A – P2A – F1 = 0

(P1 – P2)A = F1 = 𝑓 ′ × 𝑝 × 𝐿 × 𝑉 2 from equation – (2)

𝑓 ′ ×𝑝×𝐿×𝑉 2
P1 – P2 = A
But from equation (1) P1 - P2 = ρghf

Equating the value of P1 - P2, we get

𝑓 ′ ×𝑝×𝐿×𝑉 2
ρghf =
A

f′ P
ℎ𝑓 = pg × A × L × V 2 (3)

P Wetted Permiter πd π
In the equation (3) A
= Area
= π 2 =d
d
4

𝑓′ 4 𝑓′ 4𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑑 × 𝐿 × 𝑉 2 = 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑑

𝑓′ 𝑓
Putting = Where f is known as co-efficient of friction.
𝜌 2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 4𝑓 𝐿𝑉 2
Equation (4) becomes as ℎ𝑓 = 2𝑔 × 𝑑

4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = 2𝑔𝑑

This Equation is known as Darcy – Weisbach equation, commonly used for finding loss of head due
to friction in pipes
Then f is known as a friction factor or co-efficient of friction which is a dimensionless quantity. f is
not a constant but, its value depends upon the roughness condition of pipe surface and the Reynolds
number of the flow.

MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES:

The loss of energy due to friction is classified as a major loss, because in case of long pipe lines it
is much more than the loss of energy incurred by other causes.

The minor losses of energy are caused on account of the change in the velocity of flowing fluids
(either in magnitude or direction). In case of long pipes these loses are quite small as compared with
the loss of energy due to friction and hence these are termed as ‘’minor losses ‘’

Which may even be neglected without serious error However in short pipes these losses may
sometimes outweigh the friction loss. Some of the losses of energy which may be caused due to the
change of velocity are:

(𝑉1−𝑉2)2
1. Loss of energy due to sudden enlargement ℎ𝑒 = 2𝑔

2 𝑉2
2. Loss of energy due to sudden contraction ℎ𝑐 = 0.5 2𝑔

𝑉2
3. Loss of energy at the entrance to a pipe ℎ𝑖 = 0.5 2𝑔

𝑉2
4. Loss of energy at the exit from a pipe ℎ𝑜 =
2𝑔

𝑘(𝑉1 −𝑉2)2
5. Loss of energy due to gradual contraction or enlargement ℎ𝑙 = 2𝑔

𝑘𝑉 2
6. Loss of energy in the bends ℎ𝑏 = 2𝑔

𝑘𝑉 2
7. Loss of energy in various pipe fittings ℎ𝑙 = 2𝑔

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1. LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT

Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe which

has sudden enlargement. Consider two
sections 1-1 and 2-2 before and after
enlargement. Due to sudden change of
diameter of the pipe from D1 to D2. , The liquid
flowing from the smaller pipe is not able to
fallow the abrupt change of the boundary.
Thus the flow separates from the boundary
and turbulent eddies are formed. The loss of
head takes place due to the formation of these
eddies.

Let 𝑝′ = Pressure intensity of the liquid eddies on the area (A2 – A1)

he = loss of head due to the sudden enlargement.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1-1 and 2-2

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

But z1 = z2 as pipe is horizontal

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ = + + ℎ𝑒
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝 𝑝 𝑉2 𝑉22
Or ℎ𝑒 = (𝜌𝑔1 − 𝜌𝑔2 ) + ( 2𝑔
1
− 2𝑔
) (1)

The force acting on the liquid in the control volume in the direction of flow

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 + 𝑝′ (𝐴2 − 𝐴1 ) − 𝑝2 𝐴2

But experimentally it is found that 𝑝′ = 𝑝1

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 + 𝑝1 (𝐴2 − 𝐴1 ) − 𝑝2 𝐴2

= 𝑝1 𝐴2 − 𝑝2 𝐴2

= (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴2 (2)

Momentum of liquid/ second at section 1-1 = mass × velocity

= 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉1 × 𝑉1

= 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉1 2

Momentum of liquid/ second at section 2-2 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 × 𝑉2 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 2

Change of momentum/second = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 2 − 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉1 2 (3)

But from continuity equation, we have

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 A1V1 = A2V2

𝐴2 𝑉2
Or 𝐴1 = 𝑉1

𝐴2 𝑉2
∴ Change of momentum/sec= 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 2 − 𝜌 × × 𝑉1 2
𝑉1

= 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 2 − 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑉2

= 𝜌𝐴2 (𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 ) (4)

Now the net force acting on the control volume in the direction of flow must be equal to rate of
change of momentum per second. Hence equating equation (2) and equation (4)

(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝐴2 = 𝜌𝐴2 (𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 )

𝑝1 − 𝑝 2
𝜌
= 𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2

𝑝1− 𝑝 2 𝑉22−𝑉1𝑉2
Dividing both sides by ‘g’ we have 𝜌𝑔
= 𝑔

𝑝1 𝑝 𝑉22 −𝑉1𝑉2
Or 𝜌𝑔
− 𝜌𝑔2 = 𝑔

Substituting in equation (1)

𝑉22 −𝑉1𝑉2 𝑉21 𝑉22 2𝑉22 −2𝑉1 𝑉2+𝑉12−𝑉22

ℎ𝑒 = 𝑔
+ ( 2𝑔 − 2𝑔
)=
2𝑔

𝑉12 +𝑉22 −2𝑉1𝑉2

= 2𝑔

(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
ℎ𝑒 =
2𝑔

2. LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO SUDDEN CONTRACTION

Consider a liquid flowing in a pipe, which has a sudden contraction
in area. Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2 before and after
contraction. As the liquid flows from larger pipe to smaller pipe,
the area of flow goes on decreasing and becomes minimum at
section C - C. This section is called Vena-contracta. After section C-
C, a sudden enlargement of area takes place. The loss of head due
to sudden contraction is actually due to sudden enlargement of
area from vena-contracta to smaller pipe.
Let Ac = Area of flow at section C - C
Vc = Velocity of flow at section C – C
A2 = Area of flow at section 2 - 2
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2 - 2
hc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction
Now, hc = Actual loss of head due to sudden enlargement from section C - C to section 2-2 is
(𝑉𝑐 −𝑉2)2 𝑉22 𝑉𝑐 2
hc = = [ − 1] (1)
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑉2
From continuity equation, we have

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 𝑉𝑐 𝐴 1 1 𝐴
AcVc = A2 V2 Or 𝑉2
= 𝐴2 = 𝐴𝑐 =𝐶 [∵ 𝐶𝑐 = 𝑐 ]
𝐴
𝑐 𝑐 2
𝐴2
𝑉𝑐
Substituting the value of in equation (1)
𝑉2
𝑉22 1 2 𝑘𝑉22 1 2
ℎ𝑐 = [ − 1] = , Where k = [𝐶 − 1]
2𝑔 𝐶 𝑐 2𝑔 𝑐
If the value of Cc is assumed to be equal to 0.62, then
1 2
𝑘=[ − 1] = 0.375
0.62
𝑘𝑉22 2 𝑉2
Then hc becomes as ℎ𝑐 = 2𝑔
= 0.375 2𝑔
If the value of Cc is not given, then the head loss due to contraction is taken as
𝑉2 2
ℎ𝑐 = 0.5
2𝑔
3. LOSS OF HEAD AT THE ENTRANCE OF A PIPE
This is the loss of energy which occurs when a liquid enters a pipe which is connected to a large
tank or reservoir. This loss is similar to the loss of head due to sudden contraction. This loss depends
on the form of entrance. For a sharp edge entrance, this loss is slightly more than a rounded or bell
mouthed entrance. In practice the value of loss of head at the entrance. In practice the value of loss
of head at the entrance (inlet) of a pipe with sharp cornered entrance is taken as 0.5 v 2/2g where v =
velocity of liquid in pipe. This loss is denoted by hf
𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 0.5
2𝑔

4. LOSS OF HEAD AT THE EXIT OF A PIPE

This loss of head (or energy) due to the velocity of the liquid at the out let of the pipe, which is
dissipated either in the form of a free jet (if the out let of the pipe is free) or it is lost in the tank or
𝑉2
reservoir. This loss is equal to , where V is the velocity of liquid at the out let of the pipe. This loss
2𝑔
is denoted by ho.
𝑉2
ℎ𝑜 = 2𝑔 V = velocity at outlet of the pipe

5. LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO OBSTRUCTION IN A PIPE

Whenever there is an obstruction in a pipe, the loss of energy take place due to reduction of the
area of the cross section of the pipe at the place where obstruction is present. There is a sudden
enlargement of the area of flow beyond the obstruction due to which loss of head takes place.
Consider a pipe of area of cross- section A having an obstruction
Let a = max. Area of obstruction
A = Area of pipe
V = velocity of liquid in pipe
Then (A - a) = Area of flow of liquid at section 1-1
As the liquid flows and passes through section 1-1, a vena -
contracta is formed beyond section 1-1- after which the stream of liquid widens again and velocity
of flow at section on 2-2 become uniform and equal to velocity, v in the pipe. This situation is similar
to the flow of liquid through sudden enlargement.
Let Vc = velocity of liquid at vena – contracta

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Then loss of head due to obstruction = loss of head due to enlargement from vena – contracta to
section 2-2
(𝑉𝑐−𝑉)2
= 2𝑔
-------- (1)
From continuity equation we have 𝐴𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 (2)
Where ac = Area of cross section at vena- contracta
If Cc= co-efficient of contraction

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝑐 𝑎
Then 𝐶𝑐 = (𝐴−𝑎)
= (𝐴−𝑎)
ac = Cc (A-a)
Substituting this value in equation (2) Cc (A-a) Vc = A V
𝐴×𝑉
∴ 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐶
𝑐 (𝐴−𝑎)
Substituting this value of VC in equation (1)
𝐴×𝑉 2
(𝑉𝑐−𝑉)2 ( (𝐴−𝑎) −𝑉) 𝑉2 𝐴 2
𝐶𝑐
Head loss due to obstruction = = = ( (𝐴−𝑎) )
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐶𝑐

6. LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO BEND IN PIPE:

When there is a bend in a pipe, the velocity flow changes, due to which separation of the
flow from the boundary and also formation of eddies takes place, thus the energy is lost.

Loss of head in pipe due to bend is expressed as

𝑘𝑉 2
ℎ𝑏 =
2𝑔

Where, ℎ𝑏 = Loss of head due to bend, V = Velocity of flow, k = Co-efficient of bend.

The value of k depends on
1. Angle of bend,
2. Radius of curvature of bend,
3. Diameter of pipe.

7. LOSS OF HEAD IN VARIOUS PIPE FITTINGS:

The loss of head in various pipe fittings such as valves, couplings etc. is expressed as
𝑘𝑉 2
= .
2𝑔
Where V= Velocity of flow, k= co-efficient of pipe fitting.

LOSS OF ENERGY DUE TO GRADUAL CONTRACTION OR ENLARGEMENT:

The loss of energy can be considerably reduced if in place of a sudden contraction or sudden
enlargement a gradual contraction or gradual enlargement is provided. This is because in gradual
contraction or enlargement the velocity of flow is gradually increased or reduced, the formation of
eddies responsible for dissipation of energy are eliminated.
The loss of head in gradual contraction or gradual enlargement is expressed as

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 𝑘(𝑉1−𝑉2)2
ℎ𝐿 = 2𝑔

Where k is a co-efficient and V1 and V2 are the mean velocities at the inlet and the out let.
The value of K depends on the angle of convergence or divergence and on the ratio of the upstream
and the downstream cross-sectional areas. For gradual contraction the value of K is very small even
for larger values of the angle of convergence. For gradual contraction without sharp corners the loss
of energy caused is so small that it may be neglected.
For gradual enlargement the value of K depends on the angle of divergence.
The value of K increases as the angle of divergence increases for a given ratio of the cross-
sectional areas at the inlet and at the outlet. In the case of gradual enlargement, except for very
small angles of divergence, the flow of fluid is always subjected to separation from the boundaries
and consequent formation of the eddies resulting in loss of energy. Therefore in the case of gradual
enlargement the loss of energy can’t be completely eliminated.
PIPES IN SERIES:

If a pipe line connecting two reservoirs is made up of several pipes of different diameters d 1, d2, d3,
etc. and lengths L1, L2, L3 etc. all connected in series ( i.e. end to end ), then the difference in the
liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of the head losses in all the sections. Further the discharge
through each pipe will be same.

0.5𝑉1 2 4𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉1 2 0.5𝑉2 2 4𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉2 2 0.5𝑉3 2 4𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉3 2

𝐻= + + + + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑3

𝜋×𝑑1 2 𝜋×𝑑22 𝜋×𝑑32

Also 𝑄= ( 4
) × 𝑉1 = (
4
) × 𝑉2 = (
4
) × 𝑉3

However if the minor losses are neglected as compared with the loss of head due to friction in each
pipe, then
4𝑓1 𝐿1𝑉12 4𝑓2𝐿2 𝑉22 4𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32
𝐻= + +
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2 2𝑔𝑑3

The above equation may be used to solve the problems of pipe lines in series. There are two
types of problems which may arise for the pipe lines in series. Viz.

a) Given a discharge Q to determine the head H and

b) Given H to determine discharge Q.

If the co-efficient of friction is same for all the pipes i.e. f1 = f2 = f3, then

4𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2𝑉2 2 𝐿3𝑉32

𝐻= [ + + ]
2𝑔 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PIPES IN PARALLEL:

When a main pipeline divides in to two or more parallel pipes, which may again join together
downstream and continue as main line, the pipes are said to be in parallel. The pipes are connected
in parallel in order to increase the discharge passing through the main. It is analogous to parallel
electric current in which the drop in potential and flow of electric current can be comp ared to head
loss and rate of discharge in a fluid flow respectively.

The rate of discharge in the main line is equal to the sum of the discharges in each of the parallel
pipes.
Thus Q = Q1 + Q2

The flow of liquid in pipes (1) and (2) takes place under the difference of head between the
sections A and B and hence the loss of head between the sections A and B will be the same whether
the liquid flows through pipe (1) or pipe (2). Thus if D1, D2 and L1, L2 are the diameters and lengths of
the pipes (1) and (2) respectively, then the velocities of flow V 1 and V2 in the two pipes must be such
as to give

𝑓𝐿1 𝑉1 2 𝑓𝐿2 𝑉2 2
ℎ𝑓 = =
2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2

Assuming same value of f for each parallel pipe

𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22
2𝑔𝑑1
= 2𝑔𝑑2

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT LINE AND TOTAL ENERGY LINE:

Consider a long pipe line carrying liquid from a reservoir A to reservoir B. At several points
along the pipeline let piezo meters be installed. The liquid will rise in the piezometers to certain
heights corresponding to the pressure intensity at each section. The height of the liquid surface

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

above the axis of the pipe in the piezometer at any section will be equal to the pressure head (p/w)
at that section. On account of loss of energy due to friction, the pressure head will decrease
gradually from section to section of pipe in the direction of flow. If the pressure heads at the
different sections of the pipe are plotted to scale as vertical ordinates above the axis of the pipe and
all these points are joined by a straight line , a sloping line is obtained, which is known as Hydraulic
Gradient Line (H.G.L ).

Since at any section of pipe the vertical distance between the pipe axis and Hydraulic
gradient line is equal to the pressure head at that section, it is also known as pressure line. Moreover
if Z is the height of the pipe axis at any section above an arbitrary datum, then the vertical height of
the Hydraulic gradient line above the datum at that section of pipe represents the piezometric head
equal to (p/w + z). Sometimes the Hydraulic gradient line is also known as piezometric head line.

At the entrance section of the pipe for some distance the Hydraulic gradient line is not very
well defined. This is because as liquid from the reservoir enters the pipe, a sudden drop in pressure
head takes place in this portion of pipe. Further the exit section of pipe being submerged, the
pressure head at this section is equal to the height of the liquid surface in the reservoir B and hence
the hydraulic gradient line at the exit section of pipe will meet the liquid surface in the reservoir B.

If at different sections of pipe the total energy ( in terms of head) is plotted to scale as
vertical ordinate above the assumed datum and all these points are joined, then a straight sloping
line will be obtained and is known as energy grade line or Total energy line (T.E.L). Since total energy
𝑉2
at any section is the sum of the pressure head (p/w), datum head z and velocity head ( ) and the
2𝑔
vertical distance between the datum and hydraulic grade line is equal to the piezometric head (p/w
+ z), the energy grade line will be parallel to the hydraulic grade line, with a vertical distance
𝑉2
between them equal to (2𝑔). at the entrance section of the pipe there occurs some loss of energy
𝑉2
called “Entrance loss” equal to hL=0.5 ( )and hence the energy grade line at this section will lie at a
2𝑔
𝑉2
vertical depth equal to 0.5 (2𝑔)below the liquid surface in the reservoir A. Similarly at the exit
𝑉2
section of pipe, since there occurs an exit loss equal to hL = (2𝑔). The energy gradiant line at this
𝑉2
section will lie at a vertical distance equal to (2𝑔)above the liquid surface in the reservoir B. Since at
any section of pipe the vertical distance between the energy grade line and the horizontal line drawn
through the liquid surface in reservoir A will represents the total loss of energy incurred up to that
section.

If the pipe line connecting the two reservoirs is horizontal, then the datum may be
assumed to be along the pipe axis only. The piezometric head and the pressure head will then
become the same.

If a pipe line carrying liquid from reservoir A discharges freely in to the atmosphere at its
exit end, the hydraulic grade line at the exit end of the pipe will pass through the centre line of the
pipe, since the pressure head at the exit end of the pipe will be zero (being atmospheric). The energy
grade line will again be parallel to the hydraulic grade line and it will be at a vertical distance of
𝑉2
( )above the Hydraulic grade line
2𝑔

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PITOT – TUBE
A Pitot tube is a simple device used for measuring the velocity of flow. The basic principle
used in this is that if the velocity of flow at a particular point is reduced to zero, which is known as
stagnation point, the pressure there is increased due to conversion of the kinetic energy in to
pressure energy and by measuring the increase in pressure energy at this point , the velocity of flow
may be determined.

Simplest form of a pitot tube consists of a glass tube, large enough for capillary effects to be
negligible and bent at right angles. A single tube of this type is used for measuring the velocity of
flow in an open channel. The tube is dipped vertically in the flowing stream of fluid with its open end
A directed to face the flow and other open end projecting above the fluid surface in the stream. The
fluid enters the tube and the level of the fluid in the tube exceeds that of the fluid surface in the
surrounding stream. This is so because the end A of the tube is a stagnation point, where the fluid is
at rest, and the fluid approaching end A divides at this point and passes around tube. Since at
stagnation point the kinetic energy is converted in to pressure energy, the fluid in the tube rises
above the surrounding fluid surface by a height, which corresponds to the velocity of flow of fluid
approaching end A of the tube. The pressure at the stagnation point is known as stagnation
pressure.
Consider a point 1 slightly upstream of end A and lying along the same horizontal plane in
the flowing stream of velocity V. Now if the point 1 and A are at a vertical depth of h O from the free
surface of fluid and h is the height of the fluid raised in the pitot tube above the free surface of the
liquid. Then by applying Bernoulli’s equation between the point 1 and A, neglecting loss of energy,
we get
𝑉2
ℎ𝑜 = 2𝑔 = ℎ𝑜 + ℎ

(ho + h) is the stagnation pressure head at a point A, which consists of static pressure head h O and
dynamic pressure head h. Simplifying the expression,
𝑉2
2𝑔
=ℎ Or 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ (1)

This equation indicates that the dynamic pressure head h is proportional to the square of
the velocity of flow close to end A.
Thus the velocity of flow at any point in the flowing stream may be determined by dipping
the Pitot tube to the required point and measuring the height ‘h’ of the fluid raised in the tube
above the free surface. The velocity of flow given by the above equation (1) is more than actual
velocity of flow as no loss of energy is considered in deriving the above equation.

When the flow is highly turbulent the Pitot tube records a higher value of h, which is higher
than the mean velocity of flow. In order to take in to account the errors due to the above factors,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

the actual velocity of flow may be obtained by introducing a co-efficient C or CV called Pitot tube co-
efficient. So the actual velocity is given by

𝑣 = 𝐶√2𝑔ℎ (Probable value of C is 0.98)

When a pitot tube is used for measuring the velocity of a flow in a pipe, the Pitot tube may be
inserted in a pipe. Since pitot tube measures the stagnation pressure head (or the total head) at its
dipped end, the static pressure head is also required to be measured at the same section, where tip
of pitot tube is held, in order to determine the dynamic pressure head ‘h’. For measuring the static
pressure head a pressure tap is provided at this section to which a piezo meter may be connected.
Alternatively a dynamic pressure head may also be determined directly by connecting a suitable
differential manometer between the pitot tube and pressure tap.

Consider point 1 slightly up stream of the stagnation point 2.

Appling Bernoulli’s equation between the points 1 and 2, we get

𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑃2
𝜔
+ 2𝑔 = 𝜔
(2)

Where P1 and P2 are the pressure intensities at points 1 and 2, V is velocity of flow at point 1 and 𝜔
is the specific weight of the fluid flowing through the pipe. P 1 is the static pressure and P2 is the
stagnation pressure. The equation for the pressure through the manometer in meters of water may
be written as,

𝑃 𝑃
( 1 ) 𝑥𝑠 + 𝑦𝑠 + 𝑥𝑠𝑚 = (𝑦 + 𝑥)𝑠 + ( 2 ) 𝑠 (3)
𝜔 𝜔

Where s and sm are the specific gravities of the fluid flowing in the pipe and the manometric liquid
respectively. By simplifying

𝑃2 𝑃 𝑠
𝜔
− 𝜔1 = 𝑥 ([ 𝑠𝑚 ] − 1)

𝑃2 𝑃
After substituting for ( 𝜔
− 𝜔1 =) in the equation (2) and solving for V

𝑠𝑚
𝑣 = 𝐶√2𝑔𝑥 ([ ] − 1)
𝑠

VENTURI METER
A venture meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipe. The
basic principle on which venture meter works is that by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow
passage, a pressure difference is created and the measurement of the pressure difference enables
the determination of the discharge through the pipe.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 A venture meter consists of (1) an inlet section, followed by a converging cone (2) a
cylindrical throat and (3) a gradually divergent cone. The inlet section of venture meter is the same
diameter as that of the pipe which is followed by a convergent cone. The convergent cone is a short
pipe, which tapers from the original size of the pipe to that of the throat of the venture meter. The
throat of the venture meter is a short parallel – sided tube having its cross-sectional area smaller
than that of the pipe. The divergent cone of the venture meter is a gradually diverging pipe with its
cross-sectional area increasing from that of the throat to the original size of the pipe. At the inlet
section and the throat i.e sections 1 and 2 of the venture meter pressure gauges are provided.
The convergent cone of the venture meter has a total included angle of 21° + 1° and its
length parallel to the axis is approx. equal to 2.7(D-d), where D is the dia. of pipe at inlet section and
d is the dia. of the throat. The length of the throat is equal to d. The divergent cone has a total
included angle 5° to 15°, preferably about 6°. This results in the convergent cone of the venture
meter to be of smaller length than its divergent cone. In the convergent cone the fluid is being
accelerated from the inlet section 1 to the throat section 2, but in the divergent cone the fluid is
retarded from the throat section 2 to the end section 3 of the venture meter. The acceleration of the
flowing fluid may be allowed to take place rapidly in a relatively small length without resulting in loss
of energy. However if the retardation of the flow is allowed to take place rapidly in small length,
then the flowing fluid will not remain in contact with the boundary of the diverging flow passage or
the flow separates from the walls and eddies are formed and consequent energy loss. Therefore to
avoid flow separation and consequent energy loss, the divergent cone is made longer with a gradual
divergence. Since separation may occur in the divergent cone this portion is not used for discharge
measurement.
Since the cross-sectional area of the throat is smaller than the cross-sectional area of the
inlet section, the velocity of flow at the throat will become greater than that at inlet section,
according to continuity equation. The increase in the velocity of flow at the throat results in the
decrease in the pressure. As such a pressure difference is developed between the inlet section and
the throat section of the venture meter. The pressure difference between these sections can be
determined either by connecting differential manometer or pressure gauges. The measurement of
the pressure difference between these sections enables the rate of flow of fluid to be calculated. For
greater accuracy the cross-sectional area of the throat is reduced so that the pressure at the throat
is very much reduced. But if the cross-sectional area of the throat is reduced so much that pressure
drops below the vapour pressure of the flowing liquid. The formation of vapour and air pockets
results in cavitation, which is not desirable. Therefore in order to avoid cavitation to occur, they
diameter of the throat can be reduced to 1/3 to 3/4 of pipe diameter, more commonly the diameter
of the throat is 1/2 of pipe diameter.
Let a1and a2 be the cross-section l areas at inlet and throat sections, at which P 1 and P2
the pressures and velocities V1 and V2 respectively. Assuming the flowing fluid is incompressible and
there is no loss of energy between section 1 and 2 and applying Bernoulli’s equation between
sections 1 and 2, we get,
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜔 2𝑔 𝜔 2𝑔
Where 𝜔 is the specific weight of flowing fluid.
If the venturi meter is connected in a horizontal pipe, then Z 1 = Z2, then

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
𝜔
+ 2𝑔
= 𝜔
+ 2𝑔

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 𝑃1 𝑃 𝑣2 2 𝑣12
𝜔
− 𝜔2 = 2𝑔
− 2𝑔

𝑃 𝑃
In the above expression ( 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 between the pressure heads at
section 1 and 2 , is known as venture head and is denoted by h
𝑣2 2 𝑣1 2
ℎ = 2𝑔
− 2𝑔

𝑄𝑡ℎ = 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 ,
𝑄𝑡ℎ 𝑄𝑡ℎ
𝑣1 = 𝑎1
, 𝑣2 = 𝑎2

𝑄𝑡ℎ 2 1 1
ℎ = ( − 𝑎 2)
2𝑔 𝑎2 2 1

𝑎1𝑎2 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑄𝑡ℎ =
√𝑎1 2−𝑎22

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑄𝑡ℎ
𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 𝑎2√2𝑔ℎ
=
√𝑎12 −𝑎22

𝑎1 𝑎2√2𝑔
= 𝐶𝑑 𝐶√ℎ (∵ 𝐶 = )
√𝑎1 2−𝑎22

𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 = 𝑪𝒅 𝑪√𝒉
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge < 1

ORIFICE METER
An orifice meter is a simple device for measuring the discharge through pipes. Orifice meter also
works on the same principle as that of venture meter i.e by reducing cross-sectional area of the flow
passage, a pressure difference between the two sections is developed and the measurement of the
pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe. Orifice meter is a
cheaper arrangement and requires
smaller length and can be used where
space is limited.
An orifice meter consists of a flat circular
plate with a circular hole called orifice,
which is concentric with the pipe axis. The
thickness of the plate t is less than or
equal to 0.05 times the diameter of pipe.
From the upstream face of the plate the
edge of the orifice is made flat for a thickness 0.02 times the diameter of pipe and the remaining
thickness the plate is beveled with the bevel angle 45°. The diameter of the orifice is kept at 0.5
times the diameter of pipe. Two pressure taps are provided one at section 1 on upstream side of the
orifice plate and other at section 2 on the downstream side of the orifice plate. The upstream tap is
located at a distance of 0.9 to 1.1 times the pipe diameter from the orifice plate. The position of
downstream pressure tap, however depends on the ratio of the orifice diameter and the pipe
diameter. Since the orifice diameter is less than pipe diameter as the fluid flows through the orifice,
the flowing stream converges, which results in the acceleration of the flowing fluid in accordance
with the consideration of continuity. The effect of convergence of flowing stream extends up to a

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

certain distance upstream from the orifice plate and therefore the pressure tap on the upstream
side is provided away from the orifice plate at a section where this effect is non-existent. However
on the downstream side the pressure tap is provided quite close to the orifice plate at a section
where the converging jet of fluid has the smallest cross-sectional area (which is known as veena-
contracta) resulting in the [Link] of flow and consequently the min. pressure at this section.
Therefore a max. Pressure difference exists between the section 1 and 2, which is measured by
connecting a differential manometer between the pressure taps at these sections or connecting
separate pressure gauges. The jet of fluid coming out of the orifice gradually expands from the
veena-contracta to again fill the pipe. In case of an orifice meter an abrupt change in the cross-
sectional area of the flow passage is provided and there being no gradual change in the cross-
sectional area of flow passage as in the case of venture meter, there is a greater loss of energy in an
orifice meter.
Let p1,p2 and v1,v2 be the pressures and velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively. Then for an
incompressible fluid, applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 and 2 and neglecting losses,
we have
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜔 2𝑔 𝜔 2𝑔
𝑃 𝑃 𝑣22 𝑣1 2
Or ( 1 + 𝑧1 ) − ( 2 + 𝑧2 ) = −
𝜔 𝜔 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣22 𝑣12
ℎ= − (1)
2𝑔 2𝑔

Where h is the difference between piezo metric heads at sections 1 and 2. However if the
orifice meter is connected in a horizontal pipe, then z1 = z2, in which case h will represent the
pressure head difference between sections 1 and 2. From equation (1) we have
𝑣2 = √2𝑔ℎ + 𝑣1 2 (2)
In deriving the above expression losses have not been considered, this expression gives the
theoretical velocity of flow at section 2. To obtain actual velocity, it must be multiplied by a factor
CV, called co-efficient of velocity, which is defined as the ratio between the actual velocity and
theoretical velocity. Thus actual velocity of flow at section 2 is obtained as
𝑣2 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ + 𝑣1 2 ) (3)
Further if a1 and a2 are the cross-sectional areas of pipe at section 1 and 2,
By continuity equation Q = a1 v1 = a2 v2 (4)
The area of jet a2 at section 2 (i.e. at veena- contracta) may be related to the area of orifice ao by the
fallowing expression
a2 = CC ao where CC is known as co-efficient of contraction, which is defined as the ratio
between the area of the jet at veena - contracta and the area of orifice. Thus introducing the value
of a2 in equation (4), we get
𝑎
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 𝐶𝑐 𝑎0 By substituting this value of 𝑣1 in equation (3), we get
1

𝑎0 2
𝑣2 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ + 𝑣2 2 𝐶𝑐 2
𝑎1 2
𝐶𝑣 (√2𝑔ℎ )
Solving for 𝑣2, we get 𝑣2 = 𝑎 2
√1−𝐶𝑣 2𝐶𝑐 2( 02 )
𝑎1

Now 𝑄 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑎0 𝑣2 and 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑑
𝐶𝑐 𝑎0𝐶𝑣 (√2𝑔ℎ ) 𝐶𝑑 𝑎0√2𝑔ℎ
𝑄= 𝑎 2
= 𝑎 2
√1−𝐶𝑣 2 𝐶𝑐 2( 02 ) √1−𝐶𝑑 2 ( 0 2)
𝑎1 𝑎1

Where Cd is the co-efficient of discharge of the orifice.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Simplifying the above expression for the discharge through the orifice meter by using a co-efficient C
expressed as
𝑎 2
𝐶𝑑 √1−( 0 )
𝑎1
𝐶= 2
√1−𝐶𝑑 (𝑎0 )
2
𝑎1
𝐶𝑎0 √2𝑔ℎ √2𝑔ℎ
So that 𝑄= 2
= 𝐶𝑎0 𝑎1
√1−(𝑎0 ) √𝑎12−𝑎02
𝑎1

√2𝑔ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑎0 𝑎1
√𝑎12−𝑎0 2
This gives the discharge through an orifice meter and is similar to the discharge through
venture meter. The co-efficient C may be considered as the co-efficient of discharge of an orifice
meter. The co-efficient of discharge for an orifice meter is smaller than that for a venture meter. This
is because there are no gradual converging and diverging flow passages as in the case of venture
meter, which results in a greater loss of energy and consequent reduction of the co-efficient of
discharge for an orifice meter.

PROBLEMS ON FLOW THROUGH PIPES

1. At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240mm to 480mm diameter, the hydraulic
gradient rises by 10mm. Estimate the rate of flow.
Given: Dia. of smaller pipe D1= 240mm =0.24m
𝜋 𝜋
Area A1= 4 D12 = 4 (0.24)2

Dia. of larger pipe D2 = 480mm = 0.48m

𝜋 𝜋
Area A2 = 4 𝐷2 2 = 4 (0.48)2
𝑃 𝑃 10 1
Rise of hydraulic gradient i.e.(𝑍2 + 𝜌𝑔2 ) − (𝑍1 + 𝜌𝑔1 ) = 10mm =1000 𝑚=100 𝑚

Let the rate of flow = Q

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to both sections i.e smaller and larger sections
P1 V1 2 P V2 2
ρg
+ 2g
+ Z1 = ρg2 + 2g
+ Z2 + Head loss due to enlargement (1)

(V1 −V2 )2
But head loss due to enlargement,ℎ𝑒 = 2g
(2)

𝐴2 𝑉2
From continuity equation, we have A1 V1 = A2 V2 𝑉1 = 𝑉1
𝜋 2 2
𝐷 𝑉2
4 2 𝐷 0.48 2
𝑉1 = 𝜋 2 = (𝐷2) × 𝑉2 = (0.24) 𝑉2 = 22 𝑉2 = 4𝑉2
𝐷 1
4 1

Substituting this value in equation (2), we get

(4𝑉2 −𝑉2)2 (3𝑉2)2 9𝑉22

ℎ𝑒 = 2𝑔
= 2𝑔
= 2𝑔

Now substituting the value of he and V1 in equation (1)

P1 (4𝑉2)2 P V2 2 9𝑉22
ρg
+ 2g
+ 𝑍1 = ρg2 + 2g
+ Z2 + 2𝑔

16V2 2 V2 2 9𝑉22 P P
2g
− 2g
− 2𝑔
= (ρg2 + Z2 ) − (ρg1 + 𝑍1 )

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 P P 1
But Hydraulic gradient rise = (ρg2 + Z2 ) − (ρg1 + 𝑍1 ) = (100) m

6V2 2 1 2×9.81
2g
= (100) m 𝑉2 = √ 6×100 = 0.1808 = 0.181𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝜋
Discharge Q = A2 V2 = D22 V2
4

𝜋
= 4 (0.48)2 × 0.181 = 0.03275m3/sec = 32.75Lts/sec

2. A 150mm dia. pipe reduces in dia. abruptly to 100mm dia. If the pipe carries water at 30lts/sec,
calculate the pressure loss across the contraction. Take co-efficient of contraction as 0.6

Given: Dia. of larger pipe D1 = 150mm = 0.15m

𝜋
Area of larger pipe A1 = 4 (0.15)2 = 0.01767m2

Dia. of smaller pipe D2 = 100mm = 0.10m

𝜋
Area of smaller pipe A2 = 4 (0.10)2 = 0.007854m2

Discharge Q = 30 lts/sec = 0.03m3/sec

Co-efficient of contraction CC = 0.6

From continuity equation, we have Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2

𝑄 0.03
𝑉1 = 𝐴 = 0.01767 = 1.697 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1

𝑄 0.03
𝑉2 = 𝐴 = 0.007854 = 3.82 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2

Applying Bernoulli’s equation before and after contraction

P1 V1 2 P2 V2 2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + hc (1)
ρg 2g ρg 2g

But Z1 = Z2 and hc the head loss due to contraction is given by the equation

𝑉2 1 2 (3.82)2 1 2
2
ℎ𝑐 = ( 2𝑔 ) [( − 1)] =
𝐶
[( − 1)] = 0.33
2×9.81 0.6
𝑐

Substituting these values in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 (1.697)2 𝑃 (3.82) 2
𝜌𝑔
+ 2×9.81
= 𝜌𝑔2 + 2×9.81 + 0.33

𝑃1 𝑃
𝜌𝑔
+ 0.1467 = 𝜌𝑔2 + 0.7438 + 0.33

𝑃1 𝑃
𝜌𝑔
− 𝜌𝑔2 = 0.7438 + 0.33 − 0.1467 = 0.9271 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔 × 0.9271 = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.9271 = 0.909 × 104 𝑁/𝑚 2

= 0.909 N/cm2

Pressure loss across contraction = P1- P2 = 0.909N/cm2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of diameter 200mm at a velocity of 3m/sec. A circular
solid plate of diameter150mm is placed in the pipe to obstruct the flow. Find the loss of head due to
obstruction in the pipe, if CC =0.62.

Given: Diameter of pipe D = 200mm = 0.2m

Velocity V = 3m/sec
𝜋 𝜋
Area of pipe A = 4 D2 = 4 (0.2)2 = 0.03141m2

Diameter of obstruction d = 150mm =0.15m

𝜋
Area of obstruction a = 4 (0.15)2 =0.01767m

CC = 0.62

𝑉22 𝐴 2
The head loss due to obstruction = [ − 1]
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐 (𝐴−𝑎)

3×3 0.03141 2
= [ − 1]
2×9.81 0.62×(0.03141−0.01767)

9
= 19.62 [3.687 – 1]2

= 3.311m

Problems on Pitot tube

1. A pitot tube is placed in the centre of a 300mm pipe line has one end pointing upstream and
other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the central velocity. Find the
discharge through the pipe, if the pressure difference between the two orifices is 60mm of water.
Co-efficient of Pitot tube CV =0.98

Given: Diameter of pipe = 300mm =0.3m

Difference of pressure head h = 60mm of water = 0.06m of water
Mean velocity 𝑉̅ = 0.80 × central velocity

Central velocity = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ = 0.98 × √2 × 9.81 × 0.06 = 1.063 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Mean velocity =0.8 × 1.063 = 0.8504m/sec
Discharge Q = Area of pipe × Mean velocity = A × 𝑉̅
𝜋
= 4 (0.3)2 × 0.8504

= 0.06m3/sec

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2. Find the velocity of flow of an oil through a pipe, when the difference of mercury level in a
differential U-tube manometer connected to the two tappings of the pitot tube is 100mm. Co-
efficient of pitot tube C = 0.98 and [Link] oil =0.8.

Given: Difference of mercury level x = 100mm = 0.1m

[Link]. of oil = 0.8, CV = 0.98
𝑆𝑚 13.6
Difference of pressure head ℎ = 𝑥 [( ) − 1] = 0.1 [( ) − 1]
𝑆 0.8

= 1.6 m of oil

Velocity of flow = CV √2 × 𝑔 × ℎ = 0.98 √2 × 9.81 × 1.6 = 5.49m/sec

= 5.49m/sec

3. A pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of water in a pipe. The stag nature pressure head is
6m and static pressure head is 5m. Calculate the velocity of flow. Co-efficient of pitot tube is 0.98.
Given: Stag nature pressure head hS =6m
Static pressure head ht =5m
h = hS – ht = 6 – 5 = 1m

Velocity of flow V = CV √2 × 𝑔 × ℎ

= 0.98 √2 × 9.81 × 1

= 4.34 m/sec

4. A submarine moves horizontally in a sea and has its axis 15m below the surface of the water. A
pitot tube is properly placed just in front of the submarine and along its axis is connected to the two
limbs of a U- tube containing mercury. The difference of mercury level is found to be 170mm. Find
the speed of the sub-marine. Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and sea water is 1.026 with respect
to fresh water.

Given: Difference of mercury level = 170mm = 0.17m

Specific gravity of mercury Sm =13.6,

Specific gravity of sea water So = 1.026

𝑆 13.6
ℎ = 𝑥 [( 𝑆𝑚 ) − 1] = 0.17 [1.026 − 1] = 3.0834

V = √2 𝑔ℎ = √2 × 9.81 × 2.0834

= 6.393 m/sec
6.393×60×60
= 1000

= 23.01 km / hr

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

5. A pitot tube is inserted in a pipe of 300mm diameter. The static pressure in the pipe is 100mm of
mercury (Vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of the pipe is recorded by Pitot tube is
0.981N/cm2. Calculate the rate of flow of water through the pipe. The mean velocity of flow is 0.85
times the central velocity CV = 0.98

Given: Diameter of pipe d = 0.3m

𝜋
Area of pipe a = 4 (0.3)2 =0.07068m2

100
Static pressure head = 100mm of mercury = 1000 × 13.6 =1.36m of water

0.981×104
Stag nature pressure head = × 9.81 = 1 𝑚
1000

h= Stagnation pressure head – static pressure head = 1 – (- 1.36) = 2.36m

Velocity at centre = CV √2𝑔 ℎ = 0.98 √2 × 9.81 × 2.36 = 6.668m/sec

Mean velocity 𝑉̅ = 0.85× 6.668 = 5.6678m/sec

Rate of flow of water = 𝑉̅ × Area of pipe

= 5.6678 × 0.07068

= 0.4006m3/sec

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
• The Venturimeter which has long been used in hydraulics is here applied to the
measurement of volume flow of blood through vessels.

• In fluid flow, friction loss (or skin friction) is the loss of pressure or “head” that occurs in pipe
or duct flow due to the effect of the fluid's viscosity near the surface of the pipe or duct.

• In mechanical systems such as internal combustion engines, the term refers to the power
lost in overcoming the friction between two moving surfaces, a different phenomenon.

• Rigorous calculation of the pressure loss for flowing gases, based on as properties, flow, and
piping configuration (pipe length, fittings, and valves). Results can be printed out or "cut and
paste" into other applications.

• It determines the compressible gas pressure loss due to friction in any sized straight pipe or
tube. This is useful when dealing with very small piping or tubing or for flow though small
channels. This application is only applicable for straight pipes, and cannot accommodate
losses due to fittings and valves (it does include inlet and outlet losses though). If standard
sized piping is being used then the application above "On-line Compressible Flow Pressure
Loss " should be used.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. Two reservoirs are connected by a pipe line consisting of two pipes, one of 15cm
diameter and length 6m and the other diameter 22.5cm and 16m length. If the
difference of water levels in the two reservoirs is 6m. Calculate the discharge and
draw the energy gradient line. Take f=0.004
2. A venturimeter has an area ratio of 9 to 1, the larger diameter being 300 mm. During
the flow, the recorded pressure head in the larger section is 6.5m and that at the
throat 4.25m. Take C d = 0.99, compute the discharge through the meter.
3. Explain how Reynold’s experiment is conducted in lab and bring its practical uses.
4. Define and explain the following terms a) Hydraulic gradient line b) Total energy line
5. A crude oil of kinematic viscosity 0.4 stoke is flowing through a pipe of diameter
300mm at the rate of 300litres/sec. Find the head lost due to friction for a length of
50m of the pipe.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
• Two reservoirs are connected by a pipe line consisting of two pipes, one of 15cm diameter
and length 6m and the other diameter 22.5cm and 16m length. If the difference of water
levels in the two reservoirs is 6m. Calculate the discharge and draw the energy gradient line.
Take f=0.004

• A venturimeter has an area ratio of 9 to 1, the larger diameter being 300 mm. During the
flow, the recorded pressure head in the larger section is 6.5m and that at the throat 4.25m.
Take C d = 0.99, compute the discharge through the meter.

• A crude oil of kinematic viscosity 0.4 stoke is flowing through a pipe of diameter 300mm at
the rate of 300litres/sec. Find the head lost due to friction for a length of 50m of the pipe.

• Derive Darcy Weisbach equation.

• The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 0.254m3/s. The diameter of the pipe
which is 200mm is suddenly enlarged to 400mm. The pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is
11.772 N/cm2. Determine i) Loss of head due to sudden contraction ii) pressure intensity in
the larger pipe iii) power lost due to friction

• Explain boundary layer concept in detail.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT 4
BASICS OF
TURBOMACHINERY,
HYDRAULIC TURBINES &
PERFORMANCE OF
HYDRAULIC TURBINES
Course Objective:
To become familiar about different types of turbines and able to analyze their performance
characteristics of turbines.

Course Outcome:
Understand the fundamentals of turbo machinery and measure the performance of
different types of turbines.

BASICS OF TURBO MACHINERY

HYDRO-DYNAMIC FORCE OF JETS:

The liquid comes out in the form of a jet from the outlet of a nozzle, the liquid is flowing under
pressure. If some plate, which may be fixed or moving, is placed in the path of the jet, a force is
exerted by the jet on the plate. This force is obtained by Newton’s second law of motion or from
Impulse – Momentum equation.

F = ma or 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑(𝑚𝑣)

Thus the impact of jet means, the force exerted by the jet on a plate, which may be stationary or
moving.

The fallowing cases of impact of jet i.e. the force exerted by the jet on a plate will be considered.

1) Force exerted by the jet on a stationary plate, when

a) Plate is vertical to the jet.

b) Plate is inclined to the jet and
c) Plate is curved

2) Force exerted by the jet on a moving plate, when

a) Plate is vertical to the jet.

b) Plate is inclined to the jet.
c) Plate is curved.

a) FORCE EXERTED BY THE JET ON A STATIONARY VERTICAL PLATE:

Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, strikes a flat vertical plate.

Let V= Velocity of jet.

d = Diameter of jet.
𝜋
a = Area of cross-section of jet. = 4 d2

The jet of water after striking the plate will move

along the plate. But the plate is at right angles to the
jet. Hence the jet after striking will be deflected
through 90°.

Hence the component of the velocity of the jet, in the direction of jet, after striking will be
zero.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 The force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of jet,

Fx = Rate of change of momentum in the direction of force.

Initial momentum−Final momentum
=
Time

Mass × Initial velocity − Mass × Final velocity

= Time

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (Initial velocity – Final velocity)

= (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐) × (Velocity of jet before striking – Final velocity of jet after striking)

= 𝜌 a V (V – o)

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2

For deriving the above equation, we have taken initial velocity minus final velocity and not final
velocity minus initial velocity. If the force exerted on the jet is to be calculated, then final velocity
minus initial velocity is to be taken. But if the force exerted by the jet on the plate is to be calculated,
then initial velocity minus final velocity is to be taken.

b) Force exerted by a jet on a stationary inclined Flat plate:

Let a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, strikes an inclined flat plate.

V = Velocity of jet in the direction of X

𝜃 = Angle between the jet and plate.

a = Area of cross-section of jet.

Mass of water per second striking the plate =

𝜌av

If the plate is smooth and there is no loss of

energy due to impact of the jet, the jet will
move over the plate after striking with a
velocity equal to initial velocity. i.e. with a
velocity V. Let us find the force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction normal to the plate.
Let this force is represented by Fn.

Then Fn = Mass of jet striking per second

× (Initial velocity of jet before striking in the direction of n

– Final velocity of jet after striking in the direction of n)

= 𝜌 a V (Vsin 𝜃 – 0) = 𝜌 a V2 sin 𝜃 -------------- (1)

This force can be resolved in two components, one in the direction of the jet and the other
perpendicular to the direction of flow.

Then we have Fx = Component of Fn in the direction of flow.

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 cos(90 − 𝜃) = 𝐹𝑛 sin 𝜃 − 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 × sin 𝜃

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 (1)

And F y = Component of Fn in the direction perpendicular to the flow.

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 sin(90 − 𝜃) = 𝐹𝑛 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑎𝑣 2 sin 𝜃 × cos 𝜃

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑎𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (2)

c) Force exerted by a jet on a stationary Curved plate:

i) Jet strikes the curved plate at the centre:

The jet after striking the plate comes out with

same velocity, if the plate is smooth and there is
no loss of energy due to impact of the jet, in the
tangential direction of the curved plate. The
velocity at the out let of the plate can be resolved
in to two components, one in the direction of the
jet and other perpendicular to the direction of
jet.

Component of velocity in the direction of jet = −𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

(-ve sign is taken as the velocity at out let is in the opposite direction of the jet of water coming out
from nozzle.)
Component of velocity perpendicular to the jet = V sin𝜃

Force exerted by the jet in the direction of the jet

Fx = Mass per sec (V1x – V2x)
Where V1x = Initial velocity in the direction of jet = V
V2x = Final velocity in the direction of jet = −𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
Fx = 𝜌aV [V – (−𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃)] = 𝜌aV [V+ V Cos𝜃] = 𝜌aV2 (1 + Cos𝜃) ---------- (1)
Similarly Fy = Mass per second (V1y – V2y)
Where V1y = Initial velocity in the direction of y = 0
V2y = Final velocity in the direction of y = V sin𝜃
Fy = 𝜌aV [0 – V Sin𝜃] = −𝜌aV2 Sin𝜃 ------------- (2)
-ve sign means the force is acting in the downward direction.
In this case the angle of deflection of jet = 180° - 𝜃
ii) Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is symmetrical:

Let the jet strikes the curved fixed plate at one end
tangentially. Let the curved plate is symmetrical about
x–axis. Then the angle made by the tangents at the two
ends of the plate will be same.

Let V = Velocity of jet of water.

𝜃 = Angle made by the jet with x–axis at the
inlet tip of the curved plate.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact is zero, then the velocity of water at the out
let tip of the curved plate will be equal to V. The force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of
x
and y are
Fx = (mass/sec) × (V1x – V2x)

= 𝜌aV [V Cos𝜃 − (−𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃)]

= 2 𝝆aV2 Cos𝜽

Fy = 𝜌aV (V1y – V2y) = 𝜌aV [V sin𝜃 −𝑉𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃] = 0

iii) Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is un-symmetrical:

When the curved plate is unsymmetrical about x- axis, then the angles made by tangents drawn at
inlet and outlet tips of the plate with x- axis will be different.

Let 𝜃 = Angle made by tangent at the inlet tip with x-axis.

∅ = Angle made by tangent at the outlet tip with x-axis
The two components of velocity at inlet are

V1x = V cos𝜃 and V1y = V sin𝜃

The two components of velocity at outlet are

V2x = −𝑉 cos ∅ and V2y = V sin ∅

The forces exerted by the jet of water in the directions of x and y are:

Fx = 𝜌aV (V1x – V2x) = 𝜌aV (V Cos𝜃 + V Cos ∅)

= 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)

Fy = 𝜌aV (V1y – V2y) = 𝜌aV [V sin𝜃 −V sin ∅] = 𝝆 a V2 (sin𝜽 - Sin ∅)

FORCE EXERTED BY A JET ON MOVING PLATES

The fallowing cases of the moving plates will be considered:
a. Flat vertical plate moving in the direction of jet and away from the jet.
b. Inclined plate moving in the direction of jet and
c. Curved plate moving in the direction of jet or in the horizontal direction.

a) Force on flat vertical plate moving in the direction of jet:

Let a jet of water striking a flat vertical plate

moving with a uniform velocity away from the jet.

Let V = Velocity of jet.

a = Area of cross-section of jet.
u = Velocity of flat plate.

In this case, the jet does not strike the plate with a
velocity v, but it strikes with a relative velocity, which is

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

equal to the absolute velocity of jet of water minus velocity of the plate.

Hence relative velocity of the jet with respect to plate = V – u

Mass of water striking the plate per second

= 𝜌 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

= 𝜌 a (V – u)

∴ Force exerted by the jet on the moving in the direction of the plate

Fx = mass of water striking per second × (Initial velocity with which water strikes – Final velocity)

= 𝜌 a (V – u)[( V – u) –0] = 𝜌 a (V – u)2 --------- (1)

Since final velocity in the direction of jet is zero.

In this, case the work will be done by the jet on the plate, as the plate is moving. For stationary
plates, the work done is zero.

∴ The work done per second by the jet on the plate

Distance in the direction of force
= 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×
Time

= Fx × u = 𝝆a(v – u)2 × u ------------ (2)

In the above equation (2), if the value of 𝜌 for water is taken in S.I units (i.e.1000kg/m 3) the work
Nm
done will be in N m/s. The term s
is equal to Watt (W).

b) Force on inclined plate moving in the direction of jet:

Let a jet of water strikes an inclined plate, which is moving with a uniform velocity in the direction of
jet.

Let V = Absolute velocity of water.

u = Velocity of plate in the direction of jet.

a = Cross-sectional area of jet

𝜃 = Angle between jet and plate.

Relative velocity of jet of water = 𝑉 − 𝑢

The velocity with which jet strikes = 𝑉 − 𝑢

Mass of water striking per second = 𝜌 a (V – u)

If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact of the jet is assumed zero, the jet of water
will leave the inclined plate with a velocity equal to( 𝑉 − 𝑢).

The force exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction normal to the plate is given as

Fn = Mass striking per sec x (Initial velocity in the normal direction with which jet strikes – final
velocity)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 = 𝜌 a (V – u) [(V – u) sin𝜃 − 0]

= 𝝆 a (V– u)2 sin𝜽

This normal force Fn is resolved in to two components, namely Fx and Fy in the direction of jet and
perpendicular to the direction of jet respectively.

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Work done per second by the jet on the plate

= Fx × Distance per second in the direction of x

= Fx × u = 𝜌a(V – u)2 sin2𝜃 × u

= 𝝆 a (V – u)2 u sin2𝜽 N m/sec

c) Force on the curved plate when the plate is moving in the direction of jet:

Let a jet of water strikes a curved plate at the centre of the plate, which is moving with a
uniform velocity in the direction of jet.

Let V = absolute velocity of jet.

a = area of jet.

u = Velocity of plate in the direction of jet.

Relative velocity of jet of water or the velocity with which

jet strikes the curved plate = V – u

If the plate is smooth and the loss of energy due to

impact of jet is zero, then the velocity with which the

jet will be leaving the curved vane = (V – u)

This velocity can be resolved in to two components, one in the direction of jet and the other
perpendicular to the direction of jet.

Component of the velocity in the direction of jet = - (V – u) Cos𝜃

(-ve sign is taken as at the out let, the component is in the opposite direction of the jet).

Component of velocity in the direction perpendicular to the direction of jet = (V – u) sin𝜃

Mass of water striking the plate = 𝜌𝑎 × velocity with which jet strikes the plate.

= 𝜌𝑎 (V – u)

∴Force exerted by the jet of water on the curved plate in the direction of jet F x

Fx = Mass striking per sec [Initial velocity with which jet strikes the plate in
the direction of jet −Final velocity]
= 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)[(𝑉 − 𝑢) − (−(𝑉 − 𝑢) cos 𝜃 )]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 = 𝜌𝑎 (𝑉 − 𝑢)2 [1 + cos 𝜃] (1)

Work done by the jet on the plate per second

= Fx ×Distance travelled per second in the direction of x

= 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢 = 𝜌𝑎 (𝑉 − 𝑢)2 [1 + cos 𝜃] × 𝑢

= 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 × 𝑢[1 + cos 𝜃]

d) Force exerted by a jet of water on an un-symmetrical moving Curved plate when

Jet strikes tangentially at one of the tips:
Let a jet of water striking a moving
curved plate tangentially, at one of its tips.
As the jet strikes tangentially, the loss
of energy due to impact of the jet will be zero.
In this case as plate is moving, the velocity with
which the jet of water strikes is equal to the
relative velocity of jet with respect to the plate.
Also as the plate is moving in different direction
of the jet, the relative velocity at inlet will be
equal to the vector difference of velocity of jet
and velocity of the plate at inlet.
Let V1= Velocity of jet at inlet.
𝑢1 = Velocity of the plate at inlet.
𝑉𝑟1 = Relative velocity of jet and plate at
inlet.
𝛼 = Angle between the direction of jet and direction of moving plate.
𝜃 = Angle made by relative velocity (𝑉𝑟2 ) with direction of motion at inlet.
(Vane angle at inlet)
𝑉𝑤1 and 𝑉𝑓1 = The components of velocity of the jet V1, in the direction of motion and
Perpendicular to the direction of motion respectively.
𝑉𝑤1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet.

𝑉𝑓1 = Velocity of flow at inlet.

V2 = Velocity of jet at the outlet of the vane.

u2 = Velocity of vane at outlet.
𝑉𝑟2 = Relative velocity of jet w.r.t the vane at the outlet.

𝛽 = Angle made by the velocity V2 with direction of motion of vane at outlet.

𝜑 = Angle made by the relative velocity 𝑉𝑟2 with the direction of motion of the
Vane at outlet.
𝑉𝑤2 and 𝑉𝑓2 = Components of velocity V2 in the direction of motion of vane and
Perpendicular to the direction of motion of vane at outlet.
𝑉𝑤2 = Velocity of whirl at outlet.

𝑉𝑓2 = Velocity of flow at outlet.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The triangles ABD and EGH are called velocity triangles at inlet and outlet.
Velocity triangle at inlet: Take any point A and draw a line AB = V1 in magnitude and direction which
means line AB makes an angle 𝛼 with the horizontal line AD. Next draw a line AC = u1 in magnitude.
Join C to B. Then CB represents the relative velocity of the jet at inlet. If the loss of energy at inlet
due to impact is zero, then CB must be in the tangential direction to the vane at inlet. From B draw a
vertical line BD in the downward direction to meet the horizontal line AC produced at D.
Then BD = Represents the velocity of flow at inlet = 𝑉𝑓1

AD = Represents the velocity of whirl at inlet = 𝑉𝑤1

∠BCD = Vane angle at inlet = 𝜃

Velocity triangle at outlet: If the vane surface is assumed to be very smooth, the loss of energy due
to friction will be zero. The water will be gliding over the surface of the vane with a relative velocity
𝑉𝑟1 and will come out of the vane with a relative velocity𝑉𝑟2 . This means that the relative velocity at
out let 𝑉𝑟2 = 𝑉𝑟1 . The relative velocity at outlet should be in tangential direction to the vane at outlet.

Draw EG in the tangential direction of the vane at outlet and cut EG = 𝑉𝑟2 . From G, draw a line
GF in the direction of vane at outlet and equal to u2, the velocity of vane at outlet. Join EF. Then EF
represents the absolute velocity of the jet at outlet in magnitude and direction. From E draw a
vertical line EH to meet the line GF produced at H.

Then, EH = Velocity of flow at outlet. = 𝑉𝑓2 .

FH = Velocity of whirl at outlet = 𝑉𝑤2

∅ = Angle of vane at outlet

𝛽 = Angle made by V2 with the direction of motion of vane at outlet.
If vane is smooth and is having velocity in the direction of motion at inlet and outlet equal, then we
have

𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 𝑢 = velocity of vane in the direction of motion and

𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2

Now mass of water striking the vane per second 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 ------------- (1)

Where a= area of jet of water, 𝑉𝑟1 = Relative velocity at inlet.

∴ Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion

FX = Mass of water striking per second × [Initial velocity with which jet strikes in the

direction of motion – Final velocity of jet in the direction of motion] ------- (2)

But initial velocity with which jet strikes the vane =𝑉𝑟1

The component of this velocity in the direction of motion = 𝑉𝑟1 cos 𝜃 (𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑢1 ) similarly, the
component of relative velocity at the outlet in the direction of motion

= 𝑉𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = −[𝑢2 + 𝑉𝑤2 ]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Ve sign is taken as the component of the relative velocity Vr2 in the direction of motion is in the
opposite direction

Substituting the equation (1) and all the above values of the velocities in equation (2), we get

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 [(𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑢1 ) − {−(𝑢2 + 𝑉𝑤2 )}] = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 [𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 − 𝑉𝑤2 ]

= 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] (3) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢1 = 𝑢2

The equation (3) is true only when angle𝛽 is an acute angle. If 𝛽=90°, then 𝑉𝑤2 = 0

Then equation (3) becomes as FX = 𝜌 a Vr1 Vw1

If 𝛽 is an obtuse angle, then the expression for FX will become

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 (𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑉𝑤2 )

Thus in general, Fx is written as 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 (𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 )

Work done per second on the vane by the jet

= Force × distance per second in the direction of force

= 𝐹 × 𝑢 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 (𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ) × 𝑢 (5)

∴Work done per second per unit weight of fluid striking per second

𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 [𝑉𝑤1 ±𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢 𝑁𝑚/𝑠 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 [𝑉𝑤1 ±𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢

= = = 𝑁𝑚/𝑁
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔/𝑠 𝑁/𝑠 𝑔× 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1

1
= 𝑔 [𝑉𝑤1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢 𝑁𝑚/𝑁 (6)

Work done/second per unit mass of fluid striking per second

𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟 [𝑉𝑤 ±𝑉𝑤 ]×𝑢 𝑁𝑚/𝑠 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 [𝑉𝑤1 ±𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢

= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓1 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
1 2
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔/𝑠 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
= 𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1
𝑁𝑚/𝑘𝑔

= (𝑽𝒘𝟏 ± 𝑽𝒘𝟐 ) × 𝒖 𝑵𝒎/𝒌𝒈 (7)

Efficiency of jet: The work done by the jet on the vane given by equation (5) is the output of the jet
whereas the initial kinetic energy of the jet is the input. Hence the efficiency of jet is expressed as
𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒
Efficiency η = 𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐾.𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡

𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 [𝑉𝑤1 ±𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢

= 1
𝑚𝑉12
2

Where m = Mass of fluid per second in the jet =𝜌𝑎𝑉1

V1 = Initial velocity of jet

𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 [𝑉𝑤1 ±𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢

Efficiency 𝜂= 1 (8)
(𝜌𝑎𝑉1)×𝑉1 2
2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROBLEMS

1. Water is flowing through a pipe at the end of which a nozzle is fitted. The diameter of the nozzle is
100 mm and the head of the water at the centre of the nozzle is 100m. Find the force exerted by the
jet of water on a fixed vertical plate. The co-efficient of velocity is given as 0.95.
Given: Diameter of nozzle d = 100mm =0.1m
𝜋
Area of nozzle = 4 × (0.1)2 = 0.00785𝑚 2

Head of water H = 100m

Co-efficient of velocity 𝐶𝑣 = 0.95

Theoretical velocity of jet of water V th =√2𝑔ℎ = √2 × 9.81 × 100 = 44.294m/sec

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
But Cv =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

∴ Actual velocity of jet of water = 𝐶𝑣 × Vth = 0.95 × 44.294 = 42.08m/sec

Force exerted on a fixed vertical plate

F = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 = 1000 × 0.007854 × (42.08)2

F= 13907.2 N = 13.9 kN

2. A jet of water of diameter 75mm moving with a velocity of 25m/sec strikes a fixed plate in such a
way that the angle between the jet and plate is 60°. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate
i. In the direction normal to the plate and
ii. In the direction of the jet.
Given: Diameter of the jet d =75mm = 0.075m
𝜋
Area of the jet 4
× (0.075)2 = 0.004417𝑚 2

Velocity of jet V = 25m/sec

Angle between jet and plate 𝜃 = 60°
i) The force exerted by the jet of water in the direction normal to the plate

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1000 × 0.004417 × (25)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600

𝑭𝒏 = 𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟎. 𝟕 𝑵

ii) The force in the direction of jet

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1000 × 0.004417 × (25)2 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 600

𝑭𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟎. 𝟒 𝑵

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. A jet of water of dia.50mm moving with a velocity of 40m/sec strikes a curved fixed symmetrical
plate at the centre. Find the force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of jet, if the direction
of jet is deflected through an angle of 120° at the out let of curved plate.
Given: Dia. of jet d = 0.05m
𝜋
Area of jet a = × (0.05)2 = 0.001963𝑚 2
4

Velocity of jet V = 40m/sec

Angle of deflection = 180 – 𝜃 = 180 – 120 = 60°

Force exerted by the jet on the curved plate in the direction of jet

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]

𝐹𝑥 = 1000 × 0.001963 × (40)2 × [1 + cos 600 ]

𝑭𝒙 = 𝟒𝟕𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 𝑵

4. A jet of water of dia. 75mm moving with a velocity of 30m/sec strikes a curved fixed plate
tangentially at one end at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. The jet leaves the plate at an angle of 200
to the horizontal. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate in the horizontal and vertical
direction.
Given: Dia. of jet d = 75mm = 0.075m,
𝜋
Area of jet 𝑎 = 4 × (0.075)2 = 0.004417 𝑚 2

Velocity of jet V = 30m/sec

Angle made by the jet at inlet tip with the horizontal 𝜃 =30°

Angle made by the jet at out let tip with the horizontal ∅ = 20°

The force exerted by the jet of water on the plate in horizontal direction Fx

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [cos 𝜃 + cos ∅]

= 1000 × 0.004417[cos 300 + cos 200 ] × (30)2

𝑭𝒙 = 𝟕𝟏𝟕𝟖. 𝟐 𝑵

The force exerted by the jet of water on the plate in vertical direction Fy

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅]

= 1000 × 0.004417[sin 300 − sin 200 ] × (30)2

𝑭𝒚 = 𝟔𝟐𝟖. 𝟏𝟑 𝑵

5. A nozzle of 50mm dia. delivers a stream of water at 20m/sec perpendicular to the plate that
moves away from the plate at 5m/sec. Find:

i) The force on the plate.

ii) The work done and

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 iii) The efficiency of the jet.

Given: Dia. of jet d = 50mm = 0.05m,

𝜋
Area of jet a = 4 (0.05)2 = 0.0019635 m2

Velocity of jet V = 20m/sec,

Velocity of plate u = 5m/sec

i) The force on the plate 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2

𝐹𝑥 = 1000 × 0.0019635 × (20 − 5)2

𝑭𝒙 = 𝟒𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝑵

ii) The work done by the jet = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢

= 441.78 × 5

= 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟗 𝑵𝒎 /𝒔
𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡
iii) The efficiency of the jet 𝜂 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐹𝑥 ×𝑢
= = 1
𝐾.𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚𝑣 2
2

𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢
= 1
(𝜌𝑎𝑉)𝑉 2
2

2208.9 2208.9
= 1 =
(1000×0.0019635×20)×202 6540
2

= 0.3377 = 33.77%

6. A 7.5cm dia. jet having a velocity of 30m/sec strikes a flat plate, the normal of which is inclined at
45° to the axis of the jet. Find the normal pressure on the plate:
i. When the plate is stationary and
ii. When the plate is moving with a velocity of 15m/sec away from the jet. Also determine the
power and efficiency of the jet when the plate is moving.

Given: Dia. of the jet d = 7.5cm = 0.075m

𝜋
Area of jet a = 4 (0.075)2 = 0.004417m2

Angle between jet and plate 𝜃 = 90° – 45° = 45°

Velocity of jet V = 30m/sec
i) When the plate is stationary, the normal force 𝐹𝑛 on the plate is

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉 2 sin 𝜃 = 1000 × 0.004417 × (30)2 × sin 450

= 𝟐𝟖𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 𝑵

ii) When the plate is moving with a velocity of 15m/sec away from the jet, the normal force on the
plate 𝐹𝑛

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 sin 𝜃 = 1000 × 0.004417 × (30 − 15)2 × sin 450

= 702.74 N

iii) The power and efficiency of the jet, when the plate is moving is obtained as

Work done /sec by the jet

= Force in the direction of jet x Distance moved by plate in the direction of jet/sec

= 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢 Where 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 702.74 × sin 450 = 496.9 𝑁

Work done/ sec = 496.9 × 15 = 7453.5Nm/s

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 7453.5

∴ Power in kW = = = 7.453 kW
1000 1000

𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Efficiency of jet = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾.𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐

7453.5 7453.5
=1 =1
(𝜌𝑎𝑉)×𝑉 2 𝜌𝑎𝑉 3
2 2

7453.5
= 1
× 1000 ×0.004417 ×303
2

= 0.1249 ≃ 0.125 =12.5%

7. A jet of water of dia. 7.5cm strikes a curved plate at its centre with a velocity of 20m/sec. the
curved plate is moving with a velocity of 8m/sec in the direction of the jet. The jet is deflected
through an angle of 165°. Assuming plate is smooth, find
i. Force exerted on the plate in the direction of jet.
ii. Power of jet.
iii. Efficiency of jet.

Given: Dia. of jet d = 7.5cm = 0.075m

𝜋
Area of jet a = (0.075)2 = 0.004417m2
4

Velocity of jet V = 20m/sec

Velocity of plate u = 8m/sec

Angle made by the relative velocity at the out let of the plate 𝜃 = 180 °-165° =15°

i) Force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of jet

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑢)2 (1 + cos 𝜃)

𝐹𝑥 = 1000 × 0.004417 × (20 − 8)2 [1 + cos 150 ]

= 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝑵

ii) Work done by the jet on the plate per second

= 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 = 1250.38 × 8

= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑. 𝟎𝟒 𝑵𝒎/𝒔
10003.04
∴ Power of jet = 1000
= 10kW

𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐

iii)Efficiency of the jet = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝐾.𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐

1250.38 × 8 1250.38 × 8
= 1 =1
𝜌𝑎𝑉.𝑉 2 ×1000 ×0.004417 × (20)203
2 2

= 0.564 = 56.4%

8. A jet of water having a velocity of 40m/sec strikes a curved vane, which is moving with a velocity
of 20m/sec. The jet makes an angle of 30° with the direction of motion of vane at inlet and leaves at
an angle of 90° to the direction of motion of vane at out let. Draw velocity triangles at inlet and
outlet and determine vane angles at inlet and outlet, so that the water enters and leaves the vanes
without shock.

Given: Velocity of jet 𝑉1 = 40m/sec

Velocity of vane u1 = 20m/sec

Angle made by jet at inlet 𝛼 =30°

Angle made by leaving jet = 90°

∴ 𝛽 = 180° - 90° = 90°

u1 = u2 = u = 20m/sec

Vane angles at inlet and outlet are 𝜃 and ∅

𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷 𝑉𝑓1
From ∆ BCD we have tan 𝜃= 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐷−𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉
𝑤1 −𝑢1

Where 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉1 sin 𝛼 = 40 × sin 300 = 20𝑚/𝑠

𝑉𝑤1 = 𝑉1 cos 𝛼 = 40 × cos 300 = 34.64 𝑚/𝑠

𝑢1 = 20𝑚/𝑠
20 20
∴ tan 𝜃 = = = 1.366 = tan 53.790
34.64−20 14.64

∴ 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟕𝟗𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟓𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟕. 𝟒′

𝑉𝑓1 𝑉𝑓 20
Also from ∆ BCD we have sin 𝜃 = 𝑉𝑟1
𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑟1 = sin1𝜃 = sin 53.790 = 24.78 𝑚/𝑠

∴ 𝑉𝑟1 = 24.78𝑚/𝑠

But 𝑉𝑟2 = 𝑉𝑟1 = 24.78

𝑢2 20
Hence, From ∆ EFG, cos ∅ = 𝑉𝑟2
= 24.78 = 0.8071 = cos 36.180

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ∅ = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖′

9. A stationary vane having an inlet angle of zero degree and an outlet angle of 25°, receives water
at a velocity of 50m/sec. Determine the components of force acting on it in the direction of jet
velocity and normal to it. Also find the resultant force in magnitude and direction per unit weight of
the flow.

Given: Velocity of jet V = 50m/sec

Angle at outlet =25°

For the stationary vane, the force in the direction of jet.

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 × [𝑉1𝑥 − 𝑉2𝑥 ]

Where 𝑉1𝑥 = 50m/sec , 𝑉2𝑥 = −50 cos 250 = −45.315

∴ Force in the direction of jet per unit weight of water 𝐹𝑥

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠/ sec[50−(−45.315)] 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠/sec [50+45.315]

𝐹𝑥 = = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐)×𝑔
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

95.315
= 9.81
= 9.716 𝑁/𝑁

Force exerted by the jet in perpendicular direction to the jet per unit weight of flow

𝑉1𝑦 = 0 𝑉2𝑦 = 50 sin 250

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠/ sec(𝑉1𝑦− 𝑉2𝑦 )

𝐹𝑦 = 𝑔× 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐

(0−50 𝑆𝑖𝑛25°) −50 𝑆𝑖𝑛25°

= =
𝑔 9.81

= - 2.154 N

- ve sign means the force Fy is acting in the downward direction.

∴ Resultant Force per unit weight of water FR = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2

𝐹𝑅 = √(9.716)2 + (2.154)2 = 9.952N

The angle made by the Resultant Force with x- axis

Fy 2.154
tan 𝜃 = = = 0.2217
Fx 9.716

𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏0.2217 = 12.50°

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

10. A jet of water diameter 50mm moving with a velocity of 25m/sec impinges on a fixed curved
plate tangentially at one end at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. Calculate the resultant force of the
jet on the plate, if the jet is deflected through an angle of 50°. Take g=10m/sec2.
Given:
Dia. of jet d =50mm = 0.05m,
𝜋
Area of jet 𝑎 = 4 (0.05)2 = 0.0019635 m2

Velocity of jet V = 25m/sec,

Angle made by the jet at inlet with horizontal 𝜃 = 30°
Angle of deflection = 50°
Angle made by the jet at the outlet with horizontal ∅
∅ = 𝜃 + 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 30°+50° = 80°
The Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of x

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉(𝑉1𝑥 − 𝑉2𝑥 )

Where 𝜌 = 1000
𝜋
𝑎 = (0.05)2 V = 25 m/s
4
𝑉1𝑥 = 𝑉 cos 300 = 25 cos 300
𝑉2𝑥 = 𝑉 cos 800 = 25 cos 800

𝜋
𝐹𝑥 = 1000 × 4 (0.05)2 × 25[25 cos 300 − 25 cos 800 ] = 𝟖𝟒𝟗. 𝟕 𝑵

The Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of y

𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉(𝑉1𝑦 − 𝑉2𝑦 )

𝜋
𝐹𝑦 = 1000 × (0.05)2 × 25[25 sin 300 − 25 sin 800 ] = −𝟓𝟗𝟒. 𝟗 𝑵
4

- ve sign shows that Force Fy is acting in the downward direction.

The Resultant force FR = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2

= √(849.7)2 + (594.9)2
= 1037N
Angle made by the Resultant Force with the Horizontal
𝐹𝑦 594.9
tan𝛼 = 𝐹 = 849.7 = 0.7
𝑥

𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏0.7 = 35°

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

HYDRAULIC TURBINES

Turbines are defined as the hydraulic machines which converts hydraulic energy in to mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly coupled to
the shaft of Turbine. Thus mechanical energy is converted in to electrical energy. The electric power
which is obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as the Hydro-electric power.
Efficiency of a Turbine: The following are the important efficiencies of Turbine.

a) Hydraulic Efficiency, 𝜼𝒉
b) Mechanical Efficiency, 𝜼𝒎
c) Volumetric Efficiency, 𝜼𝒗
d) Overall Efficiency, 𝜼𝟎
a) Hydraulic Efficiency (𝜼𝒉 ): it is defined as the ratio of power given by the water to the runner of a
turbine (runner is a rotating part of a turbine and on the runner vanes are fixed) to the power
supplied by the water at the inlet of the turbine. The power at the inlet of the turbine is more and
this power goes on decreasing as the water flows over the vanes of the turbine due to hydraulic
losses as the vanes are not smooth. Hence power delivered to the runner of the turbine will be less
than the power available at the inlet of the turbine.

Power delivered to the runner R.P

𝜂ℎ = Power supplied at inlet
= W.P

𝑊 [𝑉𝑤1 +𝑉𝑤2 ] ×𝑢
R.P = Power delivered to the runner = 𝑔 1000
kW ------ for Pelton Turbine

𝑊 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 +𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] ×𝑢
= 𝑔 1000
kW ------Radial flow Turbine.

𝑊×𝐻
W.P = power supplied at inlet of turbine = 1000
kW

Where W = weight of water striking the vanes of the turbine per second = 𝜌 𝑔 𝑄
Q = Volume of water per second
𝑉𝑤1 =Velocity of whirl at inlet.
𝑉𝑤2 = Velocity of whirl at outlet
𝑢 = Tangential velocity of vane
𝑢1 = Tangential velocity of vane at inlet of radial vane.
𝑢2 = Tangential velocity of vane at outlet of radial vane.
H = Net head on the Turbine.
Power supplied at the inlet of the turbine in S I Units is known as Water Power.
𝜌×𝑔×𝑄×𝐻
W.P = 1000
K.W (For water 𝜌 = 1000Kg/m3)

1000×𝑔×𝑄×𝐻
= 1000
= 𝑔 × 𝑄 × 𝐻 kW

b) Mechanical Efficiency (𝜼𝒎 ): The power delivered by the water to the runner of a turbine is
transmitted to the shaft of the turbine. Due to mechanical losses, the power available at the shaft of
the turbine is less than the power delivered to the runner of the turbine. The ratio of power
available at the shaft of the turbine (Known as S.P or B.P) to the power delivered to the runner is
defined as Mechanical efficiency.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Power at the shaft of the turbine S.P
𝜂𝑚 = Power delivered by the water to the runner = R.P

c) Volumetric Efficiency (𝜼𝒗): The volume of the water striking the runner of the turbine is slightly
less than the volume of water supplied to the turbine. Some of the volume of the water is
discharged to the tailrace without striking the runner of the turbine. Thus the ratio of the volume of
the water supplied to the turbine is defined as Volumetric Efficiency.

Volume of water actually striking the Runner

𝜂𝑣 =
Volume of water supplied to the Turbine

d) Overall Efficiency (𝜼𝟎): It is defined as the ratio of power available at the shaft of the turbine to
the power supplied by the water at the inlet of the turbine.

Power available at the shaft of the turbine Shaft power

𝜂0 = Power supplied at the inlet of the turbine
= Water power

𝑆.𝑃 𝑆.𝑃 𝑅.𝑃

= 𝑊.𝑃 = 𝑊.𝑃 × 𝑅.𝑃

𝑺.𝑷 𝑹.𝑷
= 𝑹.𝑷 × 𝑾.𝑷

𝜼𝟎 = 𝛈𝐦 × 𝛈𝐡

If shaft power (S.P) is taken in kW, Then water power should also be taken in kW. Shaft power is
represented by P.
𝜌×𝑔×𝑄×𝐻
Water power in 𝑘𝑊 = Where 𝜌 = 1000Kg/m3
1000

Shaft Power in kW 𝑃
𝜂0 = Water Power in kW = 𝜌×𝑔×𝑄×𝐻 Where P = Shaft Power
1000

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES:

The Hydraulic turbines are classified according to the type of energy available at the inlet of the
turbine, direction of flow through the vanes, head at the inlet of the turbine and specific speed of
the turbine. The following are the important classification of the turbines.

1. According to the type of energy at inlet:

(a) Impulse turbine and
(b) Reaction turbine
2. According to the direction of flow through the runner:
(a) Tangential flow turbine
(b) Radial flow turbine.
(c) Axial flow turbine
(d) Mixed flow turbine.
3. According to the head at inlet of the turbine:
(a) High head turbine
(b) Medium head turbine and

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 (c) Low head turbines.
4. According to the specific speed of the turbine:
(a) Low specific speed turbine
(b) Medium specific speed turbine
(c) High specific speed turbine.
If at the inlet of turbine, the energy available is only kinetic energy, the turbine is known as
Impulse turbine. As the water flows over the vanes, the pressure is atmospheric from inlet to outlet
of the turbine. If at the inlet of the turbine, the water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure
energy, the turbine is known as Reaction turbine. As the water flows through runner, the water is
under pressure and the pressure energy goes on changing in to kinetic energy. The runner is
completely enclosed in an air-tight casing and the runner and casing is completely full of water.

If the water flows along the tangent of runner, the turbine is known as Tangential flow turbine. If
the water flows in the radial direction through the runner, the turbine is called Radial flow turbine.
If the water flows from outward to inwards radially, the turbine is known as Inward radial flow
turbine, on the other hand, if the water flows radially from inward to outwards, the turbine is known
as outward radial flow turbine. If the water flows through the runner along the direction parallel to
the axis of rotation of the runner, the turbine is called axial flow turbine. If the water flows through
the runner in the radial direction but leaves in the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the
runner, the turbine is called mixed flow turbine.

PELTON WHEEL (Turbine)

It is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The water strikes the bucket along the tangent of the
runner. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy. The pressure at the
inlet and out let of turbine is atmospheric. This turbine is used for high heads and is named after
[Link] an American engineer.

The water from the reservoir flows through the penstocks at the out let of which a nozzle is
fitted. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of the water flowing through the penstock. At the
outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in the form of a jet and strikes the buckets (vanes) of the
runner. The main parts of the Pelton turbine are:

1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement (spear)

2. Runner and Buckets.
3. Casing and
4. Breaking jet

1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement: The amount of water striking the buckets (vanes) of the
runner is controlled by providing a spear in the nozzle. The spear is a conical needle which is
operated either by hand wheel or automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size of the
unit. When the spear is pushed forward in to the nozzle, the amount of water striking the runner is
reduced. On the other hand, if the spear is pushed back, the amount of water striking the runner
increases.

2. Runner with buckets: It consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets
evenly spaced are fixed. The shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each
bucket is divided in to two symmetrical parts by a dividing wall, which is known as splitter.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet in to two equal
parts and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket. The buckets are shaped in such a way
that the jet gets deflected through an angle of 160 °or 170°. The buckets are made of cast Iron, cast
steel, Bronze or stainless steel depending upon the head at the inlet of the turbine.

3. Casing: The function of casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge the water
to tailrace. It also acts as safeguard against accidents. It is made of Cast Iron or fabricated steel
plates. The casing of the Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.

4. Breaking jet: When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction,
the amount of water striking the runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on
revolving for a long time. To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided, which directs
the jet of water on the back of the vanes. This jet of water is called Breaking jet.

Velocity triangles and work done for Pelton wheel:

The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter, which splits up the jet into
two parts. These parts of the jet, glides over the inner surfaces and comes out at the outer edge. The
splitter is the in let tip and outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the bucket. The inlet velocity
triangle is drawn at the splitter and outer velocity triangle is drawn at the outer edge of the bucket.
Let
H = Net head acting on the Pelton Wheel
= 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓

Where 𝐻𝑔 = Gross Head

4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐷∗ ×2𝑔

Where 𝐷∗ =diameter of penstock,

D = Diameter of wheel,
d = Diameter of Jet,
N = Speed of the wheel in r.p.m

Then V1 = Velocity of jet at inlet= √2𝑔𝐻

𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢 = 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 60

The Velocity Triangle at inlet will be a straight line where

𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢

𝑉𝑤1 = 𝑉1 𝛼 = 00 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 00

From the velocity triangle at outlet, we have

𝑉𝑟2 = 𝑉𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉𝑟2 cos ∅ − 𝑢2

The force exerted by the Jet of water in the direction of motion is

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] (1)

As the angle β is an acute angle, +ve sign should be taken. Also this is the case of series of
𝜋
vanes, the mass of water striking is 𝜌𝑎𝑉1and not𝜌𝑎𝑉𝑟1 . In equation (1) ‘a’ is the area of the jet = 4 𝑑2
Now work done by the jet on the runner per second

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 = 𝐹𝑥 × 𝑢 = 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢 𝑁𝑚/𝑠

𝜌𝑎𝑉1[𝑉𝑤1 +𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢

Power given to the runner by the jet = 1000
𝑘𝑊

𝜌𝑎𝑉1[𝑉𝑤1 +𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢

Work done/s per unit weight of water striking/s = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑠
𝜌𝑎𝑉1[𝑉𝑤1 +𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢 1
= = [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢 (3)
𝜌𝑎𝑉1×𝑔 𝑔
The energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form of kinetic energy
1 1
∴ K.E. of jet per second = 2
𝑚𝑉 2 = 2 (𝜌𝑎𝑉1 ) × 𝑉1 2
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
∴ Hydraulic efficiency, 𝜂ℎ = 𝐾.𝐸.𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

𝜌𝑎𝑉1[𝑉𝑤1 +𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢

= 1
(𝜌𝑎𝑉1)×𝑉12
2

2[𝑉𝑤1 +𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢

= 𝑉12
(4)

Now 𝑉𝑤1 = 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢1 = (𝑉1 − 𝑢)

∴ 𝑉𝑟2 = (𝑉1 − 𝑢)

And 𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉𝑟2 cos ∅ − 𝑢2

= 𝑉𝑟2 cos ∅ − 𝑢

= (𝑉1 − 𝑢) cos ∅ − 𝑢
Substituting the values of 𝑉𝑤1 and 𝑉𝑤2 in equation (4)
2[𝑉1+(𝑉1 −𝑢) cos ∅−𝑢 ]×𝑢 2[𝑉1−𝑢+(𝑉1−𝑢) cos ∅ ]×𝑢
𝜂ℎ = 𝑉12
= 𝑉12
=
2(𝑉1 −𝑢)[1+cos ∅ ]𝑢
(5)
𝑉12
The efficiency will be maximum for a given value of 𝑉1 when
𝑑 𝑑 2𝑢(𝑉1−𝑢)[1+cos ∅ ]
(𝜂ℎ ) = 0 𝑜𝑟 [ ]=0
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑉12

(1+cos ∅ ) 𝑑
Or (2𝑢𝑉1 − 2𝑢2 ) = 0
𝑉12 𝑑𝑢

𝑑 1+cos 𝜙
Or [2𝑢𝑉1 − 2𝑢2 ] = 0 (∵ ≠ 0)
𝑑𝑢 𝑉12

𝑉1
Or 2𝑉1 − 4𝑢 = 0 Or 𝑢= 2
(6)

Equation (6) states that hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be maximum when the velocity of
the wheel is half the velocity of the jet water at inlet. The expression for maximum efficiency will be
𝑉1
obtained by substituting the value of 𝑢 = 2
in equation (5)
𝑉 𝑉
2(𝑉1− 1)(1+cos ∅ )× 1
2 2
Max. 𝜂ℎ =
𝑉12
𝑽 𝑽
𝟐× 𝟏(𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ ) 𝟏 (𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ )
𝟐 𝟐
= = (7)
𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

RADIAL FLOW REACTION TURBINE:
In the Radial flow turbines water flows in the radial direction. The water may flow radially
from outwards to inwards (i.e. towards the axis of rotation) or from inwards to outwards. If the
water flows from outwards to inwards through the runner, the turbine is known as inwards radial
flow turbine. And if the water flows from inwards to outwards, the turbine is known as outward
radial flow turbine.
Reaction turbine means that the water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy as
well as pressure energy. As the water flows through the runner, a part of pressure energy goes on
charging into kinetic energy. Thus the water through the runner is under pressure. The runner is
completely enclosed in an air-tight casing and the runner is always full of water.
Main parts of a Radial flow Reaction turbine:
1. Casing
2. Guide mechanism
3. Runner and
4. Draft tube.
1. Casing: in case of reaction turbine, casing
and runner are always full of water. The
water from the penstocks enters the casing
which is of spiral shape in which area of
cross-section one of the casing goes on
decreasing gradually. The casing completely
surrounds the runner of the turbine. The
water enters the runner at constant velocity
throughout the circumference of the runner.
2. Guide Mechanism: It consists of a stationary circular wheel all around the runner of the turbine.
The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes allow the water to
strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock at inlet. Also by suitable arrangement, the width
between two adjacent vanes of guide mechanism can be altered so that the amount of water
striking the runner can be varied.
3. Runner: It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed. The surfaces of the
vanes are made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and
leaves the runner without shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stain less steel.
They are keyed to the shaft.
4. Draft - Tube: The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than
atmospheric pressure. The water at exit can’t be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe
of gradually increasing area is used for discharging the water from the exit of the turbine to the tail
race. This tube of increasing area is called draft-tube.
Inward Radial Flow Turbine: In the inward radial flow turbine, in which case the water from the
casing enters the stationary guiding wheel. The guiding wheel consists of guide vanes which direct
the water to enter the runner which consists of moving vanes. The water flows over the moving
vanes in the inward radial direction and is discharged at the inner diameter of the runner. The outer
diameter of the runner is the inlet and the inner diameter is the outlet.
Velocity triangles and work done by water on runner:

Work done per second on the runner by water

= 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 = 𝜌𝑄[𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] (1) (∵ 𝑎𝑉1 = 𝑄)

The equation represents the energy transfer per second to the runner.

Where 𝑉𝑤1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet

𝑉𝑤2 = Velocity of whirl at outlet
𝑢1 = Tangential velocity at inlet
𝜋𝐷1×𝑁
= 60
, Where 𝐷1 = Outer dia. Of runner,
𝑢2 = Tangential velocity at outlet
𝜋𝐷2×𝑁
= 60
Where 𝐷1 = Inner dia. Of runner,
N = Speed of the turbine in r.p.m.
The work done per second per unit weight of water per second =
work done per second
weight of water striking per second.

𝜌𝑄[𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ±𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
= 𝜌𝑄×𝑔

1
= 𝑔 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] (2)

Equation (2) represents the energy transfer per unit weight/s to the
runner. This equation is known by Euler’s equation.
In equation +ve sign is taken if β is an acute angle,
-ve sign is taken if β is an obtuse angle.
0
If 𝛽 = 90 then 𝑉𝑤2 = 0 and work done per second per unit weight
of water striking/s
1
Work done = 𝑔 𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1
𝑅.𝑃. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
Hydraulic efficiency 𝜂ℎ = =
𝑊.𝑃. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝑊
[𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ±𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ] (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ±𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )
1000×𝑔
= 𝑊×𝐻 = 𝑔𝐻
(3)
1000

Where R.P. = Runner Power i.e. power delivered by water to the runner
W.P. = Water Power
If the discharge is radial at outlet, then 𝑉𝑤2 = 0
𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏
𝜼𝒉 = 𝒈𝑯

Definitions:
The following terms are generally used in case of reaction radial flow turbines which are
defined as:
𝑢1
1. Speed Ratio: The speed ratio is defined as=
√2𝑔𝐻

Where 𝑢1 =tangential velocity of wheel at inlet

2. Flow Ratio: The ratio of velocity of flow at inlet (𝑉𝑓1 ) to the velocity given √2𝑔𝐻 is known as the
flow ratio.
𝑉𝑓1
= Where H = Head on turbine
√2𝑔𝐻

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Discharge of the turbine: The discharge through a reaction radial flow turbine is

𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 × 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝐵2 × 𝑉𝑓2

Where 𝐷1 = Dia of runner at inlet

𝐷2 = Dia of runner at outlet
𝐵1 = Width of the runner at inlet
𝐵2 = Width of runner at outlet
𝑉𝑓1 = Velocity of flow at inlet

𝑉𝑓2 = Velocity of flow at outlet

If the thickness of the vanes are taken into consideration then the area through which flow takes
place is given by
= 𝜋𝐷1 − 𝑛 × 𝑡 Where 𝑛 = Number of vanes and
𝑡 = Thickness of each vane
4. Head: The (H) on the turbine is given by
𝑃 𝑉12
𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔1 + 2𝑔
Where 𝑃1 = Pressure at inlet

5. Radial Discharge: This means the angle made by

absolute velocity with the tangent on the wheel is 900
and the component of whirl velocity is zero. The radial
discharge at outlet means 𝛽 = 900 and 𝑉𝑤2 = 0 while
radial discharge at inlet means 𝛼 = 900 and 𝑉𝑤1 = 0

6. If there is no loss of energy when the water flows

through the vanes then we have
𝑉2 2 1
𝐻− = [𝑉 𝑢 ± 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]
2𝑔 𝑔 𝑤1 1

FRANCIS TURBINE:
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as Francis
Turbine. The water enters the runner of the turbine in the radial direction at outlet and leaves in the
axial direction at the inlet of the runner. Thus the Francis turbine is a mixed flow type turbine.

The velocity triangle at inlet and outlet of the Francis turbine are drawn in the same way as
in case of inward flow reaction turbine. As in case of inward radial flow turbine. The discharge of
Francis turbine is radial at outlet; the velocity of whirl at outlet (𝑉𝑤2 ) will be zero. Hence the work
done by water on the runner per second will be

=𝜌𝑄[𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 1
The work done per second per unit weight of water striking/sec = 𝑔 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ]

𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1
Hydraulic efficiency 𝜂ℎ = 𝑔𝐻

Important relations for Francis turbines:

1. The ratio of width of the wheel to its diameter is given

𝐵
as𝑛 = 𝐷1 . The value of n varies from 0.10 to 0.40
1
2. The flow ratio is given as
𝑉𝑓1
Flow ratio = and varies from 0.15 to 0.30
√2𝑔𝐻
𝑢1
3. The speed ratio = varies from 0.6 to 0.9
√2𝑔𝐻

Outward radial Flow Reaction Turbine:

In the outward radial flow reaction turbine water from the casing enters the stationary guide
wheel. The guide wheel consists of guide vanes which direct the water to enter the runner which is
around the stationary guide wheel. The water flows through the vanes of the runner in the outward
radial direction and is discharges at the outer diameter of the runner. The inner diameter of the
runner is inlet and outer diameter is the outlet.
The velocity triangles a inlet and outlet will be drawn by the same procedure as adopted for
inward flow turbine. The work done by the water on the runner per second, the horse power
developed and hydraulic efficiency will be obtained from the velocity triangles. In this case as the
inlet of the runner is at the inner diameter of the runner, the tangential velocity at inlet will be less
than that of an outlet. i.e.
𝑢1 < 𝑢2 As 𝐷1 < 𝐷2
All the working conditions flow through the runner
blades without shock. As such eddy losses which
are inevitable in Francis and propeller turbines are
almost completely eliminated in a Kaplan turbine.
The discharge through the runner is
obtained as
𝜋
𝑄 = (𝐷0 2 − 𝐷𝑏 2 ) × 𝑉𝑓1
4
Where 𝐷0 = outer diameter of the runner
𝐷𝑏 = Diameter of the hub
𝑉𝑓1 = Velocity of flow at inlet

Important points for Kaplan turbine:

1. The peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal.
𝜋𝐷0𝑁
𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 60
Where 𝐷0 = Outer diameter of runner.
2. Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal.
𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2

3. Area of flow at inlet = Area of flow at outlet

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 𝜋
= 4 (𝐷0 2 − 𝐷𝑏 2 )

AXIAL FLOW REACTION TURBINE:

If the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation shaft the turbine is known as axial flow
turbine. If the head at inlet of the turbine is the sum of pressure energy and kinetic energy and
during the flow of the water through the runner a part of pressure energy in converted in to kinetic
energy, the turbine is known as reaction turbine.

For axial flow reaction turbine, the shaft of the turbine is vertical. The lower end of the shaft
is made longer known as “hub” or “boss”. The vanes are fixed on the hub and acts as a runner for
the axial flow reaction turbine. The important types of axial flow reaction turbines are:

1. Propeller Turbine
2. Kaplan Turbine

When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable
the turbine is known as propeller turbine. But if the vanes on the
hub are adjustable, the turbine is known as Kaplan turbine. This
turbine is suitable, where large quantity of water at low heads is
available.

The main parts of the Kaplan turbine are:

1. Scroll casing
2. Guide vanes mechanism
3. Hub with vanes or runner of the turbine
4. Draft tube

Between the guide vanes and the runner the water in

the Kaplan turbine turns through a right angle in to the
axial angle direction and then posses through the runner.
The runner of the Kaplan turbine has four or six or eight in
some cases blades and it closely resembles a ships
propeller. The blades (vanes) attached to a hub or bosses
are so shaped that water flows axially through the runner.

The runner blades of a propeller turbine are fixed but

the Kaplan turbine runner heads can be turned about
their own axis, so that their angle of inclination may be
adjusted while the turbine is in motion. The adjustment of
the runner blades in usually carried out automatically by
means of a servomotor operating inside the hollow
coupling of turbine and generator shaft. When both guide
vane angle and runner blade angle may thus be varied a
high efficiency can be maintained over a wide range of
operating conditions. i.e. even at part load, when a lower
discharge is following through the runner a high efficiency
can be attained in case of Kaplan turbine. The flow

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

through turbine runner does not affect the shape of velocity triangles as blade angles are
simultaneously adjusted, the water under all the working conditions flows through the runner blades
without shock. The eddy losses which are inevitable in Francis and propeller turbines are completely
eliminated in a Kaplan Turbine.

Working Proportions of Kaplan Turbine:

The main dimensions of Kaplan Turbine runners are similar to Francis turbine runner.
However the following are main deviations,
𝑑
i. Choose an appropriate value of the ratio𝑛 = , where d in hub or boss diameter and D is
𝐷
runner outside diameter. The value of n varies from 0.35 to 0.6
ii. The discharge Q flowing through the runner is given by
𝝅 𝝅
𝑸 = (𝑫𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐 )𝑽𝒇 = (𝑫𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐 )𝝍√𝟐𝒈𝑯
𝟒 𝟒
The value of flow ratio 𝜓 for a Kaplan turbine is 0.7
iii. The runner blades of the Kaplan turbine are twisted, the blade angle being greater at the
outer tip than at the hub. This is because the peripheral velocity of the blades being directly
proportional to radius. It will valy from section to section along the blade, and hence in
order to have shock free entry and exit of water over the blades with angles varying from
section to section will have to be designed.

DRAFT TUBE:

The draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area, which connects the outlet of the runner
to the tail race. It is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail race. This pipe
of gradually increasing area is called a draft tube. One end of the draft tube is connected to the
outlet of the runner and the other end is submerged below the level of water in the tail race. The
draft tube in addition to save a passage for water discharge has the following two purposes also:
1. It permits a negative head to be established at the outlet of the runner and their by increase
the net head on the turbine. The turbine may be placed above the tail race without any loss
of net head and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
2𝑉2
2. It converts a large portion of the kinetic energy ( 2𝑔 ) rejected at the outlet of the turbine
into useful energy. Without the draft tube the kinetic energy rejected at the turbine will go
waste to the tail race.
Hence by using the draft tube, the net head on turbine increases. The turbine develops more
power and also the efficiency of the turbine increase.
If a reaction turbine is not fitted with a draft tube, the pressure at the outlet of the
runner will be equal to atmospheric pressure. The water from the outlet of the runner will
discharge freely into the tail race. The net head on the turbine will be less than that of a reaction
𝑉2
2
turbine fitted with a draft tube. Also without draft tube the kinetic energy ( 2𝑔 ) rejected at the
outlet of the will go water to the tail race.
Types of Draft Tube:
1. Conical Draft Tube
2. Simple Elbow Tubes
3. Moody Spreading tubes
4. Elbow Draft Tubes with Circular inlet and rectangular outlet

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 The conical draft tubes and moody spreading draft tubes are most efficient while simple
elbow draft tube and elbow draft tubes with circular inlet and rectangular outlet require less space
as compared to other draft tubes.

Draft
tube

theory: Consider a conical draft tube

𝐻𝑠 = Vertical height of draft tube above tail race
Y= Distance of bottom of draft tube from tail race.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to inlet section 1-1 and outlet section 2-2of the draft tube and
taking section 2-2 a datum, we get
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ + (𝐻𝑠 + 𝑦) = + + 0 + ℎ𝑓 (1)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Where ℎ𝑓 = loss of energy between section 1-1 and 2-2.

𝑝2 𝑝
But 𝜌𝑔
= Atmospheric Pressure + y =𝜌𝑔𝑎 + 𝑦
𝑝2
Substituting this value of in equation (1) we get
𝜌𝑔
𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝𝑎 𝑉22
+ + (𝐻𝑠 + 𝑦) = +𝑦+ + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝 𝑉22
𝜌𝑔
+ 2𝑔
+ 𝐻𝑠 = 𝜌𝑔𝑎 + 2𝑔
+ ℎ𝑓

𝑝1 𝑝𝑎 𝑉22 𝑉12
= + + ℎ𝑓 − − 𝐻𝑠
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 𝑝𝑎 𝑉12 𝑉22
= − 𝐻𝑠 − [ − − ℎ𝑓 ] (2)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

In equation (2) is less than atmospheric pressure.

Efficiency of Draft Tube: the efficiency of a draft tube is defined as the ratio of actual conversion of
kinetic head in to pressure in the draft tube to the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝜂𝑑 =
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
Let 𝑉1 = Velocity of water at inlet of draft tube
𝑉2 = Velocity of water at outlet of draft tube
ℎ𝑓 = Loss of head in the draft tube

Theoretical conversion of Kinetic head into Pressure head in

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 1 𝑉2 𝑉22
Draft tube = [ 2𝑔 − 2𝑔
]

1 𝑉2 𝑉22
Actual conversion of Kinetic head into pressure head = [ 2𝑔 − 2𝑔
] − ℎ𝑓

𝑉 𝑉 2 2
[ 1 − 2 ]−ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔
Now Efficiency of draft tube 𝜂𝑑 = 𝑉1 2
2𝑔

PROBLEMS
1. A pelton wheel has a mean bucket speed of 10m/s with a jet of water flowing at the rate of
700lts/sec under a head of 30 m. the buckets deflect the jet through an angle of 1600 calculate the
power given by the water to the runner and hydraulic efficiency of the turbine? Assume co-efficient
of velocity=0.98
Given:
Speed of bucket 𝑢 = 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 10𝑚/𝑠
Discharge Q = 700lt/sec=0.7m3 /s
Head of water H = 30m
Angle deflection = 1600
∴ 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ∅ = 180 − 160 = 200
Co-efficient of velocity 𝐶𝑣 = 0.98

The velocity of jet 𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 = 0.98√2 × 9.81 × 30 = 23.77𝑚/𝑠

𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑢1 = 23.77 − 10 = 13.77𝑚/𝑠

𝑉𝑤1 = 𝑉1 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝒎/𝒔

From the outlet velocity triangle

13.77𝑚
𝑉𝑟2 = 𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑠

𝑉𝑤2 = 𝑉𝑟1 cos ∅ − 𝑢2

= 13.77 cos 200 − 10 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒𝒎/𝒔

Work done by the jet/sec on the runner is given by equation

= 𝜌𝑎𝑉1 [𝑉𝑤1 + 𝑉𝑤2 ] × 𝑢

= 1000 × 0.7[23.77 + 2.94] × 10

= 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟕𝟎𝑵𝒎/𝒔
186970
Power given to the turbine = 1000
= 𝟏𝟖𝟔. 𝟗𝟕𝒌𝑾

The hydraulic efficiency of the turbine is given by equation

2[𝑉𝑤1 +𝑉𝑤2 ]×𝑢 2[23.77+2.94]×10

𝜂ℎ = = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟒
𝑉12 23.77×23.77

Or = 94.54%

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2. A reaction turbine works at 450rpm under a head of 120m. its diameter at inlet is 120cm and flow
area is 0.4m2. The angles made by absolute and relative velocities at inlet are 200 and 600
respectively, with the tangential velocity. Determine
i) Volume flow rate ii) the power developed
iii) 𝜂ℎ The hydraulic efficiency. Assume whirl at outlet is zero.
Given: Speed of turbine N = 450rpm
Head H = 120m
Diameter of inlet D1 = 120cm=1.2m
Flow area 𝜋𝐷1 × 𝐵1 = 0.4𝑚 2
Angle made by absolute velocity 𝛼 = 200
Angle made by relative velocity 𝜃 = 600
Whirl at outlet 𝑉𝑤2 = 0
Tangential velocity of the turbine at inlet
𝜋𝐷1𝑁 𝜋×1.2×450
𝑢1 = 60
= 60
= 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟕𝒎/𝒔
𝑉𝑓1
From inlet triangle tan 𝛼 = 𝑉𝑤1
𝑉𝑓1
Tan 200 = = 0.364,
𝑉𝑤1
𝑉𝑓1 = 0.364𝑉𝑤1 (1)
𝑉𝑓1 0.364𝑉𝑤1
Also tan 𝜃 = = (∵ tan 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛600 = 1.732)
𝑉𝑤1 −𝑢1 𝑉𝑤1 −28.27

0.364𝑉𝑤1
1.732 =
𝑉𝑤1 −28.27

0.364𝑉𝑤1 = 1.732(𝑉𝑤1 − 28.27)

0.364𝑉𝑤1 = 1.732𝑉𝑤1 − 28.27 × 1.732
𝑉𝑤1 (1.732 − 0.364) = 48.96
48.96
𝑉𝑤1 = = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟕𝟗𝒎/𝒔
1.732−0.364

From equation (1) 𝑉𝑓1 = 0.364𝑉𝑤1 = 0.364 × 35.79 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟎𝟐𝟕𝒎/𝒔

i) Volume flow rate is given by equation as 𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 𝑉𝑓1

𝑄 = 0.4 × 13.027 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝒎𝟑/𝒔𝒆𝒄 (∵ 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 = 0.4𝑚 2 )
ii) Work done per second on the turbine is given by equation
= 𝜌𝑄[𝑉𝑤1 × 𝑢1 ]
= 1000 × 5.211[35.79 × 28.27] = 5272.402𝑁𝑚/𝑠
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 5272402
Power developed in 𝑘𝑊 = 1000
= 1000
= 𝟓𝟐𝟕𝟐. 𝟒𝟎𝟐𝒌𝑾

iii) The hydraulic efficiency is given by equation

𝑉𝑤1 ×𝑢1 35.79×28.27
𝜂ℎ = 𝑔×𝐻
= 9.81×120
= 0.8595
= 85.95%
3. The internal and external diameters of an outward flow reaction turbine are 2m and 2.75m
respectively. The turbine is running at 250rpm and the rate of flow of water through the turbine is
5m3/s. the width of the runner is constant at inlet and outlet is equal to 250mm. the head on the
turbine is 150m. Neglecting the thickness of the vanes and taking discharge radial at outlet,
determine:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

i) Vane angle at inlet and outlet ii) velocity of flow inlet and outlet
Given: Internal diameter D1=2m
External diameter D2=2.75m
Speed of turbine N=250rpm
Discharge Q=5m3/s
Width at inlet and outlet B1=B2=250mm=0.25m
Head H = 150m
Discharge at outlet = radial
∴ 𝑉𝑤2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑉2
The tangential velocity of turbine at inlet and outlet
𝜋𝐷1𝑁 𝜋×2×250
𝑢1 = = = 26.18𝑚/𝑠
60 60
𝜋𝐷2 𝑁 𝜋×2.75×250
𝑢2 = 60
= 60
= 36𝑚/𝑠

The discharge through the turbine is given by 𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝐵2 𝑉𝑓2
𝑄 5
𝑉𝑓1 = 𝜋𝐷 = 𝜋×2×0.25 = 3.183𝑚/𝑠
1 𝐵1

𝑄 5
𝑉𝑓2 = 𝜋𝐷 = 𝜋×2.75×0.25 = 2.315𝑚/𝑠
1 𝐵1

𝑉22 𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1
Using equation 𝐻 − = (∵ 𝑉𝑤2 = 0)
2𝑔 𝑔
But for radial discharge 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑓2 = 2.315𝑚/𝑠
(2.315)2 𝑉𝑤1 ×26.18 𝑉𝑤1 ×26.18
150 − 2×9.81
= 9.81
Or 149.73 = 9.81
149.73 ×9.81
𝑉𝑤1 = 26.18
= 56.1𝑚/𝑠

i) Vane angle at inlet and outlet

𝑉𝑓1 3.183
From the inlet velocity triangle tan 𝜃 = = = 0.1064
𝑉𝑤1 −𝑢1 56.1−26.18

∴ 𝜃 = tan−1 0.1064 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟕𝟐0 𝑜𝑟 𝟔0 𝟒. 𝟑𝟐′

𝑉𝑓2 2.315
From outlet velocity triangle tan 𝜃 = 𝑢2
= 36
= 0.0643

∴ 𝜃 = tan−1 (0.0643) = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟖0 𝑜𝑟 𝟑0 𝟒𝟎. 𝟖′

ii) Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet
𝑉𝑓1 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝒎/𝒔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝒎/𝒔

4. A Francis turbine with an overall efficiency of 75% is required to produce 148.25kW power. It is
working under a head of 7.62m. The peripheral velocity=0.26√2𝑔ℎ and the radial velocity of flow at
inlet is 0.96√2𝑔ℎ. The wheel runs at 150rpm and the hydraulic losses in the turbine are 22% of the
available energy. Assuming radial discharge determine
i) The guide blade angle. ii) The wheel vane angle at inlet
iii) The diameter of the wheel at inlet, and iv) Width of the wheel at inlet.
Given: Overall efficiency 𝜂0 = 75% = 0.75
Head H=7.62rpm
Power Produced S.P. = 148.25kW
Speed N= 150rpm
Hydraulic loses =22% of energy
Peripheral velocity 𝑢1 = 0.26√2𝑔ℎ = 0.26√2 × 9.81 × 7.62 = 3.179𝑚/𝑠

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Discharge at outlet = Radial
𝑉𝑤2 = 0 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑉2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡−𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
The hydraulic efficiency 𝜂ℎ =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝐻−0.22𝐻
= 𝐻
= 0.78
𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1
But 𝜂ℎ = , = 0.78
𝑔𝐻 𝑔𝐻
0.78×𝑔×𝐻 0.78×9.81×7.62
𝑉𝑤1 = 𝑢1
= 3.179
= 𝟏𝟖. 𝟑𝟒𝒎/𝒔.
i) The guide blade angle i.e. 𝛼 From inlet velocity triangle
𝑉𝑓1 11.738
tan 𝛼 = 𝑉 = 18.34
= 0.64
𝑤1

𝛼 = tan−1 (0.64) = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟔𝟏𝟗0 𝑜𝑟 𝟑𝟐0 𝟑𝟕′

ii) The wheel angle at inlet (𝜃)
𝑉𝑓1 11.738
tan 𝜃 = 𝑉 = 18.34−3.179 0.774
𝑤1 −𝑢1
−1(
𝜃 = tan 0.774) = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝟒0 𝑜𝑟 𝟑𝟕0 𝟒𝟒. 𝟒′
iii) The diameter of wheel at inlet (𝐷1 )
𝜋𝐷1𝑁
Using relation 𝑢1 = 60
60×𝑢1 60×3.179
𝐷1 = = = 0.4047𝑚
𝜋×𝑁 𝜋×150
iv) Width of the wheel at inlet (𝐵1 )
𝑆𝑃 148.25
𝜂0 = 𝑊𝑃 = 𝑊𝑃
𝑊×𝐻 𝜌×𝑔×𝑄×𝐻 1000×9.81×𝑄×7.62
But 𝑊𝑃 = 1000
=
1000
= 1000
148.25×1000
𝜂0 = 1000×9.81×𝑄×7.62
148.25 ×1000 148.25 ×1000
𝑄 = 1000 ×9.81 ×7.62×𝜂 = 1000 ×9.81 ×7.62×0.75 = 2.644𝑚 3 /𝑠 (∵ 𝜂0 = 75%)
0

Using equation 𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 × 𝑉𝑓1

2.644 = 𝜋 × 0.4047 × 𝐵1 × 11.738
2.644
𝐵1 = 𝜋×0.4047×11.738 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟕𝒎
5. A Kaplan turbine runner is to be designed to develop 7357.5kW shaft power. The net available
head is 5.50m. Assume that the speed ratio is 2.09 and flow ratio is 0.68 and the overall efficiency is
1
60%. The diameter of boss is 3 of the diameter of runner. Find the diameter of the runner, its speed
and specific speed.

Given: Shaft power P = 7357.5kW

Head H = 5.5m
𝑢1
Speed ratio = = 2.09
√2𝑔𝐻

∴ 𝑢1 = 2.09 × √2 × 9.81 × 5.5 = 21.71𝑚/𝑠

𝑉𝑓1
Flow ratio = = 0.68
√2𝑔𝐻

∴ 𝑉𝑓1 = 0.68 × √2 × 9.81 × 5.5 = 7.064𝑚/𝑠

Overall Efficiency 𝜂0 = 60% = 0.60
1
Diameter of boss 𝐷𝑏 = 3 × 𝐷0
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 7357.5
Using the relation 𝜂0 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
1000

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 7357.5 × 1000
0.60 = 1000×9.81 ×𝑄 ×5.5

7357.5 × 1000
Discharge 𝑄 = 1000×9.81 ×5.5×0.60 = 227.27 𝑚 3 /𝑠

Using equation for discharge

𝜋
𝑄 = 4 [𝐷0 2 − 𝐷𝑏 2 ] × 𝑉𝑓1

𝜋 𝐷 2
227.27 = 4 [𝐷0 2 − ( 30) ] × 𝑉𝑓1

𝜋 8
227.27 = 4 × 9 𝐷0 2 × 7.064
4 9 1
𝐷0 2 = 227.27 × 𝜋 × 8 × 7.064

𝐷0 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟖𝟖𝒎
1 6.788
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷0 = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝒎
3 3

𝜋𝐷0 𝑁
Using the relation 𝑢2 = (∵ 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 )
60
60×𝑢1 60×21.71
𝑁= 𝜋𝐷0
= 𝜋×6.788
= 𝟔𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 𝒓𝒑𝒎

𝑁√𝑃 61.08×√7357.5
The specific speed 𝑁𝑠 = = = 𝟔𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝐻 5/4 (5.5)5/4

Geometric similarity

The geometric similarity must exist between the model and its proto type. the ratio of all
corresponding linear dimensions in the model and its proto type are equal.

Let 𝐿𝑚 = length of model

𝑏𝑚 = Breadth of model

𝐷𝑚 = Diameter of model

𝐴𝑚 = Area of model

∀𝑚 = Volume of model

And 𝐿𝑃 , 𝑏𝑃 , 𝐷𝑃 , 𝐴𝑃 , ∀𝑃 = Corresponding values of the proto type.

For geometrical similarity between model and prototype, we must have the relation,

𝐿𝑃 𝑏 𝐷
𝐿𝑚
= 𝑏 𝑃 = 𝐷𝑃 = 𝐿𝑟
𝑚 𝑚

Where 𝐿𝑟 is called scale ratio.

For area’s ratio and volume’s ratio the relation should be,

𝐴𝑃 𝐿 ×𝑏
𝐴𝑚
= 𝐿 𝑃 ×𝑏𝑃 = 𝐿𝑟 × 𝐿𝑟 = 𝐿𝑟 2
𝑚 𝑚

∀𝑃 𝐿 3 𝑏 3 𝐷 3
∀𝑚
= (𝐿 𝑃 ) = (𝑏 𝑃 ) = (𝐷𝑃 ) = 𝐿𝑟 3
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

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PERFORMANCE ON HYDRAULIC TURBINES
In order to predict the behavior of a turbine working under varying conditions of head,
speed, output and gate opening , the results are expressed in terms of quantities which may be
obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity. The conditions of the turbine under unit
head are such that the efficiency of the turbine remains unaffected. The three important unit
quantities are:

1. Unit speed,
2. Unit discharge, and
3. Unit power

1. Unit Speed: it is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head. It is denoted by ′𝑁𝑢 ′.
The expression of unit speed (𝑁𝑢 ) is obtained as:

Let N = Speed of the turbine under a head H

H = Head under which a turbine is working

u = Tangential velocity.

The tangential velocity, absolute velocity of water and head on turbine are related as:

𝑢 ∝ 𝑉 Where 𝑉 ∝ √𝐻

∝ √𝐻 (1)

Also tangential velocity (u) is given by

𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢= 60
Where D = Diameter of turbine.

For a given turbine, the diameter (D) is constant

𝑢 ∝ 𝑁 Or 𝑁 ∝ 𝑢 Or 𝑁 ∝ √𝐻 (∵ 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1), 𝑢 ∝ √𝐻 )

∴ 𝑁 = 𝐾1 √𝐻 (2) Where 𝐾1 is constant of proportionality.

If head on the turbine becomes unity, the speed becomes unit speed or

When H = 1, N = Nu

Substituting these values in equation (2), we get

𝑁𝑢 = 𝐾1 √1.0 = 𝐾1

Substituting the value of K1 in equation (2)

𝑁
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢 √𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑢 = (I)
√𝐻

2. Unit Discharge: It is defined as the discharge passing through a turbine, which is working under a
unit head (i.e. 1 m). It is denoted by ′𝑄𝑢 ′ the expression for unit discharge is given as:
Let H = head of water on the turbine
Q = Discharge passing through turbine when head is H on the turbine.

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 𝑎 = Area of flow of water
The discharge passing through a given turbine under a head ‘H’ is given by,
Q=Area of flow × Velocity

But for a turbine, area of flow is constant and velocity is proportional to √𝐻

𝑄 ∝ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ √𝐻
Or 𝑄 = 𝐾2 √𝐻 (3)
Where 𝐾2 is constant of proportionality
If H = 1, 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑢 (By definition)
Substituting these values in equation (3) we get

𝑄𝑢 = 𝐾2 √1.0 = 𝐾2
Substituting the value of 𝐾2 in equation (3) we get

𝑄 = 𝑄𝑢 √𝐻
𝑄
𝑄𝑢 = (II)
√𝐻

3. Unit Power: It is defined as the power developed by a turbine working under a unit head (i.e.
under a head of 1m). It is denoted by ′𝑃𝑢 ′. The expression for unit power is obtained as:
Let H= Head of water on the turbine
P= Power developed by the turbine under a head of H
Q= Discharge through turbine under a head H
The overall efficiency(𝜂0 ) is given as
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑃
𝜂0 = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 𝑝𝑔𝑄𝐻
1000
𝑝𝑔𝑄ℎ
𝑃 = 𝜂0 ×
1000
∝ 𝑄×𝐻 ∝ √𝐻 × 𝐻 (∵ 𝑄 ∝ √𝐻)
3
∝ 𝐻 2

𝑃 = 𝐾3 𝐻3/2 (4) Where 𝐾3 is a constant of proportionality

When H=1 m, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑢
∴ 𝑃𝑢 = 𝐾3 (1)3/2 = 𝐾3
Substituting the value of 𝐾3 in equation (4) we get
3
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑢 𝐻 2
𝑃
𝑃𝑢 = 𝐻 3/2 (III)
Use of Unit Quantities(𝑵𝒖 , 𝑸𝒖 , 𝑷𝒖 ):
If a turbine is working under different heads, the behaviour of the turbine can be easily
known from the values of the unit quantities i.e. from the value of unit speed, unit discharge and
unit power.
Let H1, H2, H3, -------- are the heads under which a turbine works,
N1, N2, N3, --------- are the corresponding speeds,
Q1, Q2, Q3, -------- are the discharge and
P1, P2, P3, --------- are the power developed by the turbine.
Using equation I, II, III respectively,

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 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3
𝑁𝑢 = = =
√𝐻1 √𝐻2 √𝐻3
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3
𝑄𝑢 = = = (IV)
√𝐻1 √𝐻2 √𝐻3
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝑃𝑢 = = = }
𝐻13/2 𝐻2 3/2 𝐻3 3/2

Hence, if the speed, discharge and power developed by a turbine under a head are known, then by
using equation (IV) the speed, discharge, power developed by the same turbine a different head can
be obtained easily.

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES:

Characteristic curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves, with the help of which the exact
behaviour and performance of the turbine under different working conditions can be known. These
curves are plotted from the results of the tests performed on the turbine under different working
conditions.
The important parameters which are varied during a test on turbine are:
1) Speed (N) 2) Head (H) 3) Discharge (Q)
4) Power (P) 5) Overall Efficiency (𝜂0 ) and 6) Gate opening.
Out of the above six parameters, three parameters namely speed (N), Head (H) and
discharge (Q) are independent parameters.
Out of the three independent parameters, (N, H, Q) one of the parameter is kept constant
(say H) and the variation of other two parameters with respect to any one of the remaining two
independent variables (say N and Q) are plotted and various curves are obtained. These curves are
called characteristic curves. The following are the important characteristic curves of a turbine.
1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves.
2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves.
3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves.

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1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves:

These curves are obtained by maintaining a constant head and a constant gate opening (G.O.) on the
turbine. The speed of the turbine is varied by changing the load on the turbine. For each value of the
speed, the corresponding values of the power (P) and discharge (Q) are obtained. Then the overall
efficiency (𝜂0 ) for each value of the speed is calculated. From these readings the values of unit speed
(𝑁𝑢 ), unit power (𝑃𝑢 ) and unit discharge (𝑄𝑢 ) are determined. Taking 𝑁𝑢 as abscissa, the values of
𝑄𝑢 𝑃𝑢 P and 𝜂0 are plotted. By changing the gate opening, the values of 𝑄𝑢 𝑃𝑢 and 𝜂0 and 𝑁𝑢 are

determined and taking 𝑁𝑢 as abscissa, the values of 𝑄𝑢 𝑃𝑢 and 𝜂0 are plotted.

2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves:

These curves are plotted when the speed on

the turbine is constant. In case turbines, the head is
generally constant. As already discussed there are
three independent parameters namely N, H and Q.
For operating characteristics N and H are constant
and hence the variation of power and the efficiency
with respect to discharge Q are plotted. The power
curve for the turbine shall not pass through the
origin, because certain amount of discharge is
needed to produce power to overcome initial
friction. Hence the power and efficiency curves will be slightly away from the origin on the x-axis, as
to overcome initial friction certain amount of discharge will be required.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or Iso - Efficiency Curves:
These curves are obtained from the speed vs.
efficiency and speed vs. discharge curves for
different gate openings. For a given efficiency
from the 𝑁𝑢 vs. 𝜂0 curves there are two speeds.
From the 𝑁𝑢 vs. 𝑄𝑢 curves, corresponding to two
values of speeds there are two values of discharge.
Hence for a given efficiency there are two values
of discharge for a particular gate opening. This
means for a given efficiency there are two values
of speeds and two values of discharge for a given
gate opening. If the efficiency is maximum there is
only one value. These two values of speed and two
values of discharge. Corresponding to a particular
gate opening are plotted. The procedure is
repeated for different gate openings and the
curves Q vs. N are plotted. The points having the
same efficiencies are joined. The curves having the
same efficiency are called Iso-efficiency curves.
There curves are helpful for determining the zone
of constant efficiency and for predicating the
performance of the turbine at various efficiencies.
For plotting the Iso-efficiency curves, horizontal lines representing the same efficiency are
drawn on the 𝜂0 ~ speed curves. The points at which these lines cut the efficiency curves at various
gate opening are transferred to the corresponding 𝑄 ~ speed curves. The points having the same
efficiency are then joined by smooth curves. These smooth curves represent the Iso-efficiency
curves.
Selection of Types of Turbine:
Selection of a suitable type of turbine is usually governed by
i) Head and Specific Speed. ii) Part load Operation.

i) Head and Specific Speed: It has been found that there is a range of head and specific speed for
which each type of a turbine is most suitable.
S. No Head in meters Types of Turbine Specific Speed

1 300 or more Pelton wheel single or multiple Jet 8.5 to 47

2 150-300 Pelton or Francis 30 to 85

3 60-150 Francis 85 to 188

4 Less than 60 Kaplan or Propeller 188 to 860

A turbine with highest permissible specific speed should be chosen which will be cheapest
and relatively small in size and high rotational speed will reduce the size of the generator as well as
the power house. But the specific speed cannot be increased indefinitely because it results is
cavitations. The cavitations may be avoided by installing the turbine at a lower level with respect to
the tail race.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ii) Part load Operation: The turbines may be required to work with considerable load variations. As
the load derivate from the normal working load, the efficiency would also vary.

At part load the performance of Kaplan and pelton turbines is better in comparison to that
of Francis and Propeller turbines. The variability of load will influence the choice of type of turbine, if
the head lies between 150m to 300m or lies below 30m. For higher range of heads pelton wheel is
preferable for part load operation in comparison to Francis turbine, through the former involves
higher initial cost. For heads below 30m Kaplan turbine is preferable for part load operation in
comparison to propeller turbine.
In addition to the above factors the overall cost, which includes the initial cost and running
cost should be considered. The cavitations characteristics of the turbine should be considered.
Specific Speed(𝑵𝒔 ):
The specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar turbine that
would develop 1kW under 1 m head. All geometrically similar turbines (Irrespective of sizes) will
have the same specific speeds when operating under the same speed.
𝑵√𝑷
Specific speed 𝑵𝒔 = 𝑯 𝟓/𝟒
Where N=Normal working speed
P = Power output of the turbine
H = The net or effective head in meters.
The turbine with low specific speeds work under high and low discharge conditions, while the high
specific speed turbines work under low head and high discharge conditions.

Cavitation : Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing

liquid in a region, where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapour pressure and the sudden
collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour bubbles
collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic surfaces, above which these vapour bubbles
collapse, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus
cavities are formed on the metallic surface and also considerable noise and vibrations are produced.

Cavitation includes formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid and collapsing of the
vapour bubbles. Formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid take place only whenever the
pressure in any region falls below vapour pressure. When the pressure of the flowing liquid is less
than its vapour pressure, the liquid starts boiling and the vapour bubbles are formed. These vapour
bubbles are carried along with the flowing liquid to higher pressure zones, where these vapour
condense and the bubbles collapse. Due to sudden collapsing of the bubbles on the metallic surface,
high pressure is produced and metallic surfaces are subjected to high local stress. Thus the surfaces
are damaged.
Precaution against Cavitation: The following are the Precaution against cavitation
i. The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system should not be allowed
to fall below its vapour pressure. If the flowing liquid is water, then the absolute pressure
head should not be below 2.5m of water.
ii. The special materials or coatings such as Aluminum-bronze and stainless steel, which are
cavitation resistant materials, should be used.
Effects of Cavitation: the following are the effects of cavitation.
i. The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.
ii. Due to sudden collapse of vapour bubbles, considerable noise and vibrations are produced.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 iii. The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting action, the surface of
the turbine blades becomes rough and the force exerted by the water on the turbine blades
decreases. Hence, the work done by water or output horse power becomes less and
efficiency decreases.
Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation: The hydraulic machines subjected to Cavitation are
reaction turbine and centrifugal pumps.
Cavitation in Turbines: in turbines, only reaction turbines are subjected to cavitation. In reaction
turbines the cavitation may occur at the outlet of the runner or at the inlet of the draft tube where
the pressure is considerably reduced. (i.e. which may be below vapour pressure of the liquid flowing
through the turbine) Due to cavitation, the metal of the runner vanes and draft tube is gradually
eaten away, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine. Hence the cavitation in a reaction
turbine can be noted by a sudden drop in efficiency. In order to determine whether cavitation will
occur in any portion of a reaction turbine, the critical value of Thoma’s cavitation factors 𝜎 sigma is
calculated.
𝐻𝑏 −𝐻𝑠 (𝐻𝑎𝑡𝑚−𝐻𝑣 )−𝐻𝑠
𝜎= 𝐻
= 𝐻
,
Where 𝐻𝑏 =Barometric pressure head in m of water,
𝐻𝑎𝑡𝑚 = Atmospheric pressure head in m of water,
𝐻𝑣 = Vapour pressure head in m of water,
𝐻𝑠 = Suction pressure at the outlet of reaction turbine in m of water or height of
turbine runner above the tail water surface,
H = Net head on the turbine in m.

Surge Tank:

When the load on the generator decreases, the governor reduces the rate of flow of water
striking the runner to main constant speed for the runner. The sudden reaction of rate of flow in the
penstock may lead to water hammer in pipe due to which the pipe may burst. When the load on the
generator increases the turbine requires more water. Sugar tank and fore bays are usually employed
to meet the above requirements. Surge tanks are employed in case of high head and medium head
hydro power plants where the penstock is very long and fore bays are suitable for medium and low
head hydro power plants where the length of penstock is short.

An ordinary sugar tank is a cylindrical open toped storage reservoir, which is connected to
the penstock at a point as close as possible to the turbine. The upper lip of the tank is kept well
above the maximum water level in the supply reservoir. When the load on the turbine is steady and
normal and there are no velocities variations in the pipe line there will be normal pressure gradient
oaa1. The water surface in the surge tank will be lower than the reservoir surface by an amount
equal to friction head loss in the pipe connecting reservoir and sugar tank. When the load on the
generator is reduced, the turbine gates are closed and the water moving towards the turbine has to
move back ward. The rejected water is then stored in the surge tank, raising the pressure gradient.
The retarding head so built up in the surge tank reduces the velocity of flow in the pipe line
corresponding to the reduced discharge required by the turbine.

When the load on the generator increases the governor opens the turbine gates to increase
the rate of flow entering the runner. The increased demand of water by the turbine is partly met by
the water stored in the surge tank. As such the water level in the surge tank falls and falling pressure
gradient is developed. In other words, the surge tank develops an accelerating head which increases

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

the velocity of flow in the pipe line to a valve corresponding to the increased discharge required by
the turbine.

Water Hammer:
Consider a long pipe AB, connected at one
end to a tank containing water at a height of H
from the centre of the pipe. At the other end of
the pipe, a valve to regulate the flow of water is
provided. When the valve is completely open, the
water is flowing with a velocity, V in the pipe. If
now the valve is suddenly closed, the momentum
of the flowing water will be destroyed and consequently a wave of high pressure will be set up. This
wave of high pressure will be transmitted along the pipe with a velocity equal to the velocity of
sound wave and may create noise called knocking. Also this wave of high pressure has the effect of
hammering action on the walls of the pipe and hence it is known as water hammer.
The pressure rise due to water hammer depends up on:
1. Velocity of flow of water in pipe.
2. The length of pipe.
3. Time taken to close the valve.
4. Elastic properties of the material of the pipe.
The following cases of water hammer in pipes will be considered.
1. Gradual closure of valve
2. Sudden closure of valve considering pipe in rigid
3. Sudden closer of valve considering pipe elastic.
1. Gradual Closure of Valve:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝐿
Where A = Area of cross-section of the pipe
L = Length of pipe
The valve is closed gradually in time ‘T’ seconds and hence the water is brought from initial velocity
V to zero velocity in time seconds.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉−0 𝑉
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑇
=𝑇
𝑉
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝐿 × (1)
𝑇

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

If p is the intensity of pressure wave produced due to closure of the valve, the force due to pressure
wave
= 𝑝 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 𝑝 × 𝐴 (2)
Equating the two forces given by equation (1) & (2)
𝑉
𝜌𝐴𝐿 × 𝑇 = 𝑝 × 𝐴
𝜌𝐿𝑉
𝑝= 𝑇
𝑝 𝜌𝐿𝑉 𝐿𝑉
Head of pressure 𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔×𝑇 = 𝑔𝑇
2𝐿
i) The valve closure is said to be gradual if T> 𝐶
Where T = Time in sec, C= Velocity of Pressure wave
2𝐿
ii) The valve closure is said to be sudden if 𝑇 <
𝐶
Where C = Velocity of Pressure Wave

2) Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Rigid:

In sudden closure of valve T=0, the increase in pressure will be infinite when wave of high
pressure is created the liquid gets compressed to some extent and pipe material gets stretched. For
a sudden closure of valve, the valve of T is very small and hence a wave of high pressure is created.
When the valve is closed suddenly, the kinetic energy of flowing water is converted in to
strain energy of water if the effect of friction is neglected and pipe wall is assumed to be rigid.
1
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 × 𝑉 2
1
= × 𝜌𝐴𝐿 × 𝑉 2
2

1 p2 1 p2
Gain of strain energy = 2 [ K ] × volum = 2 K
× AL

Equating loss of Kinetic energy to gain of strain energy

1 1 p2
2
× 𝜌𝐴𝐿 × 𝑉 2 = 2 K
× AL
1 2𝐾
𝑝2 = 2 × 𝜌𝐴𝐿 × 𝑉 2 × 𝐴𝐿 = 𝜌𝐾𝑉 2

𝐾𝜌2
𝑝 = √𝜌𝐾𝑉 2 = 𝑉√𝐾𝜌 = 𝑉√
𝜌

𝐾 𝐾
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑉√ (∵ √ = 𝐶)
𝜌 𝜌

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑉 × 𝐶
Where C = velocity of pressure wave.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
• Pelton wheels are preferred turbine for hydro power, when the available water source has
relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates.

• Pelton wheels are made in all sizes. For maximum power and efficiency, the wheel and
turbine system is designed such way that the water jet velocity is twice the velocity of the
rotating buckets.

• There exist in multi ton Pelton wheel mounted on vertical oil pad bearing in hydroelectric
power.

• Kaplan turbines are widely used throughout the world for electrical power production.

• Inexpensive micro turbines on Kaplan turbine model are manufactured for individual power
production with as little as two feet of head.

• Large Kaplan turbines are individually designed for each site to operate at the highest
possible efficiency., typically over 90%. They are very expensive to design, manufacture and
install, but operate for decades.

• Francis turbines are used for pumped storage, where a reservoir is filled by the turbine
(acting as a pump) driven by the generator acting as a large electrical motor during periods
of low power demand.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. Derive an expression for force exerted by a moving flat plate held inclined to the
direction of jet.
2. A 75mm jet having a velocity of 30m/s strikes a flat plate, the normal of which is
inclined at 45 degrees to the axis of the jet. Find the normal pressure on the plate i)
when the plate is stationary ii) when the plate is moving with a velocity of 15m/s in
the direction of the jet.
3. Design a Pelton wheel for a head of 80m and speed 300rpm. The Pelton wheel
develops 103kW SP. Take Cv = 0.98, speed ratio=0.45 and overall efficiency as 0.80.
4. The following data is given for a Francis turbine. Net head H= 60m, Speed N=700rpm,
SP= 294.3kW, overall efficiency= 84%, hydraulic efficiency= 93%, flow ratio= 0.20,
breadth ratio n=0.1, outer diameter of the runner = 2 times the inner diameter of
runner. The thickness of vanes occupy 5% of circumferential area of the runner,
velocity of flow is constant at inlet and outlet and discharge is radial at outlet.
Determine: (i) Guide blade angle (ii) Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet (iii)
Diameters of runner at inlet and outlet (iv) width of wheel at inlet.
5. A Pelton wheel is having a mean bucket diameter of 0.8m and running at 1000rpm.
The net head on the Pelton wheel is 400m. If the side clearance angle is 150 and
discharge through nozzle is 150 litres/s. Find (i) Power available at inlet of the nozzle
(ii) hydraulic efficiency of the turbine.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. A Pelton wheel is to be designed for the following specifications. Power= 735.75 kW S.P
head=200m, Speed=800rpm, overall efficiency=0.86 and jet diameter is not to exceed one-
tenth the wheel diameter. Determine: (i) Wheel diameter, (ii) the no of jets required and (iii)
diameter of the jet. Take Cv=0.98 and speed ratio=0.45.
2. A reaction turbine works at 500rpm under a head of 100m. The diameter of turbine at inlet
is 100cm
3. and flow area is 0.365m 2 . The angles made by absolute and relative velocities at inlet are
15 0 and 60degrees respectively with the tangential velocity. Determine: (i) The volume flow
rate (ii) the power developed (iii) efficiency. Assume the whirl velocity as zero.
4. A francis turbine with an overall efficiency of 70% is required to produce 147.15 kW. It is
working under a head of 8m. The peripheral velocity=0.30 and the radial velocity of flow at
inlet is 0.96. The wheel runs at 200 rpm and the hydraulic losses in the turbine are 20% of
the available energy. Assume radial discharge, determine: (i) the guide blade angle, (ii) the
wheel vane angle at inlet (iii) the diameter of wheel at inlet and (iv) width of wheel at inlet.
5. One of the Kaplan turbine, installed at Ganguwal power house is rated at 25000 kW when
working under 30 m of head at 180 rpm. Find the diameter of the runner, if the overall
efficiency of the turbine is 0.91. Assume flow ratio of 0.65 and diameter of runner hub equal
to 0.3 times the external diameter of runner. Also find specific speed of the turbine. (Ans:
2.87m, 405 rpm)
6. A turbine develops 1000 kW under a head of 16 m at 200 rpm, while discharging 9 cubic
metres of water/sec. Find the unit power and unit discharge of the wheel. (Ans: 15.6 kW,
2.25 m 3 /s)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT 5
CENTRIFUGAL &
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Course Objective:
To be able to understand the working of power absorbing devices like pumps & able to
analyze their performance characteristics.

Course Outcome:
 Calculate the performance of different types of hydraulic pumps.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy in to hydraulic energy are
called pumps. The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is
converted in to pressure energy by means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic
machine is called centrifugal pump.
The centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward radial flow reaction turbine. This
means that the flow in centrifugal pumps is in the radial outward directions. The centrifugal pump
works on the principle of forced vertex flow which means that when a certain mass of liquid is
rotated by an external torque, the rise in pressure head of the rotating liquid takes place. The rise in
pressure head at any point of the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of tangential velocity
𝑉2 𝜔2 𝑟 2
of the liquid at that point. (i.e. rise in pressure head = 2𝑔 or 2𝑔
). Thus the outlet of the impeller,
where radius is more, the rise in pressure head will be more and the liquid will be discharged at the
outlet with a high pressure head. Due to this high pressure head, the liquid can be lifted to a high
level.
The following are the main parts of a centrifugal pump.
1) Impeller. 2) Casing. 3) Suction pipe with foot valve and a strainer 4) Delivery pipe.
1. Impeller: The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called impeller. It consists of a series of
backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the shaft of an
electric motor.
2. Casing: the casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of a reaction turbine. It is an air
tight passage surrounding the impeller and is designed in such a way that the kinetic energy of the
water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted in to pressure energy before the water
leaves the casing and enters the delivery pipe. The following three types of the casing are commonly
adopted.
a) Volute b) Vortex
c) Casing with guide blades
a) Volute Casing: It is the casing surrounding
the impeller. It is of a spiral type, in which
area of flow increases gradually. The increase
in area of flow decreases the velocity of flow.
The decrease in velocity increases the
pressure of the water flowing through the
casing. It has been observed that in case of
volute casing, the efficiency of the pump
increase slightly as a large amount of energy
in lost due to the formation of eddies in this type of casing.

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b) Vortex Casing: If a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and the impeller, the casing
is known as vortex casing. By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of energy due to the
formation of eddies is reduced to a considerable extent. Thus the efficiency of the pump is more
than the efficiency when only volute casing is provided.

c) Casing with guide blades: in this type of casing the impeller is surrounded by a series of guide
blades mounted on a ring known as diffuser. The guide vanes are designed in which away that the
water from the impeller enters the guide vanes without shock.

Also the area of guide vanes increases thus reducing the velocity of flow through guide vanes and
consequently increasing the pressure of the water. The water from the guide vanes then pass
through the surrounding casing, which is in most of the cases concentric with the impeller.

3. Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer: A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of
the pump and other end dips in to water in a sump is known as suction pipe. A foot valve which is a
non-return valve or one-way type of valve is fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe. The foot
valve opens only in the upward direction. A strainer is also fitted at the lower end of the suction
pipe.

4. Delivery pipe: A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and the other end
delivers the water at the required height is known as delivery pipe.

Work done by the centrifugal pump on water:

In the centrifugal pump, work is done by

the impeller on the water. The expression for
the work done by the impeller on the water is
obtained by drawing velocity triangles at inlet
and outlet of the impeller in the same way as for
a turbine. The water enters the impeller radially
at inlet for best efficiency of the pump, which
means the absolute velocity of water at inlet
makes an angle of 900 with the direction of
motion of the impeller at inlet. Hence angle 𝛼 =

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

900 and 𝑉𝑤1 = 0 for drawing the velocity triangles the same notations are used as that for turbines.

Let N = Speed of the impeller in r.p.m.

𝐷1 = Diameter of impeller at inlet

𝜋𝐷1 𝑁
𝑢1 = Tangential velocity of impeller at inlet = 60

𝐷2 = Diameter of impeller at outlet

𝜋𝐷2 𝑁
𝑢2 = Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet =
60

𝑉1 = Absolute velocity of water at inlet.

𝑉𝑟1 = Relative velocity of water at inlet

𝛼 = Angle made by absolute velocity(𝑉1 )at inlet with the direction of motion of vane

𝜃 = Angle made by relative velocity (𝑉𝑟1 )at inlet with the direction of motion of vane

And 𝑉2 , 𝑉𝑟2 , 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅ are the corresponding valves at outlet.

As the water enters the impeller radially which means the absolute velocity of water at inlet
is in the radial direction and hence angle 𝛼 = 900 and 𝑉𝑤1 = 0.

A centrifugal pump is the reverse of a radially inward flow reaction turbine. But in case of a
radially inward flow reaction turbine, the work done by the water on the runner per second per unit
weight of the water striking per second is given by equation.

1
= 𝑔 [𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 − 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 ]

∴Work done by the impeller on the water per second per unit weight of water striking/second

= −[𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒]

1
= − [ (𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 − 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 )]
𝑔

1
= 𝑔 [𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 − 𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 ]

1
= 𝑔 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 (1) (∵ 𝑉𝑤1 = 0 )

Work done by the impeller on water per second

𝑊
= 𝑔
× 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 Where W = Weight of water = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝑄

Q = Volume of water

Q = Area × Velocity of flow

= 𝜋𝐷1 𝐵1 × 𝑉𝑓1

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝐵2 × 𝑉𝑓2

Where 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 are width of impeller at inlet and outlet and

𝑉𝑓1 And 𝑉𝑓2 are velocities of flow at inlet and outlet

Head imparted to the water by the impeller or energy given by impeller to water per unit weight
per second

𝟏
= 𝒈 𝑽𝒘𝟐 𝒖𝟐

HEADS OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:

1. Suction Head (𝒉𝒔 ): It is the vertical height of the centre line of centrifugal pump, above the water
surface in the tank or sump from which water is to be lifted. This height is also called suction lift ′ℎ𝑠 ′.
2. Delivery Head(𝒉𝒅 ): The vertical distance between the centre line of the pump and the water
surface in the tank to which water is delivered is known as delivery head. This is denoted by ′ℎ𝑑 ′.
3. Static Head(𝑯𝒔 ): The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as statics head′𝐻𝑠 ′.
𝐻𝑠 = ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑
4. Manometric Head(𝑯𝒎 ): Manometric head is defined as the head against which a centrifugal
pump has to work. It is denoted by 𝐻𝑚 .
a) 𝐻𝑚 = Head imparted by the impeller to the water – Loss of head in the pump
𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2
= 𝑔
− Loss of head in impeller and casing
𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2
= ………… If loss of head in pump is zero.
𝑔

b) 𝐻𝑚 = Total head at outlet of pump – Total head at the inlet of the pump
𝑃 𝑉0 2 𝑃 𝑉𝑖 2
= (𝜌𝑔0 + 2𝑔
+ 𝑍0 ) − (𝜌𝑔𝑖 + 2𝑔
+ 𝑍𝑖 )
𝑃0
Where 𝜌𝑔
= Pressure head at outlet of the pump = ℎ𝑑

𝑉0 2
2𝑔
= Velocity head at outlet of the pump

𝑉𝑑 2
= Velocity head in delivery pipe = 2𝑔

𝑍0 = Vertical height of the outlet of the pump from datum line, and
𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 2
, , 𝑍𝑖
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
= Corresponding values of pressure head, velocity head and datum head at the

In let of the pump,

𝑉𝑠 2
i.e. ℎ𝑠 , 2𝑔
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍𝑠 respectively.

𝑉𝑑 2
c) 𝐻𝑚 = ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 + ℎ𝑓𝑠 + ℎ𝑓𝑑 + 2𝑔

Where ℎ𝑠 = Suction head,

ℎ𝑑 = Delivery head,

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 ℎ𝑓𝑠 = Frictional head loss in suction pipe,

ℎ𝑓𝑑 = Frictional head loss in delivery pipe

𝑉𝑑 = Velocity of water in delivery pipe.

5. Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump: In a centrifugal pump, the power is transmitted from electric
motor shaft to pump shaft and then to the impeller. From the impeller, the power is given to the
water. Thus the power is decreasing from the shaft of the pump to the impeller and then to the
water. The following are the important efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:
a) Manometric efficiency, 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑛 b) Mechanical efficiency, 𝜂𝑚 and
c) Overall efficiency, 𝜂0 .
a) Manometric Efficiency(𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒏 ): The ratio of the Manometric head to the head imparted by the
impeller to the water is known as
𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑛 ) =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐻𝑚 𝑔𝐻𝑚
= 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 =
( ) 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2
𝑔

The power at the impeller of the pump is more than the power given to the water at outlet
of the pump. The ratio of power given to the water at outlet of the pump to the power available at
the impeller is known as Manometric efficiency.
𝑊𝐻𝑚
The power given to the water at outlet of the pump = 1000
𝑘𝑤
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
The power at the impeller = 1000
𝑘𝑊
𝑊 𝑉𝑤2 ×𝑢2
= × 𝑘𝑊
𝑔 1000
𝑊𝐻𝑚
1000 𝒈×𝑯𝒎
𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒏 = 𝑊 𝑉𝑤2 ×𝑢2
=𝑽
× 𝒘𝟐 ×𝒖𝟐
𝑔 1000

b) Mechanical Efficiency(𝜼𝒎 ): The power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is more the power
available at the impeller of the pump. The ratio of the power available at the impeller to the power
at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is known as mechanical efficiency.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑚 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑊 𝑉𝑤2 ×𝑢2
The power at the impeller in kW = 1000
= 𝑔
× 1000
𝑾 𝑽𝒘𝟐 ×𝒖𝟐
( )
𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝜼𝒎 = 𝑺.𝑷
Where S.P. = Shaft power.
c) Overall Efficiency(𝜼𝟎 ): It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input
to the pump.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 ×𝐻𝑚 𝑊𝐻𝑚
The power output of the pump in kW = 1000
= 1000
The power input to the pump = Power supplied by the electric motor
= S.P. Of the pump
𝑾𝑯𝒎
( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
∴ 𝜼𝟎 = 𝑺.𝑷.

𝜼𝟎 = 𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒏 × 𝜼𝒎
SPECIFIC SPEED OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP(𝑵𝒔 ):

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar
pump, which would deliver one cubic meter of liquid per second against a head of one meter. It is
denoted by ′𝑁𝑠 ′.
The discharge Q for a centrifugal pump is given by the relation
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
= 𝜋𝐷 × 𝐵 × 𝑉𝑓 Or 𝑄 ∝ 𝐷 × 𝐵 × 𝑉𝑓 (1)

Where D = Diameter of the impeller of the pump and

B = Width of the impeller
We know that 𝐵 ∝ 𝐷
From equation (1) we have 𝑄 ∝ 𝐷 2 × 𝑉𝑓 (2)

We also know that the tangential velocity is given by

𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑢= 60
∝ 𝐷𝑁 (3)

Now the tangential velocity (u) and velocity of flow (𝑉𝑓 ) are related to Manometric head
(𝐻𝑚 ) as

𝑢 ∝ 𝑉𝑓 ∝ √𝐻𝑚 (4)

Substituting the value of (u) in equation (3), we get

√𝐻𝑚
√𝐻𝑚 ∝ 𝐷𝑁 Or 𝐷∝ 𝑁
Substituting the values of D in equation (2)
𝐻𝑚
𝑄∝ × 𝑉𝑓
𝑁2
𝐻𝑚
∝ 𝑁2
× √𝐻𝑚 [∵ 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞 (4)𝑉𝑓 ∝ √𝐻𝑚 ]

𝐻𝑚 3/2
∝ 𝑁2

𝐻𝑚 3/2
𝑄=𝐾 𝑁2
(5)

Where K is a constant of proportionality

If 𝐻𝑚 = 1𝑚 and 𝑄 = 1𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 N becomes 𝑁𝑠
Substituting these values in equation (5), we get
13/2 𝐾
1=𝐾 𝐻𝑚
= 𝑁𝑠 2
2
∴ 𝐾 = 𝑁𝑠
Substituting the value of K in equation (5), we get
𝐻𝑚 3/2 𝑁2𝑄
𝑄 = 𝑁𝑠 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑠 2 =
𝑁2 𝐻𝑚 3/2
𝑵√𝑸
𝑵𝒔 = (6)
𝑯𝒎 𝟑/𝟒
MULTI- STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:
If centrifugal pump consists of two or more
impellers, the pump is called a multi-stage
centrifugal pump. The impeller may be mounted on
the same shaft or on different shafts. A multi- stage

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

pump is having the following two important functions:
1) To produce a high head and
2) To discharge a large quantity of liquid.
If a high head is to be developed, the impellers are connected in series (or on the same
shaft) while for discharging large quantity of liquid, the impellers (or pumps) are connected in
parallel.

Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pumps for High Heads: For developing a high head, a number of impellers
are mounted in series on the same shaft.
The water from suction pipe enters the 1st impeller at inlet and is discharged at outlet with
increased pressure. The water with increased pressure from the outlet of the 1st impeller is taken to
the inlet of the 2nd impeller with the help of a connecting pipe. At the outlet of the 2nd impeller the
pressure of the water will be more than the water at the outlet of the 1st impeller. Thus if more
impellers are mounted on the same shaft, the pressure at the outlet will be increased further.
Let n= Number of identical impellers mounted on the same shaft,
𝐻𝑚 = Head developed by each impeller.
Then total Head developed = 𝑛 × 𝐻𝑚
The discharge passing through each impeller is same.
Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pumps for High Discharge:
For obtaining high discharge, the pumps should be connected in parallel. Each of the pumps
lifts the water from a common sump and discharges water to a common pipe to which the delivery
pipes of each pump is connected. Each of the pumps is working against the same head.
Let n = Number of identical pumps
arranged in parallel.
Q = Discharge from one pump.
∴ Total Discharge = 𝒏 × 𝑸

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Performance Characteristic Curves of centrifugal pumps

The characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump are defined as those curves which are plotted from
the results of a number of tests on the centrifugal pump. These curves are necessary to predict the
behavior and performance of the pump, when the pump is working under different flow rate, head
and speed. The following are the important characteristic curves for the pumps:

1. Main characteristic curves.

2. Operating characteristic curves and
3. Constant efficiency or Muschel curves.

1. Main Characteristic Curves: the main

characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump
consists of a head (Manometric head𝐻𝑚 ) power
and discharge with respect to speed. For plotting
curves of Manometric head versus speed,
discharge is kept constant. For plotting curves of
discharge versus speed, Manometric head (𝐻𝑚 ) is
kept constant. For plotting curves power versus
speed, Manometric head and discharge are kept constant.

For plotting the curve of 𝐻𝑚 versus speed (N) the discharge is kept constant. From the
√𝐻𝑚
equation it is clear that is a constant or𝐻𝑚 ∝ 𝑁 2 . This means that the head developed by a
𝐷𝑁
2
pump is proportional to𝑁 . Hence the curve of 𝐻𝑚 v/s N is a parabolic curve.

𝑷
From equation 𝑫𝟓 𝑵𝟑 is a constant. Hence𝑃 ∝ 𝑁 3 . This means that the curve P v/s N is a cubic
curve.

𝑸
The equation 𝑫𝟑 𝑵
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 . This means 𝑄 ∝ 𝑁 for a given pump. Hence the curve Q v/s N is
straight line.

2. Operating Characteristic Curves:

If the speed is kept constant, the variation

of Manometric head, power and efficiency with
respect to discharge gives the operating
characteristics of the pump.

The input power curve for pumps shall not

pass through the origin. It will be slightly away from

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

the origin on the y-axis, as even at zero discharge some power is needed to overcome mechanical
losses.

The head curve will have maximum value of head when the discharge is zero.

The output power curve will start from origin as at Q=0, output power(𝜌𝑄𝑔𝐻) will be zero.

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
The efficiency curve will start from origin as at𝑄 = 0, 𝜂 = 0. (∵ 𝜂 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
)

3. Constant Efficiency Curves:

For obtaining constant efficiency curves for

a pump, the head versus discharge curves and
efficiency v/s discharge curves for different speeds
are used. By combining these curves (𝐻 ∼
𝑄 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝜂 ∼ 𝑄𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠)constant efficiency curves
are obtained.

For plotting the constant efficiency curves

(Iso– efficiency curves), horizontal lines
representing constant efficiencies are drawn on
the𝜂 ∼ 𝑄 curves. The points, at which these lines
cut the efficiency curves at various speeds, are
transferred to the corresponding 𝐻 ∼ 𝑄 curves. The points having the same efficiency are then
joined by smooth curves. These smooth curves represent the iso – efficiency curves.

NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH)

The term NPSH is very commonly used selection of a pump. The minimum suction conditions
are specified in terms NPSH.

It is defined as the absolute pressure head at the inlet to the pump minus the vapour
pressure head plus velocity head.

∴ NPSH = Absolute pressure head at inlet of pump – vapour pressure head (absolute units)
+ Velocity head
𝑝1 𝑝 𝑣𝑠 2
= 𝜌𝑔
− 𝜌𝑔𝑣 + 2𝑔
(1) (∵ 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑝1 )

The absolute pressure head at inlet of the pump is given by as

𝑝1 𝑝𝑎 𝑣𝑠 2
= −( + ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑓𝑠 )
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Substituting this value in the above equation

𝑝 𝑣𝑠 2 𝑝 𝑣𝑠 2
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔𝑎 − 2𝑔
− ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑓𝑠 − 𝜌𝑔𝑣 + 2𝑔

𝑝 𝑝
= 𝜌𝑔𝑎 − 𝜌𝑔𝑣 − ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑓𝑠

𝑝
𝑎
= 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑣 − ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑓𝑠 (∵ 𝜌𝑔 = 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, )

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 𝑝
= [(𝐻𝑎 − ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑓𝑠 ) − 𝐻𝑣 ] (2) (∵ 𝜌𝑔𝑣 = 𝐻𝑣 = 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑)

The right hand side of the above equation is the total suction head. Hence NPSH is equal to the total
suction head. Thus NPSH may also be defined as the total head required to make the liquid flow
through the suction pipe to the pump impeller.

For any pump installation, a distinction is made between the required NPSH and the
available NPSH. The value of required NPSH is given by the pump manufacturer. This value can also
be determined experimentally. For determining its value the pump is tested and minimum value of
ℎ𝑠 is obtained at which the pump gives maximum efficiency without any noise. (i.e. cavitation free).
The required NPSH varies with the pump design, speed of the pump and capacity of the pump.

When the pump is installed, the available NPSH is calculated from the above equation (2). In
order to have cavitation free operation of centrifugal pump, the available NPSH should be greater
than the required NPSH.

RECIPROCATING PUMPS

The mechanical energy is converted in to hydraulic energy (pressure energy) by sucking the
liquid in to a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating, which exerts the thrust on the liquid and
increases its hydraulic energy (pressure energy) the pump is known as reciprocating pump.

A single acting reciprocating pump consists of a piston, which moves forwards and
backwards in a close fitting cylinder. The movement of the piston is obtained by connecting the
piston rod to crank by means of a connecting rod. The crank is rotated by means of an electric
motor. Suction and delivery pipes with suction valve and delivery valve are connected to the
cylinder. The suction and delivery valves are one way valves or non-return valves, which allow the
water to flow in one direction only. Suction valve allows water from suction pipe to the cylinder
which delivery valve allows water from cylinder to delivery pipe only.
When the crank starts rotating, the piston moves to and fro in the cylinder. When the crank
is at A the piston is at the extreme left position in the cylinder. As the crank is rotating from A to C
(i.e. from𝜃 = 0 𝑡𝑜 1800 ) the piston is moving towards right in the cylinder. The movement of the

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piston towards right creates a partial vacuum in the cylinder. But on the surface of the liquid in the
sump atmospheric pressure in acting, which is more than the pressure inside the cylinder. Thus the
liquid is forced in the suction pipe from the sump. This liquid opens the suction valve and enters the
cylinder.
When crank is rotating from C to A (i.e. from 𝜃 = 1800 𝑡𝑜 3600 ), the piston from its
extreme right position starts moving towards left in the cylinder. The movement of the piston
towards the left increases the pressure on the liquid inside the cylinder more than atmospheric
pressure. Hence the suction valve closes and delivery valve opens. The liquid is forced in to the
delivery pipe and is raised to the required height.
Discharge through a Reciprocating Pump:
Consider a single acting reciprocating pump.
Let D = Diameter of cylinder
𝜋
A = Cross-sectional area of piston or cylinder = 𝐷 2
4

r = Radius of crank
N = r.p.m. of the crank
L = Length of the stroke = 2 × 𝑟
ℎ𝑠 = Height of the axis of the cylinder from water surface in sump
ℎ𝑑 = Height of delivery outlet above the cylinder axis (also called delivery head)
Volume of water delivered in one revolution or
Discharge of water in one revolution = Are × Length of stroke
=𝐴×𝐿
𝑁
Number of revolutions per second =
60

Discharge of pump per second Q = Discharge in one revolution × No. of revolutions per sec
𝑁
= 𝐴 × 𝐿 × 60
𝐴𝐿𝑁
=
60

Weight of water delivered per second 𝑊 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝑄

𝜌𝑔𝐴𝐿𝑁
= (1)
60

Work done by Reciprocating Pump:

Work done per second = Weight of water lifted per second ×Total height through which
water is lifted
= 𝑊 × [ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 ] (2)
Where (ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 ) = Total height through which water is lifted
From equation (1) weight of water is given by
𝜌𝑔𝐴𝐿𝑁
𝑊= 60

Substituting the value of W in equation (2), we get

𝜌𝑔𝐴𝐿𝑁
Work done per second = 60
× (ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 )

Power required to drive the pump in kW

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 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑔×𝐴𝐿𝑁×(ℎ𝑠 +ℎ𝑑 )
𝑃= =
1000 60×1000
𝜌𝑔×𝐴𝐿𝑁×(ℎ𝑠 +ℎ𝑑 )
𝑃= 60,000
𝑘𝑊

SLIP OF RECIPROCATING PUMP

Slip of a pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical discharge and actual
discharge of a pump. The actual discharge of pump is less than the theoretical discharge due to
leakage. The difference of the theoretical discharge and actual discharge is known as slip of the
pump.

Hence 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 𝑄𝑡ℎ − 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡

But slip is mostly expressed as percentage slip

𝑄𝑡ℎ −𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 𝑄𝑡ℎ
× 100 = (1 − 𝑄𝑡ℎ
)× 100

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
= (1 − 𝐶𝑑 ) × 100 (∵ 𝑄𝑡ℎ
= 𝐶𝑑 )

Where 𝐶𝑑 = Co-efficient of discharge.

Negative Slip of the Reciprocating Pump:

Slip is equal to the difference of theoretical discharge and actual discharge. If actual
discharge is more than the theoretical discharge, the slip of the pump will become –ve. In that case
the slip of the pump is known as negative slip.

Negative slip occurs when the delivery pipe is short, suction pipe is long and pump is running
at high speed.

INDICATOR DIAGRAM

The indicator diagram for a reciprocating pump is defined the graph between the pressure
head in the cylinder and the distance travelled by piston from inner dead centre for one complete
revolution of the crank. As the maximum distance travelled by the piston is equal to the stroke
length and hence the indicator diagram is a graph between pressure head and stroke length of the
piston for one complete revolution. The pressure head is taken as ordinate and stroke length as
abscissa.

Ideal Indicator Diagram:

The graph between pressure head in
the cylinder and the stroke length of
piston for one complete revolution of
the crank under ideal conditions is
known as ideal indicator diagram.
Line EF represents the atmospheric
pressure head equal to 10.3 meters of
water.
Let 𝐻𝑚 = Atmospheric pressure
head = 10.3 m of water
L = Length of the stroke

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 ℎ𝑠 = Suction head and
ℎ𝑑 = Delivery head
During suction stroke, the pressure head in the cylinder is constant and equal to suction head(ℎ𝑠 ),
which is below the atmospheric pressure head(𝐻𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) by a height ofℎ𝑠 . The pressure head during
suction stroke is represented by a horizontal line AB which is below the line EF by a height of ′ℎ𝑠 ′

During delivery stroke, the pressure head in the cylinder is constant and equal to delivery
head ( ℎ𝑑 ), which is above the atmospheric head by a height of ′ℎ𝑑 ′. Thus the pressure head during
the delivery stroke is represented by a horizontal line CD, which is above the line EF by a height of
ℎ𝑑 . Thus for one complete revolution of crank, the pressure head in the cylinder is represented by
the diagram ABCD. This diagram is known as ideal indicator diagram.
𝜌𝑔𝐴𝐿𝑁
The work done by the pump per second = 60
× (ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 )

= 𝐾 × 𝐿(ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 )

∝ 𝐿 × (ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 ) (1)
𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑁
Where 𝐾 = 60
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Area of Indicator diagram = 𝐴𝐵 × 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 × (𝐵𝐹 + 𝐹𝐶) = 𝐿 × (ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 )

Substituting this value in equation (1), we get

Work done by pump ∝ Area of Indicator diagram

Problems on reciprocating pump.

1. A single acting reciprocating pump running at 50 r.p.m. delivers 0.01 𝑚3 /𝑠 of water. The diameter
of piston is 200mm and stroke length in 400mm. Determine

i) The theoretical discharge of pump ii) Co-efficient of discharge

iii) Slip and the percentage slip of pump

Given: The speed of the pump N = 50 rpm

Actual discharge 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.01 𝑚3 /𝑠

Dia. Of piston D = 200mm = 0.2m

𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋
Area 𝐴= 4
= 4 (0.2)2 = 0.031416 𝑚2

𝐴𝐿𝑁 0.031416×0.4×50
i) The theoretical discharge 𝑄𝑡ℎ = 60
= 60

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟕𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 0.01
ii) The Co-efficient of discharge 𝐶𝑑 = 𝑄𝑡ℎ
= 0.01047

= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟓

iii) Slip 𝑄𝑡ℎ − 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.01047 − 0.01

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 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟕𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝑄𝑡ℎ −𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
Percentage Slip =( )× 100
𝑄𝑡ℎ

0.01047−0.01
= 0.01047
× 100

= 𝟒. 𝟒𝟖𝟗%

2. A double acting reciprocating pump, running at 40 r.p.m. is discharging 1.0m3 of water per
minute. The pump has a stroke of 400 mm. the diameter of piston is 200 mm. the delivery and
suction head are 20m and 5m respectively. Find the slip of the pump and power required to drive
the pump.

Given: Speed of the pump N = 40 r.p.m.

1
Actual discharge 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 1 𝑚3 /𝑠 = 60 = 0.01666𝑚3 /𝑠

Stroke L = 400mm = 0.4m

Diameter of piston D = 200 mm = 0.2m

𝜋 2 𝜋
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴= 4
𝐷 = 4 (0.2)2 = 0.031416𝑚2

Suction Head ℎ𝑠 = 5𝑚

Delivery head ℎ𝑑 = 20 𝑚

Theoretical discharge for double acting pump

2𝐴𝐿𝑁 2×0.31416×0.4×40
𝑄𝑡ℎ = 60
= 60

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟓𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

Slip 𝑄𝑡ℎ − 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.01675 − 0.1666

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

Power required to drive the double acting pump

2×𝜌𝑔×𝐴𝐿𝑁×(ℎ𝑠 +ℎ𝑑 )
𝑃=
60,000

2×1000×9.81×0.031416×0.4×40×(5+20)
= 60,000

= 𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝒌𝑾

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
• Centrifugal pumps are used in variety of applications. Almost 70-80% centrifugal pumps are
used in industry or for domestic purpose.

• Water supply and irrigation

• Chemical, food, Petrochemical industries

• Mining, domestic appliances

• Reciprocating pumps are mainly used in oil and gas industry.

• They can also be used sugar industries, soap and detergent industries, water treatment
plants and Food & beverages.

• Have huge demand in cryogenic applications.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. A Centrifugal pump delivers water against a net head of 10 m at a design speed of
800 rpm. The vanes are curved backwards and make an angle of 300 with the
tangent at the outer periphery. The impeller diameter is 30cm and has a width of 5
cm at the outlet. Determine the discharge of the pump if the manometric efficiency
is 85%.
2. A fluid is to be lifted against a head of 120m. The pumps that run at a speed of 1200
rpm with rated capacity of 300 litres/sec are available. How many pumps are
required to pump the water if specific speed is 700.
3. One of the Kaplan turbine, installed at Ganguwal power house is rated at 25000 kW
when working under 30 m of head at 180 rpm. Find the diameter of the runner, if
the overall efficiency of the turbine is 0.91. Assume flow ratio of 0.65 and diameter
of runner hub equal to 0.3 times the external diameter of runner. Also find specific
speed of the turbine.
4. A turbine develops 1000 kW under a head of 16 m at 200 rpm, while discharging 9
cubic metres of water/sec. Find the unit power and unit discharge of the wheel.
5. A single acting reciprocating pump having cylinder diameter of 150 mm and stroke
300 mm is used to raise water through a total height of 30m. Find the power
required to drive the pump, if the crank rotates at 60 rpm.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. A centrifugal pump delivers water to a height of 22 m at a speed of 800 rpm. The
velocity of flow is constant at a speed of 2m/s and the outlet vane angle is 45 0. If the
pump discharges 225 litres of water / second, find the diameter of the impeller and
width of the impeller.
2. A centrifugal pump having outer diameter equal to two times the inner diameter and
running at 1200 rpm works against a total head of 75m. The velocity of flow through
the impeller is constant and is equal to 3m/s. The vanes are set back at an angle of
300 at outlet. If the outer diameter of the impeller is 600 mm and width at outlet is
50 mm, determine (i) vane angle at inlet (ii) work done per second by impeller (iii)
manometric efficiency.
3. Explain the performance characteristic curves of centrifugal pump?
4. With the help of a neat sketch discuss the main parts of a reciprocating pump.
5. What is the working principle of a reciprocating pump? Explain its working with the
help of an indicator diagram.
6. Derive expression for discharge, work done and power required to drive single acting
and double acting reciprocating pump.

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