Sets and Their Properties

Properties of Complement of set:

●​ A ∪ A′ = U
●​ (A’)’= A
●​ A ∩ A′ = φ
●​ (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′
●​ (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
●​ U′ = φ
●​ φ′ = U
Some properties of Union operation:
●​ A ∪ B = B ∪ A
●​ (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

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●​ A ∪ φ = A
●​ A ∪ A = A
●​ U ∪ A = U

Properties of the intersection of sets operation:

●​ A ∩ B = B ∩ A
●​ (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
●​ φ ∩ A = φ ; U ∩ A = A
●​ A ∩ A = A
●​ A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
●​ A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Symmetric Difference:
A △ B: the set of elements in either A or B, but not in both. i.e.
A △ B = (A ∪ B)/(A ∩ B) = (A ∪ B) - (A ∩ B)
Properties of Set Operations:
●​ Commutative: A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A
●​ Associative: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C), (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
●​ Distributive: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Important Point
𝑛
●​ If the cardinality of A is n then cardinality of power set of A is 2 .

If A and B are any two sets, then:​

(i) A − B = A ∩ B′​
(ii) B − A = B ∩ A′​
(iii) A − B = A ⇔ A ∩ B = ∅​
(iv) (A − B) ∪ B = A ∪ B​

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(v) (A − B) ∩ B = ∅​
(vi) (A − B) ∪ (B − A) = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B)
SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS ON NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN SETS​
If A, B and C are finite sets, and U be the finite universal set, then:

(i) n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

(ii) n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) ⇒ A and B are disjoint sets

(iii) n(A − B) = n(A) − n(A ∩ B)

(iv) n(A △ B) = Number of elements which belong to exactly one of A or B​

= n((A − B) ∪ (B − A))​
= n(A − B) + n(B − A) [Since (A − B) and (B − A) are disjoint]​
= n(A) − n(A ∩ B) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)​
= n(A) + n(B) − 2n(A ∩ B)

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(v) n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) − n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B
∩ C)

If A, B and C are finite sets, and U be the finite universal set, then:

(i) n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

(ii) n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) ⇔ A and B are disjoint sets

(iii) n(A − B) = n(A) − n(A ∩ B) i.e., n(A − B) + n(A ∩ B) = n(A)

(iv) n(A △ B) = Number of elements which belong to exactly one of A or B​

= n((A − B) ∪ (B − A))​
= n(A − B) + n(B − A) [Since (A − B) and (B − A) are disjoint]​
= n(A) − n(A ∩ B) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)​
= n(A) + n(B) − 2n(A ∩ B)

(v) n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) − n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B

∩ C)

(vi) Number of elements in exactly two of the sets A, B, C:​

= n(A ∩ B ∩ C′) + n(B ∩ C ∩ A′) + n(C ∩ A ∩ B′)​

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= 3n(A ∩ B) − 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

(vii) Number of elements in exactly one of the sets A, B, C:​

= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − 2n(A ∩ B) − 2n(B ∩ C) − 2n(C ∩ A) + 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

(viii) n(A′ ∪ B) = n(U) − n(A ∩ B)

(ix) n(A ∩ B′) = n(A) − n(A ∩ B)

(x) n(A − B) = n(A ∩ B′) = n(A) − n(A ∩ B)

 Relations & Functions
Counting the Number of Relations:

(|𝐴|×|𝐵|)
1. Total number of relations: 2

2
𝑛 −𝑛
2. Number of reflexive relations: 2 ​
2
(𝑛 −𝑛/2)
3. Number of symmetric relations: 2

4. Number of equivalence relations: Requires partitions of n elements.

Type of Definition Example Graphical

Relation Representati
on
Empty A relation with no Let A = {1, 2}. No edges.
Relation elements. R = ∅.
Denoted by R = ∅.

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Universal
Relation
A relation where
every possible pair
from A × A is
included.
Denoted by R = A ×
A.
A relation where
Let A = {1, 2}.
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2,
1), (2, 2)}.

Let A = {1, 2}.

A complete
graph with
all pairs as
edges.

A diagonal
Reflexive each element in A is R = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}. set of edges:
Relation related to itself. (a, (1, 1), (2, 2),
a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A. etc.
Symmetric A relation where if Let A = {1, 2}. Bidirectional
Relation (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)}. edges: (1, 2)
∈ R as well. and (2, 1).
Transitive Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Directed
Relation A relation where if R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, edges
(a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) 3)}. forming
∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R. transitive
closure.
A relation that is Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Graph
reflexive, symmetric, R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, showing all
Equivalenc
and transitive. 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, reflexive,
e Relation
3)}. symmetric,
and
 transitive
pairs.
Formulas for Counting Different Types of Relations Between Two
Sets:

Total Number of Relations: If A and B are two sets with ∣A∣ = m and ∣B∣ = n,
𝑚𝑛
the total number of relations between A and B is = 2

Number of Reflexive Relations: For a set A of size n , a reflexive relation

requires all elements to relate to themselves, meaning (a , a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A .
2
𝑛 −𝑛
The number of such relations is: Number of Reflexive Relations = 2

2
Here, 𝑛 is the total pairs in A × A , and n accounts for the mandatory self-loops.

Number of Symmetric Relations: Symmetric relation satisfies (a, b) ∈ R ⟹ (b ,

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𝑛(𝑛+1)/2
a) ∈ R For n elements in A: Number of Symmetric Relations = 2

This is derived from the diagonal elements (n self-loops) and upper triangular
elements [n(n−1)/2] in the relation matrix.

Functions:
Functions Based on Math Concepts:
Algebraic Functions - An algebraic function is a function defined using
algebraic operations on variables and constants. It can be expressed as:
𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 +···+ 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0

where 𝑎0, 𝑎1, ··· 𝑎𝑛 are constants and n is a non-negative integer.

Trigonometric Functions - The six basic trigonometric functions are f(θ) = sin θ,
f(θ) = cos θ, f(θ) = tan θ, f(θ) = sec θ, f(θ) = cosec θ.
Logarithmic and Exponential Functions - The logarithm of the number N to
the base ‘a’ is the exponent indicating the power to which the base ‘a’ must be
raised to obtain the number N. This number is designated as logaN .
Properties of Logarithmic Function -

●​ logₐN = x, read as log of N to the base a ⇔ aˣ = N. If a = 10 then we write

log N or log₁₀N and if a = e we write ln N or logₑN (Natural log)
●​ Necessary conditions : N > 0 ; a > 0 ; a ≠ 1
●​ logₐ1 = 0
●​ logₐa = 1
●​ log₁/ₐa = –1
●​ logₐ(x·y) = logₐx + logₐy ; x, y > 0
●​ logₐ(x/y) = logₐx – logₐy ; x, y > 0
●​ logₐxᵖ = p·logₐx ; x > 0

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●​ logₐx = (1/q)·logₐx ; x > 0
●​ logₐx = 1/logₓa ; x > 0, x ≠ 1

Miscellaneous Types of Functions

Modulus Function - 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 & 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ [0, ∞)

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Rational Function - A function that is composed of two functions and

expressed in the form of a fraction is a rational function. A rational fraction is of

the form f(x)/g(x), and g(x) ≠ 0.
Signum Function -

Greatest Integer Function (Step Function or Floor Function) - The greatest

integer function rounds up the number to the nearest integer less than or equal
to the given number. Domain of this function is real numbers ℝ, while its range is
integers (ℤ).
●​ Domain: R - [0, 1)
●​ Range: { x|x = 1/n, n ∈ I - {0}
Ceiling Function - The ceiling function is a mathematical function that returns
the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to a given number. The ceiling
function is also known as the smallest integer function. The notation to

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represent this function is ⌈ ⌉.
 Trigonometry
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐 ◦
1.​ Radian Measure: π= 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
and 2π = 360 ​

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2.​ Relation between different system of units: If the measure of an angle

in degrees and radians be M and N respectively. Then

𝑁 𝑀
180
= π

Length of an Arc:
𝑙
θ= 𝑟

Trigonometric Ratios:
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑃 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐵 𝑃
𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡θ = 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
= 𝐻
, 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡θ = 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
= 𝐻
, 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡θ = 𝐵

𝐵 𝐻 𝐻
𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡θ = 𝑃
, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐θ = 𝑃
, 𝑠𝑒𝑐⁡θ = 𝐵

Range Of Trigonometric Functions:

(a) − 1≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡θ ≤1​
(b) − 1 ≤ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡θ ≤1​
(c) 𝑠𝑒𝑐⁡θ≤ − 1 or 𝑠𝑒𝑐⁡θ≥1​
(d) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐θ≤ − 1 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐θ≥1​
(e) − ∞ < 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡θ < ∞​
(f) − ∞ < 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡θ < ∞

Addition And Subtraction Formulae

1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐵

2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐵

3. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

4. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴+𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵
5. 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵

𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴−𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵
6. 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵

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Other Important Formulae:

2.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵) =

3.​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) =
𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐵−1
1.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐵+𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐵+1
𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐵−𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐴

𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴+𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵+𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐶−𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐶
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵−𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐶−𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐶𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴

2 2 2 2
4.​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐴
2 2 2 2
5.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐴
2𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴
6.​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡2𝐴 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴 = 2
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝐴
2
2 2 2 2 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝐴
7.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡2𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐴 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐴 − 1 = 2
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝐴

2𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴
8.​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡2𝐴 = 2
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝐴

◦
3
) ( ◦ )
(
9.​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡3𝐴 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐴 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐴 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 60 − 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 60 + 𝐴
3 ◦ ◦
10.​𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡3𝐴 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐴 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(60 − 𝐴)𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(60 + 𝐴)
 3
11.​𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡3𝐴 = (
3𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝐴) ◦ ◦
2
1−3𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝐴
(
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡ 60 − 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡ 60 + 𝐴 ) ( )
Product Formulae:
1.​ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵)

2.​ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵)

3.​ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵)
4.​ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝐴 − 𝐵) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝐴 + 𝐵)

Formulae On Sums And Differences:

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
●​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐷 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡ 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
●​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐶 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐷 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡ 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 2

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐶 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐷 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡ 2

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐶 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐷 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡

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2 2

Conditional Trigonometric Identities:

If 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = π, then
1.​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐶 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐵𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡𝐶
2.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐶 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡𝐴 = 1
3.​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡2𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡2𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡2𝐶 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡𝐶
4.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡2𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡2𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡2𝐶 =− 1 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐶
2 2 2
5.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝐶 = 1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐶
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
6.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐶 = 1 + 4𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐵 𝐶 𝐶 𝐴
7.​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡ 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡ 2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡ 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡ 2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡ 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡ 2 = 1
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
8.​ 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡ 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡ 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡ 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡ 2
2 2 2
9.​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝐶 = 2 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝐶.
 Inverse of Trigonometric Functions
Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions :

Function Domain Range (Principal value)

−1 π π
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝑥 [− 1, 1] ⎡− , ⎤
⎣ 2 2 ⎦

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−1
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝑥 [− 1, 1] [0, π]

𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝑥
−1
R (− π
2
,
π
2 )
−1
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ⁡𝑥 R (0, π)
−1 π π
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⁡𝑥 (− ∞, − 1]∪[1, ∞) [0, 2
) ∪ ( 2 , π]

−1 π π
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 (− ∞, − 1]∪[1, ∞) [− 2
, 0) ∪ (0, 2
]

Some Other Formulae:

−1 −1
●​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡(− 𝑥) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝑥 if |𝑥|≤1
−1 −1
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡(− 𝑥) = π − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝑥 if |𝑥|≤1
−1 −1
●​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡(− 𝑥) = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
−1 −1
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ⁡(− 𝑥) = π − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ⁡𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
 −1 −1
●​ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⁡(− 𝑥) = π − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⁡𝑥 if |𝑥|≥1
−1 −1
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (− 𝑥) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 if |𝑥|≥1

( −1 )
●​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝑥 = 𝑥 if |𝑥|≤1
−1
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝑥) = 𝑥 if |𝑥|≤1
−1
●​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛⁡(𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝑥) = 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
−1
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) = 𝑥 if |𝑥| ≥1
−1
●​ 𝑠𝑒𝑐⁡(𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⁡𝑥) = 𝑥 if |𝑥| ≥1
−1
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡(𝑐𝑜𝑡 ⁡𝑥) = 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

−1 π π
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐θ) = θ if − 2
≤ θ < 0 or 0 < θ ≤ 2
−1 π π −1
●​ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⁡(𝑠𝑒𝑐⁡θ) = θ 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ θ < 2
𝑜𝑟 2
< θ ≤ π 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ⁡(𝑐𝑜𝑡⁡θ) = θ 𝑖𝑓 0 < θ < π

−1 −1 π

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●​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝑥 = 2
, − 1≤𝑥≤1​
−1 −1 π
& 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ⁡𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝑥 = 2
,𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
−1 −1 π
●​ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⁡𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 2
, − ∞ < 𝑥≤ − 1 or 1≤𝑥 < ∞
−1
●​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( ), − 1≤𝑥≤1, 𝑥≠0
−1 1
𝑥

⁡( ), − 1≤𝑥≤1, 𝑥≠0
−1 −1 1
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥

−1 −1 2
●​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡ 1 − 𝑥 : 0≤𝑥≤1
−1 −1 2
●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⁡ 1 − 𝑥 : 0≤𝑥≤1
−1 −1
●​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡
−1
( 𝑥+𝑦
1−𝑥𝑦 ), if 𝑥𝑦 < 1, 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0
−1 −1
●​ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⁡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (⁡
−1 𝑥−𝑦
1+𝑥𝑦 ), if 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0
 Complex Number

Conjugate:

The conjugate of a complex number z = a + bi is given by z̅ = a - bi.

Properties of Modulus:

●​ |𝑧| ≥ 0

●​ |𝑧| ≥ 𝑅𝑒(𝑧)
●​ |𝑧| ≥ 𝐼𝑚(𝑧)

●​ |𝑧| = |𝑧| = | − 𝑧|
2
●​ 𝑧 · 𝑧 = |𝑧|

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●​ |𝑧1𝑧2| = |𝑧1| · |𝑧2|
𝑧1 |𝑧1||
●​ | 𝑧2
|= |𝑧2|
, 𝑧2 ≠ 0

𝑛 𝑛
●​ |𝑧 | = |𝑧|
2 2 2
●​ |𝑧1 + 𝑧2| = |𝑧1| + |𝑧2| + 2|𝑧1||𝑧2| 𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ1 − θ2 ) or
2 2 2
●​ |𝑧1 + 𝑧2| = |𝑧1| + |𝑧2| + 2𝑅𝑒(𝑧1𝑧2)

●​ 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦: |𝑧1 − 𝑧2| ≤ |𝑧1| + |𝑧2| 𝑜𝑟 |𝑧1 + 𝑧2| ≤ |𝑧1| + |𝑧2|

Properties of Conjugate:

●​ (𝑧) = 𝑧
●​ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2

●​ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
 ●​ 𝑧1 · 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 · 𝑧2
𝑧 𝑧1
●​ ( 𝑧1 ) = ; 𝑧2 ≠ 0
2 𝑧2

●​ If f is a Polynomial such that 𝑓(α + 𝑖β) = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 then

𝑓(α − 𝑖β) = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦

Properties of Argument:

●​ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧₁ 𝑧₂) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧₁) + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧₂)

●​ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧₁/𝑧₂) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧₁) – 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧₂), 𝑧₂ ≠ 0
●​ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧̅) = − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧)
𝑛
●​ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧 ) = 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧)

𝑖θ
Euler’s Formula and Identities: 𝑒 = cos θ + i sin θ.

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●​ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ =

●​ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =
𝑖θ
𝑒 +𝑒

𝑖θ
2

𝑒 −𝑒
2𝑖
−𝑖 θ

−𝑖 θ

Exponential Form: If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) , can be expressed as: 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑒

𝑖θ

De Moivre's Theorem: De Moivre's theorem states that for a complex number z

= r(cos θ + i sin θ) and any integer n:

𝑛 𝑛
𝑧 = 𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑛θ) + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛 θ))

n-th Root of Unity:

𝑛
The n-th roots of unity are the solutions to the equation: 𝑧 = 1

2π𝑖𝑘

These solutions are given by the formula: 𝑧𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑛

k = 0, 1, 2,...., (n - 1), Where:
 𝑖ϴ
●​ 𝑒 is Euler's formula cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϴ + 𝑖 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ϴ .z

𝑛
Note: These roots represent the solutions to the equation 𝑧 = 1 and are
symmetrically placed on the unit circle, forming a regular polygon.

Cube Roots of Unity:

3
These are the solutions to the equation: 𝑧 = 1

These roots are specific cases of the n-th roots of unity, where n = 3. The
2π𝑖𝑘

solutions are given by: 𝑧𝑘 = 𝑒 3

, k = 0, 1, 2. .

So the cube roots of unity are:

●​ z = 1 (the real root),

2π𝑖

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−1+𝑖 3
●​ z = ω = 𝑒 3
= 2
4π𝑖
2 −1−𝑖 3
●​ z = ω = 𝑒 3
= 2𝑖

2
●​ 1 + ω + ω = 0

Distance Formula: Distance between two complex numbers z₁ and z₂ is: |z₁ – z₂|

which represents the length of the line joining them on the Argand plane.

Section Formula: If a point divides the line joining z₁ and z₂ in the ratio m : n,
then the point’s complex number is:

z = (n z₁ + m z₂)/(m + n)

Triangle Geometry in Complex Form: Let z₁, z₂, z₃ be the complex numbers for
vertices A, B, C of triangle ABC:

1.​ Centroid = (z₁ + z₂ + z₃)3​

2.​ Orthocentre = [a sec A·z₁ + b sec B·z₂ + c sec C·z₃]/(a sec A + b sec B + c
sec C)​
 or​
= [z₁ tan A + z₂ tan B + z₃ tan C]/(tan A + tan B + tan C)​

3.​ Incentre = (a·z₁ + b·z₂ + c·z₃)/(a + b + c)​

4.​ Circumcentre = [z₁·sin(2A) + z₂·sin(2B) + z₃·sin(2C)]/[sin(2A) + sin(2B) +

sin(2C)]

𝑧2−𝑧0 𝑧1−𝑧0 𝑖θ
5.​ Rotation: |𝑧2−𝑧0|
= |1−𝑧 |
𝑒 (Take θ in anticlockwise direction)
0

6.​ Equilateral Triangle: For vertices A(z₁), B(z₂), C(z₃) to form an equilateral
triangle:​
𝑖π 𝑖π
𝑧1−𝑧2 𝑧3−𝑧2 𝑧2−𝑧3 𝑧1−𝑧3
and
3 3
𝑙
= 𝑙
𝑒 𝑙
= 𝑙
𝑒

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Combining both leads to:

2 2 2
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 𝑧1𝑧2 + 𝑧2𝑧3 + 𝑧3𝑧1

1 1 1
𝑧1−𝑧2
+ 𝑧2−𝑧3
+ 𝑧3−𝑧1
= 0

7.​ Isosceles Triangle: If triangle ABC has AB = AC, and B(z₂), C(z₃) are at
equal angles α from A(z₁): Then:

2 2
4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α · (𝑧1 − 𝑧2)(𝑧3 − 𝑧1) = (𝑧2 − 𝑧3)

8.​ Area of Triangle in Complex Form: Area of triangle ABC with z₁, z₂, z₃:

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Topic Formula

Equation of Line Through z₁ & z₂ Im[(z – z₁)/(z₂ – z₁)] = 0

or

z̅a + zā + b = 0,

where a = z₂ – z₁, b ∈ ℝ

Complex Slope of Line (z₂ – z₁)/(z̅₂ – z̅₁)

Line in Slope Form Line with complex slope –a/b:

 z̅a + zā + b = 0, where a, b ∈ ℝ

Condition for Parallel Lines If slopes are μ₁ and μ₂, lines are
parallel if:
μ₁ = μ₂

Condition for Perpendicular Lines μ₁ + μ̅₂ = 0

Perpendicular Distance from Point To line z̅a + zā + b = 0:

A(α)
|α 𝑎 +𝑎 α+𝑏|
Distance = 2|𝑎|

Standard Loci
(a) |z - z₁| + |z - z₂| = 2k (k is a constant)

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(i) If 2k > |z₁ - z₂| → Represents an ellipse

(ii) If 2k = |z₁ - z₂| → Represents a line segment

(iii) If 2k < |z₁ - z₂| → No locus/No solution

This is based on the sum of distances from two points being constant.

(b) | |z - z₁| - |z - z₂| | = 2k (k is a constant)

(i) If 2k < |z₁ - z₂| → Represents a hyperbola

(ii) If 2k = |z₁ - z₂| → Represents a line ray

(iii) If 2k > |z₁ - z₂| → No locus/No solution

 Permutation & Combination

Factorial Notation: For any positive integer n; n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2) …….. (3)(2)(1);
Note:

1.​ n! = n × (n-1) × (n-2) × ... × 1

2.​ 0! =1! = 1 (by convention)

3.​ (2n)! = 2𝑛 .n![[Link] ……… (2n – 1)]

Formula for Permutations

1. Number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time:

P(n, r) = n!/(n-r)! When n = r: P(n, n) = n!​

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2. Permutations with repetition:​

If repetition of elements is allowed, the number of permutations is: 𝑛

Permutations of Non-Distinct Objects

𝑟

If there are n objects where 𝑝1 , 𝑝2, ..., 𝑝𝑘 are identical, the number of distinct

permutations is: n!/(𝑝1! × 𝑝2! × ... × 𝑝𝑘!)

Circular Permutations
1. When objects are arranged in a circle: For n distinct objects: (n-1)!​
2. If the circle is fixed (no rotation counted): (n-1)! remains the same.

Derangement: Permutations where no object appears in its original position.

𝑛 𝑘
(−1)
Formula for derangements of n objects: 𝐷𝑛 = 𝑛! ∑ 𝑘!
𝑘=0
5. Repeated Elements
The number of permutations of n objects with repetitions is:

n!/(𝑝1! × 𝑝2! × ... × 𝑝𝑘!)

Advanced Circular Permutations

1.​ With Identical Objects: If n identical objects are to be arranged in a

circle: Number of arrangements =

1
𝑛 ( 𝑛+𝑟−1
𝑟 )
2.​ Distinction in Rotations:

●​ If rotations are distinct: (n−1)!

●​ If rotations are identical: (n−1)!/2 (for symmetric circular
arrangements).

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Combinations

Formula for Combinations

1.​ The number of ways to choose r objects from a set of n objects is given
by:​
C(n, r) = n!/[r! × (n - r)!]​
Key Properties:​
1. C(n, r) = C(n, n - r)​
2. C(n, 0) = C(n, n) = 1​
𝑛
3. Sum of combinations: Σ C (n, r) = 2 , for r = 0 to n

Permutations and combinations are related by the formula: P(n, r) = C(n, r) × r!

Combinations with Repetition: If repetition is allowed, the number of
combinations is given by:​
C(n + r - 1, r) = (n + r - 1)!/[r! * (n - 1)!]

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 Binomial Theorem
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2 2 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = (𝑛 0 )𝑎 +(𝑛 1 )𝑎 𝑏 + (𝑛 2 )𝑎 𝑏 + ….. +(𝑛 𝑛 )𝑏 ….(1)

Properties of Binomial Coefficients

𝑛 𝑛
1.​ Symmetry Property: 𝐶𝑟= 𝐶𝑛−𝑟

𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
2.​ Sum of Binomial Coefficients: ∑ 𝐶𝑟 = 2
𝑟=0

3.​ Middle Term(s) in Expansion:

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𝑛
●​ If n is even, the middle term is at 𝑟 = 2
.
𝑛 𝑛
●​ If n is odd, the middle terms are at 𝑟 = 2
and 𝑟 = 2
+ 1.

4.​ Greatest Binomial Coefficient: The maximum coefficient occurs at

𝑛 𝑛
r = ⌊ 2 ⌋ or r = ⌊ 2 ⌋ + 1

General Term in Binomial Expansion

𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
𝑇𝑟+1 = (𝑛 𝑟 )𝑎 𝑏

where,

●​ n = power of the binomial.

●​ r = position of the term (starting from r = 0 for the first term).

𝑛!
●​ (𝑛 𝑟 ) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!
, which is the binomial coefficient.
 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
●​ 𝑎 and 𝑏 represent the powers of a and b in that term.

𝑛
Properties of the Binomial Coefficients: If 𝐶𝑟 stands for 𝐶𝑟 then

𝑛
1.​ 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ··· + 𝐶𝑛 = 2
𝑛−1
2.​ 𝐶0 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶4 + ··· = 𝐶1 + 𝐶3 + 𝐶5 +···= 2
𝑛𝑛
3.​ 𝐶0 − 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 −···+ (− 1) 𝐶𝑛 = 0

𝑛−1𝑛
4.​ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > 1, 𝐶1 − 2𝐶2 + 3𝐶3 −···+ (− 1) 𝐶𝑛 = 0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
5.​ 𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟
, 𝐶𝑟−1 = 𝑟−1
, 𝐶𝑟−2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛
2 2 2 2 2𝑛
6.​ 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 +···+ 𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛
𝑛
7.​ 𝐶0𝐶𝑟 + 𝐶1𝐶𝑟−1 + 𝐶2𝐶𝑟+2 +···+ 𝐶𝑛−𝑟𝐶𝑛 = 2 𝐶𝑟

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Some Important Expansion:

(i) sin x = x − x³/3! + x⁵/5! − x⁷/7! + ...

(ii) cos x = 1 − x²/2! + x⁴/4! − x⁶/6! + ...

(iii) sinh x = x + x³/3! + x⁵/5! + x⁷/7! + ...

(iv) cosh x = 1 + x²/2! + x⁴/4! + x⁶/6! + ...

(v) tan x = x + x³/3 + 2x⁵/15 + 17x⁷/315 + ...

(vi) log(1 + x) = x − x²/2 + x³/3 − x⁴/4 + ...

𝑥
(vii) 𝑒 = 1 + x + x²/2! + x³/3! + x⁴/4! + ...

𝑥
(viii) 𝑎 = 1 + x log a + x²(log a)²/2! + x³(log a)³/3! + ...

−1
(ix) (1 − 𝑥) = 1 + x + x² + x³ + x⁴ + ... (for |x| < 1)
(x) sin⁻¹ x = x + x³/6 + 3x⁵/40 + 5x⁷/112 + …

(xi) tan⁻¹ x = x − x³/3 + x⁵/5 − x⁷/7 + ...

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Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Progressions
o​ Arithmetic Sequence: A sequence where the difference between
consecutive terms is constant. The general form is:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 where d is the common difference.

o​ Geometric Sequence: A sequence where each term after the first is

found by multiplying the previous term by a constant called the
𝑛−1
common ratio r. The general form is: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟

Arithmetic Progression (AP):

General Term of an AP: The n- th term 𝑎𝑛 of an arithmetic progression is given

by the formula: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

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Sum of the First n Terms of an AP:
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2
(2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2
(𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛)

where 𝑎𝑛 is the n- th term of the AP

Some Important Results Related to Arithmetic Progression:

𝑛(𝑛+1)
●​ Sum of the First n Natural Numbers: 𝑆𝑛 = 2

𝑆𝑛 𝑎1+𝑎𝑛
●​ Average of the terms: 𝑛
= 2

𝑎1+𝑎𝑛
●​ Mid-term Formula (for Odd n): = 2

Geometric Progression (GP):

General Term of a GP: The n-th term (denoted as a ) of a geometric
progression is given by the formula:
𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟

Sum of the First n Terms of a GP: The sum (S ) of the first n terms of a
geometric progression is given by the formula:

𝑛
𝑎1(1−𝑟 )
●​ If r ≠ 1: 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
, for r > 1 or r < 1
●​ If r = 1: 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛𝑎1 because all terms are the same in that case.

Properties of Geometric Progression:

●​ Constant Ratio: The ratio between any two consecutive terms is constant
𝑎𝑛+1
and is called the common ratio (r), i.e. , 𝑟 = .

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𝑎𝑛

●​ Multiplication Property: If 𝑎1, 𝑎2, 𝑎3 ···, 𝑎𝑛 are in GP, then: 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑎2

●​ Extending to Infinite Terms: If |r| < 1, then the sum of an infinite

𝑎1
geometric series (where n tends to infinity) is : 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑆∞ = ( ) 1−𝑟
, where |r|

< 1.

●​ Formula for any Term: The general formula to find any term of a GP is:
𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟

Geometric Mean:

o​ The geometric mean between two numbers a and b is given by 𝑎 𝑏

.
Sum of n Terms of a GP with r > 1: The sum of the first n terms of a GP with r >
(𝑛 )
𝑎1 𝑟 −1
1 can be written as: 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑟−1

Harmonic Progression (HP):​

General Term of Harmonic Progression : Let the general term of the
corresponding AP be: 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑏1 + (𝑛 − 1) · 𝑑

1 1
then the general term of the HP is: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
= 𝑏1+(𝑛−1)· 𝑑
​

​
Important Inequalities:

𝑥1+𝑥2+ …….+𝑥𝑛
1.​ Arithmetic Mean (A): 𝑛

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1

2.​ Geometric Mean (G): (𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3, ……., 𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑛

𝑛
3.​ Harmonic Mean (H): 1 1 1 1
(𝑥 , 𝑥2
, 𝑥3
, …, 𝑥𝑛
)
1

4.​ Inequality Relation A ≥ G ≥ H when 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = … = 𝑥𝑛

 Quadratic Equation

(
1.​ Sum of roots 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − ) 𝑏
𝑎

2.​ Product of roots 𝑥1 · 𝑥2 =

𝑐
𝑎

3.​ Quadratic equation whose roots are 𝑥1& 𝑥2

2
𝑥 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡)𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 = 0

Methods of Solving Quadratic Equations :

1.​ Algebraic Method (By Quadratic Formulae): Let General differential

2
2 −𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
equation is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 then 𝑥= 2𝑎

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Natures of Roots : 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 , where a, b , c ϵ 𝑅 and a ≠0,
2
discriminant: 𝐷 = 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐

Discriminant (D) Nature of Roots Expression for Roots Condition

D<0 Roots are α + iβ, α − iβ

imaginary

D=0 Roots are real and −b/2a

equal

D > 0 (perfect Roots are real, Rational and distinct a, b, c ∈ Q

square) rational, and roots
different

D > 0 (not a perfect Roots are real and P + √Q, P − √Q a, b, c ∈ Q

square) irrational
Common Roots of Two Quadratic Equations

Let the two quadratic equations be:

1.​ a₁x² + b₁x + c₁ = 0

2.​ a₂x² + b₂x + c₂ = 0

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 Straight Lines

Distance Formula

The distance between two points P(x₁, y₁) and Q(x₂, y₂) is given by:

PQ = 𝑥₂ − 𝑥₁)² + (𝑦₂ − 𝑦₁)²

For polar coordinates A(r, θ) and B(r', θ'), the distance is:

AB = (𝑟² + 𝑟'² − 2𝑟𝑟'𝑐𝑜𝑠(θ₁ − θ₂)

Section Formula

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For a line joining two points P(x₁, y₁) and Q(x₂, y₂), if the point R divides the line
PQ in the ratio m : n, the coordinates of R are:

𝑚𝑥2+𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2+𝑛𝑦1
●​ For external division: 𝑥 = 𝑚+𝑛
and 𝑦 = 𝑚+𝑛

𝑚𝑥2−𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2−𝑛𝑦1
●​ For external division: 𝑥 = 𝑚−𝑛
and 𝑦 = 𝑚−𝑛

𝑥1+𝑥2 𝑦1+𝑦2
●​ If R is the midpoint, then: 𝑥 = 2
and 𝑦 = 2

Slope of a Line

The slope of a line joining two points P(x₁, y₁) and Q(x₂, y₂) is:

𝑦2−𝑦1
𝑚= 𝑥2−𝑥1

This slope represents the rate of change of y with respect to x along the line.
Equation of Lines

●​ Slope-Point Form: y - y₁ = m(x - x₁)

𝑦 −𝑦
●​ Two-Point Form: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = ( 𝑥2−𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1)
2 1

●​ Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + c
●​ Normal Form: x cos α + y sin α = p
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1
●​ Parametric Form: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 α
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α
= 𝑟

Angle b/w two lines with slopes m₁ and m₂:

𝑚2−𝑚1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = | 1+𝑚1·𝑚2
|

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Length of Perpendicular (Shortest Distance)

The perpendicular distance p of a point P(x₁, y₁) from a line ax + by + c = 0 is:

𝑝=
|𝑎𝑥1+𝑏𝑦1+𝑐|
2 2
𝑎 +𝑏

Distance Between Parallel Lines

For two parallel lines ax + by + c₁ = 0 & ax + by + c₂ = 0, distance between them

is:

|𝑐2−𝑐1|
𝑑= 2 2
𝑎 +𝑏

Angular Bisector
The angular bisector of the angle between two lines divides the angle between
them into two equal parts. The equation of the angular bisector is:

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑎'𝑥 + 𝑏'𝑦 + 𝑐2
2 2
= 2 2
𝑎 +𝑏 𝑎' +𝑏'

Relation Between the Coefficients of Two Lines

For two lines represented by the equations: a₁x + b₁y + c₁ = 0 and a₂x + b₂y + c₂ =
0​
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
1. Coincident Lines: 𝑎2
= 𝑏2
= 𝑐2

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
2. Parallel Lines: 𝑎2
= 𝑏2
≠ 𝑐2

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𝑎1 𝑏1
3. Intersecting Lines: 𝑎2
≠ 𝑏2

4. Perpendicular Lines: Two lines are perpendicular if the product of their

slopes is -1. The slopes of the lines can be calculated as:

−𝑎1
Slope of line 1: 𝑚1 = 𝑏1
​

−𝑎2
Slope of line 2: 𝑚1 = 𝑏2
​

The lines are perpendicular if: a₁a₂ + b₁b₂ = 0

 Circle

General Equation of a Circle

Expanding the standard equation, the general form is:

2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 where

●​ g = − h and f = − k , so the center is (− g,− f) .

2 2
●​ The radius is given by: 𝑟 = 𝑔 +𝑓 − 𝑐

Condition for an Equation to Represent a Circle:

2 2 2 2
The equation 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 represents a circle if: 𝑔 + 𝑓 − 𝑐 >
0

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Nature of the Circle:

2 2
●​ Real and Proper Circle: If 𝑔 + 𝑓 − 𝑐 > 0, the equation represents a real
circle.

2 2
●​ Point Circle: If 𝑔 + 𝑓 − 𝑐 = 0, the circle reduces to a single point.

2 2
●​ Imaginary Circle: If 𝑔 + 𝑓 − 𝑐 < 0, the equation represents an
imaginary circle (no real points).

Equations of Tangent to a Circle at a Given Point

1. Standard Form of Circle: For (𝑥 − ℎ) + (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑟 , the tangent at P(

2 2 2

𝑥1, 𝑦1) is:

2
(𝑥1 − ℎ)(𝑥 − ℎ) + (𝑦1 − 𝑘)(𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑟
 2 2
2. General Form of Circle: For 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, tangent at P(𝑥1, 𝑦1

) is: ( ) ( )
𝑥1𝑥 + 𝑦1𝑦 + 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑥1 + 𝑓 𝑦 + 𝑦1 + 𝑐 = 0

3. Parametric Form: For x = h + r cos θ, y = k + r sin θ , the tangent at θ is:

(x − h) cos θ + (y − k) sin θ = r

4. Slope Form: If the tangent has slope m, its equation is: y − k = m (x − h)

where m satisfies (h, k) being the center.

Chord of Contact:

Its equation is given by:

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xx₁ + yy₁ + g(x + x₁) + f(y + y₁) + c = 0.

This is the same as the equation of the tangent from point P to the circle.
 Conic Section

Parabola
2
The standard equation 𝑦 = 4𝑎𝑥

Equation of Parabola y² =4ax y² =−4ax x² =4ay x² =−4ay

Eccentricity e=1 e=1 e=1 e=1
Focus S(a, 0) S(−a, 0) S(0, a) S(0, −a)
Equation of Directrix x + a =0 x−a=0 y + a =0 y−a=0
Equation of Axis y=0 y=0 x=0 x=0
Vertex O(0, 0) O(0, 0) O(0, 0) O(0, 0)

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Extremities of Latus
Rectum
Length of Latus
Rectum
Tangent at Vertex
(a, ±2a)

4a

x=0
(−a, ±2a)

x=0
4a
(±2a, a)

4a

y=0
(±2a, −a)

4a

y=0
Parametric P(at², P(−at², P(2at, P(2at,
Coordinates 2at) 2at) at²) −at²)
Chord Joining Two Points on y² = 4ax:

2 2
Let P(𝑎𝑡1 , 2𝑎𝑡1) and Q(𝑎𝑡2 , 2𝑎𝑡2) be two points on the parabola.

Equation of chord: 𝑦(𝑡1 + 𝑡2) = 2𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑡1𝑡2

Note:​
4 2
(b) Length of intercepted chord by parabola: 2 × [𝑎(1 + 𝑚 )(𝑎 − 𝑚𝑐)]
𝑚
(c) Length of chord with x-axis & angle α = 4a cosec²(α)

Ellipse
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
Standard equation is 2 + 2 = 1, where, a > b
𝑎 𝑏

2 2 2
●​ 𝑏 = 𝑎 (1 − 𝑒 ), where e = eccentricity 0 < e < 1

Forms of the Ellipse 𝑥

2

2+ 𝑦𝑏 = 1
2

2
2
𝑥
+ 𝑦𝑎 = 1
2
2

2
𝑎 𝑏
(a > b) (a > b)
Equation of Major Axis y=0 x=0
Length of Major Axis 2a 2a

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Equation of Minor Axis x=0 y=0
Length of Minor Axis 2b 2b
Directrices x = ± (a/e) y = ± (a/e)
Equation of Latus Rectum x = ± ae y = ± ae
Length of Latus Rectum (2b²)/a (2b²)/a
Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)

Position of a Point Relative to Ellipse:

2 2
𝑥 𝑦
For ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 , a point (x₁, y₁) lies:
𝑎 𝑏

2 2
𝑥1 𝑦1
●​ Inside if 2 + 2 < 1
𝑎 𝑏
2 2
𝑥1 𝑦1
●​ On the ellipse if 2 + 2 = 1
𝑎 𝑏
 2 2
𝑥1 𝑦1
●​ Outside if 2 + 2 >1
𝑎 𝑏

Chord of Contact:

From an external point (x₁, y₁), tangents drawn to the ellipse form a chord. Its
𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
equation is: 2 + 2 = 1
𝑎 𝑏

Pair of Tangents:

If (x₁, y₁) lies outside the ellipse, two tangents can be drawn. The condition is
2 2
𝑥1 𝑦1
2 + 2 > 1​
𝑎 𝑏

The equation of pair of tangents is given by S₁² = S × T, where:

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●​ S = ellipse equation
●​ S₁ = ellipse with x₁, y₁ substituted
●​ T = equation of chord of contact

Director Circle of Ellipse:

The locus of intersection of perpendicular tangents to the ellipse is a circle

called the director circle. Its equation: x² + y² = a² + b²​
(Only defined when ellipse becomes a circle i.e., a = b)

Chord with Given Midpoint (x₁, y₁):

2 2
𝑥 𝑥1 𝑦 𝑦1 𝑥1 𝑦1
Equation of chord with (x₁, y₁) as midpoint is: 2 + 2 = 2 + 2 ​
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏

Valid only when the point lies inside the ellipse.

Line and an Ellipse:

 2 2
𝑥 𝑦
A line y = mx + c cuts ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 in:
𝑎 𝑏

●​ 2 real points if c² < a²m² + b²

●​ 1 point (tangent) if c² = a²m² + b²
●​ No point if c² > a²m² + b²

Chord Joining Two Eccentric Angles α & β:

Equation of chord connecting two points with angles α, β is:

𝑥 α+β 𝑦 α+β α−β

𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ 2
]+ 𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛[ 2
] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ 2
]​

Hyperbola

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Equation of the Hyperbola in Standard Form:

1.​ Hyperbola
𝑥
𝑎
2

2.​ Conjugate hyperbola

−
𝑦
𝑏
2

2 = 1,

𝑦
𝑏
2
2
−
2
𝑥
𝑎
2 = 1

Note:

●​ Two hyperbolas are said to be similar if they have the same eccentricity.
●​ If e1 & e2 are the eccentricities of the hyperbola & its conjugate then

1 1
2 + 2 = 1
𝑒1 𝑒2

Forms of the Hyperbola 𝑥

2

2 −
𝑦
2
2
= 1
𝑦
2
2
−
2
𝑥
2 = 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎

Equation of Transverse Axis y=0 x=0

Equation of Conjugate Axis x=0 y=0
 Length of Transverse Axis 2a 2a
Foci (± ae, 0) (0, ± ae)
Equation of Latus Rectum x = ± ae y = ± ae
Length of Latus Rectum (2b²)/a (2b²)/a
Eccentricity 2
𝑏 +𝑎
2 2
𝑏 +𝑎
2
𝑒= 2 𝑒= 2
𝑎 𝑏

Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)

Rectangular Hyperbola
2 2 2 2 2 2
Its equation is : 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑎 or 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑏 (as a = b).

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In this case, the eccentricity e is 𝑒 =
2
𝑎 +𝑎
𝑎
2

Hence, the eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola is 2 .

PARAMETRIC FORM
2
= 2 or 𝑒 =
2
𝑏 +𝑏
𝑏
2
2
= 2

2 2
𝑥 𝑦
●​ Parametric form of hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 :​
𝑎 𝑏

⇒ x = a secθ, y = b tanθ, where θ is the parameter.

●​ This form is useful in solving locus, chord and tangent problems.

LINE AND A HYPERBOLA

●​ A line y= mx+c intersects hyperbola in:

○​ Two points if c² > a²m² - b²
○​ One point (tangent) if c² = a²m² - b²
 ○​ No point (does not intersect) if c² < a²m² - b²

Director Circle

●​ Equation: x² + y² = a² - b²
●​ Exists only if a² > b² (i.e., real circle); otherwise, no director circle
possible.

Chord of Contact

If PA and PB are tangents from point P(x₁, y₁), then chord of contact:​
𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
2 − 2 = 1
𝑎 𝑏

Asympotes:

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●​ Asymptotes are the lines hyperbola approaches at infinity.

●​ For
𝑥
𝑎
2

2 −

⇒ Combined form:
𝑦
2
𝑏
2
= 1 , asymptotes: ⇒

𝑥
𝑎
2

2 =
𝑦
𝑏
2

2
2
𝑥
𝑎
2 −
𝑦
2
𝑏
2
= θ ,​

Rectangular Hyperbola

●​ Standard form: xy = c²
●​ Parametric: x = ct, y = c/t
●​ Chord between (ct₁, c/t₁) & (ct₂, c/t₂):​
⇒ x + y = c(t₁ + t₂)
𝑥 𝑦
●​ Tangent at (x₁, y₁): 𝑥1
+ 𝑦1
= 2
2
𝑐
●​ Normal: 𝑦 =− 𝑥
− (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)

Tangents and Normals to Conics

Equations of Tangent and Normal to Ellipse and
Hyperbola
2 2
(i) Equation of the Tangent to the Ellipse 𝑥
2 +
𝑦
2 =1
𝑎 𝑏

𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
(i) At (x1, y1) the equation is 2 + 2 =1 (Cartesian form)
𝑎 𝑏

𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
(ii) At θ, the equation is 𝑎
+ 𝑏
=1 (Parametric form)

2 2
(ii) Equation of the Normal to the Ellipse 𝑥
2 +
𝑦
2 =1
𝑎 𝑏

𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
( )
(i)At 𝑥1, 𝑦1 the equation is
𝑎
2 −
𝑏
2 =1

𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ 𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
(ii) At θ, the equation is - =1 (Parametric form)

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𝑎 𝑏

2 2
(iii) Equation of the Tangent to the Hyperbola 𝑥
2 −
𝑦
2 =1
𝑎 𝑏

𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
(i) At (x1,y1) the equation is 2 − 2 =1 (Cartesian form)
𝑎 𝑏

𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ 𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
(ii) At θ, the equation is 𝑎
+ 𝑏
=1 (Parametric form)

2 2
(iv) Equation of the Normal to the Hyperbola 𝑥
2 -
𝑦
2 =1
𝑎 𝑏
2 2
𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑦
(i) At (x1, y1), the equation is 𝑥1
+ 𝑦1
= a2 + b2 (Cartesian form)

𝑥𝑎 𝑦𝑏
(ii) At θ, the equation is 𝑠𝑒𝑐θ
+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
= a2 + b2 (Parametric form)}

Condition for the Line y = mx + c to be a Tangent to the

(i) Parabola y2 = 4ax
 𝑎 2𝑎
Point of contact is ( 𝑚2
, 𝑚
) and equation of the tangent to the parabola is y =

𝑎
𝑚
.

2 2
𝑥 𝑦
(ii) Ellipse 2 + 2 =1
𝑎 𝑏
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
The condition for the line y = mx + c to be the tangent to the ellipse 2 + 2 =1
𝑎 𝑏

is
2 2
−𝑎 𝑚 𝑏
c2 = a2m2+ b2, with the point of contact being ( 𝑐
, 𝑐
) and the equation of

2 2 2
the tangent is y = mx ± 𝑎𝑚 + 𝑏 .

2 2
𝑥 𝑦
(iii) Hyperbola − =1

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2 2
𝑎 𝑏
2 2
𝑥 𝑦
The condition for the line y = mx + c to be the tangent to the hyperbola 2 − 2
𝑎 𝑏

=1

( ) and the equation

2 2
−𝑎 𝑚 −𝑏
is c2 = a2 m2 – b2, with the point of contact being 𝑐
, 𝑐

2 2 2
of the tangent is y = mx ± 𝑎 𝑚 –𝑏 .

Note:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1. In y = mx ± 𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑏 either y = mx + 𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑏 or y = mx - 𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑏 is
the equation to the tangent of the ellipse, but not both.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2. In y = mx ± 𝑎 𝑚 – 𝑏 either y = mx + 𝑎 𝑚 – 𝑏 or y = mx - 𝑎 𝑚 – 𝑏 is the
equation to the tangent of the hyperbola, but not both.
 Matrices

Properties of Matrices:

Properties of Matrix Addition: Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are the matrices

a.​ Commutative property: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
b.​ Associative property: 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶
c.​ Existence of identity: 𝐴 + 0 = 0 + 𝐴 = 𝐴
d.​ Existence of inverse: (− 𝐴) + 𝐴 = 𝐴 + (− 𝐴) = 0
e.​ Cancellation law: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴 + 𝐶⇒𝐵 = 𝐶; 𝐵 + 𝐴 = 𝐶 + 𝐴⇒𝐵 = 𝐶
f.​ − (𝐴 + 𝐵) =− 𝐴 − 𝐵

Properties of Matrix Multiplication: Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are matrices then

a.​ Associative property: (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶)

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b.​ Distributive property: 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
c.​ Multiplicative identity: 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴, 𝐼 is identity element
d.​ Multiplicative property of zero: 𝐴0 = 0𝐴 = 0
e.​ − (𝐴)𝐵 =− (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐴(− 𝐵)
f.​ If the product 𝐴𝐵 exist then it is not necessary imply that 𝐵𝐴 exist.
g.​ 𝐴𝐵 = 0 does not necessarily imply that at least one of the matrices 𝐴 and
𝐵 must be a zero matrix.
h.​ If 𝐴𝐵 = 0 that does not necessarily imply that 𝐵𝐴 = 0
2 2
i.​ (𝐴 − 𝐵)(𝐵 − 𝐴) = 𝐴 − 𝐵 only if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are commutative.
j.​ The product of two triangular matrices is itself a triangular matrix.
k.​ If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴 and 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵 then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are idempotent matrices.
l.​ If 𝐵 is idempotent matrix then 𝐴 = 𝐼 − 𝐵 is also idempotent such that
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 0.
m.​ 𝐴 is involuntary if and only if (𝐼 + 𝐴)(𝐼 − 𝐴) = 0.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
n.​ (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐴 𝐵
 o.​ If 𝐴, 𝐵 be 𝑛-rowed orthogonal matrices then 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 are also
orthogonal. matrices.
p.​ If 𝐴, 𝐵 be n-rowed unitary matrices then 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 are also unitary.

Properties of Scaler Multiplication:

Let 𝐴, 𝐵 be a matrix and 𝑘, 𝑚 be any constant
a.​ Commutative property: 𝑘𝐴 = 𝐴𝑘
b.​ Distributive property: 𝑘(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵; (𝑘 + 𝑚)𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑚𝐴
c.​ Associative property: 𝑘(𝑚𝐴) = (𝑘𝑚)𝐴
d.​ 1𝐴 = 𝐴, (− 1)𝐴 =− 𝐴

Properties of Transpose of Matrix:

𝑇
( 𝑇)
a.​ 𝐴 =𝐴

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𝑇 𝑇
b.​ (𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘𝐴
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
c.​ (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴 + 𝐵
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
d.​ (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴

Properties on Trace of Matrix:

Let 𝐴, 𝐵 are matrices and 𝑘, 𝑚 be any scaler
a.​ 𝑡𝑟(𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘 𝑡𝑟(𝐴)
b.​ 𝑡𝑟(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) + 𝑡𝑟(𝐵)
c.​ 𝑡𝑟(𝑘𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵) = 𝑘. 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) + 𝑚. 𝑡𝑟(𝐵)
d.​ 𝑡𝑟(𝐴𝐵) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐵𝐴)

( 𝑇) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴)
e.​ 𝑡𝑟 𝐴

𝑇
(
f.​ 𝑡𝑟 𝐴𝐴 ) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴𝑇𝐴) = ∑ 𝑎2𝑖𝑗 where 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗)
𝑖𝑗

𝑇
(𝑇)
( )
g.​ For any real matrix 𝐴, 𝑡𝑟 𝐴 𝐴 ≥0 and 𝑡𝑟 𝐴 𝐴 = 0 iff 𝐴 = 0.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
h.​ For any 𝑚×𝑛 matrices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑡𝑟(𝐴 𝐵) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴𝐵 ) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐵𝐴 ) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐵 𝐴).
 i.​ Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 be three matrices conformable for multiplication then
𝑡𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐶𝐴𝐵) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐵𝐶𝐴) but 𝑡𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶)≠𝑡𝑟(𝐴𝐶𝐵).

Properties of Complex Conjugate:

a.​ (𝐴) = 𝐴

b.​ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴 + 𝐵

c.​ (𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘(𝐴)

θ
( θ)
d.​ 𝐴 = 𝐴
θ θ
e.​ (𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘𝐴
θ θ θ
f.​ (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴 + 𝐵
θ θ θ
g.​ (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴

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Adjoint of a Matrix:

Properties of Adjoint Matrix:

1.​ 𝑎𝑑𝑗 0 = 0

2.​ 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛

( 𝑇) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)𝑇
3.​ 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
4.​ 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴𝐵) = 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐵). 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)
5.​ If |𝐴| = 0 then |𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)| = 0
6.​ The adjoint of a diagonal matrix is also a diagonal matrix.
7.​ The adjoint of a symmetric matrix is also symmetric.

Properties of Inverse Matrix:

1.​ Inverse of a square matrix 𝐴 exist if and only if |𝐴|≠0

2.​ (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴) = |𝐴|𝐼𝑛.
 −1 −1 −1
3.​ (𝐴𝐵) =𝐵 𝐴
−1 −1 −1 −1
4.​ (𝐴𝐵𝐶) =𝐶 𝐵 𝐴
−1 𝑇
5.​ 𝐴 ( 𝑇) ( −1)
= 𝐴
−1 θ θ −1
6.​ 𝐴 ( ) ( ) = 𝐴

7.​ |𝐴−1| = |𝐴|−1

8.​ The inverse of a diagonal matrix is also a diagonal matrix, and is
obtained by replacing each element in the diagonal with its reciprocal.
−1
9.​ Determinant of 𝐴 is equal to the determinant of 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 where 𝐵 is
non-singular matrix.
10.​Let 𝐴 be a non-singular matrix and 𝐵, 𝐶 be square matrix of same order of
𝐴 such that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 then 𝐵 = 𝐶.

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 Determinant

1.​ Let 𝐴, 𝐵 be two square matrices of same order then |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|.
𝑛
2.​ Let 𝐴 be any square matrix of order 𝑛 and 𝑘 be any scalar then |𝑘𝐴| = 𝑘 |𝐴|
.

3.​ Conjugate of a Determinant: If 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 , 𝑐𝑖 are complex numbers, and

matrix Z

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Then, the conjugate determinant is given by:

The determinant of 𝑍 is the complex conjugate of det (Z) .

Special Determinants:
1. Symmetric Determinant: The elements situated at equal distances from the
diagonal are equal in both magnitude and sign.

2 2 2
Determinant formula: det A = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑓𝑔ℎ − 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑔 − 𝑐ℎ

2. Skew-Symmetric Determinant

●​ All diagonal elements are zero.

●​ Elements at equal distances from the diagonal are equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign.

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●​ In a skew-symmetric determinant of odd order, the determinant is
always zero.
𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ
●​ Formula: (𝑖 , 𝑗) element = (−1) × (𝑗 , 𝑖 ) element.

3. Circulant Determinant

●​ The elements of rows (or columns) are arranged cyclically.

3 3 3
(
●​ det (A) = − 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 3𝑎𝑏𝑐 )
4. Vandermonde Determinant

●​ Special determinant where rows follow a pattern of powers of elements.

●​ Determinant formula: det (A) = (a - b) (b - c) (c - a)

Applications of Determinants:
1. Solving Linear Equations Using Cramer’s Rule:

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Determinants are used to solve a system of linear equations of the form:

𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1𝑦 + 𝑐1𝑧 = 𝑑1

𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑏2𝑦 + 𝑐2𝑧 = 𝑑2

𝑎3𝑥 + 𝑏3𝑦 + 𝑐3𝑧 = 𝑑3

Cramer’s Rule: For a unique solution, the determinant of the coefficient matrix
(Δ) must be non-zero. Calculate Δ = det(A) and find Δx, Δy , Δz.
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧
Solution: x= Δ
, 𝑦= Δ
, z= Δ

2. Area of a Triangle

( )( )( )
The area of a triangle with vertices 𝑥1, 𝑦1 , 𝑥2, 𝑦2 , 𝑥3, 𝑦3 is given by:
 Limits and Continuity

Properties of Limits:

Let f and g be two functions such that both lim f(x) and lim g(x) exist. Then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

●​ (i) lim [f(x)+ g(x)] = lim f(x) + lim g(x)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

●​ (ii) lim [f(x) - g(x)] = lim f(x) - lim g(x)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

●​ (iii) For every real number α , lim (α f)(x) = α lim f(x)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

●​ (iv) lim [f(x) g(x)] = [ lim f(x) lim g(x)]

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

●​ (v) lim f(x)/g(x) = lim f(x)/ lim g(x) where g(x) not equals to 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

●​
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Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

Certain limits lead to indeterminate forms such as:

0
0
,
∞
∞
,0 × ∞
∞ ∞ 0
●​ ∞ − ∞ , 0 , 1 , ∞

0 ∞
For limits of the form 0
, ∞
; we use L'Hôpital’s Rule.

L'Hôpital’s Rule:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓'(𝑥)
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim 𝑔'(𝑥)
if the right-hand side limit exists.
𝑥 →𝑎 𝑥 →𝑎
 Continuity

Function f(x) Interval in which f is continuous

Constant Function (f(x) = c) ℝ (All real numbers)

Identity Function (f(x) = x) ℝ (All real numbers)

Polynomial Function ℝ (All real numbers)

𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0𝑥 + 𝑎1𝑥 +···+ 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛

Absolute Value Function x-a

Power Function (xⁿ, n is a positive ℝ (All real numbers except 0 if n is

integer) even)

Rational Function (p(x)/q(x)) ℝ - {x : q(x) = 0}

where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials (All real numbers except the zeros of

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the denominator)

Sine Function (sin x) ℝ (All real numbers)

Cosine Function (cos x) ℝ (All real numbers)

Tangent Function (tan x) ℝ - {(2n+1)π/2 : n ∈ ℤ}

(All real numbers except odd
multiples of π/2)

Secant Function (sec x) ℝ - {(2n+1)π/2 : n ∈ ℤ}

(All real numbers except odd
multiples of π/2)

Cotangent Function (cot x) ℝ - {nπ : n ∈ ℤ}

(All real numbers except integer
multiples of π)

Cosecant Function (csc x) ℝ - {nπ : n ∈ ℤ}

(All real numbers except integer
multiples of π)

ex ℝ (All real numbers)

 log x ; (0, ∞) (Positive real numbers)

Inverse Trigonometric Functions In Their respective domains

(sin⁻¹ x, cos⁻¹ x etc.)

Continuity of composite functions:

Let f and g be real valued functions such that (fog) is defined at a. If g is
continuous at a and f is continuous at g (a), then (fog) is continuous at a.

Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

If a function f(x) is continuous on a closed interval [a,b] , and if f(a) and f(b)
take opposite signs (i.e., f(a)⋅f(b)<0), then there exists at least one c in (a,b) such

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that: f(c) = 0. This means that the function must cross the x-axis at some point
within the interval (a,b).
 Differentiation

Derivative by First Principle

Also known as the definition of the derivative, the first principle gives the
derivative as a limit:

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓'(𝑎) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚ℎ → 0 ℎ

Differentiation of Standard Functions

Here are some important functions and their derivatives:

𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1
●​ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 , where n is any real number

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𝑑 𝑥 𝑥
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑒 ) = 𝑒
𝑑
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(log x) = 1/x (x > 0)
𝑑
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(sin x) = cos x
𝑑
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(cos x) = -sin x
𝑑 2
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(tan x) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝑑
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(sec x) = sec x tan x
𝑑
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(cosec x) = -cosec x * cot x
𝑑 2
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(cot x) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 .

Standard Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

−1
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 1
1.​ 𝑑𝑥
= 2
; |x| ≤ 1
1–𝑥

−1
𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 −1
2.​ 𝑑𝑥
= 2
; |x| ≤ 1
1–𝑥
 −1
𝑑𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 1
3.​ 𝑑𝑥
= 2
1+ 𝑥

−1
𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 −1
4.​ 𝑑𝑥
= 2
1+ 𝑥

−1
𝑑𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 1
5.​ 𝑑𝑥
= 2
|𝑥| 𝑥 −1

−1
𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 −1
6.​ 𝑑𝑥
= 2
|𝑥| 𝑥 −1

Fundamental Rule of Differentiation

Product Rule:​
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
If y = u(x) v(x), then 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

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Quotient Rule:​
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 −𝑢
If y = u(x)/v(x), then 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑𝑥

Chain Rule:

●​ Used to differentiate compositions of functions.

𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡
●​ If t = u(x) and both 𝑑𝑥
and 𝑑𝑡
exist, then 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑡
. 𝑑𝑥
where f = vο𝑢

Differentiation of Inverse Function

𝑑 −1 2
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) = 1 −𝑥

𝑑 −1 2
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥) =− 1 −𝑥
 𝑑 −1 1
●​ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) = 2
1+𝑥

nᵗʰ Derivative of Standard Function

𝑛
𝑑 𝑚 𝑚−𝑛
●​ 𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑚(𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 2) ··· (𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1) 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑛
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥
●​ 𝑛 𝑒 =𝑒
𝑑𝑥
𝑛
𝑑 𝑛 𝑛π
●​ 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 2
)
𝑑𝑥
𝑛
𝑑 𝑛 𝑛π
●​ 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥 + 2
)
𝑑𝑥

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 Application of Derivative

For Differentiable Functions

Consider an interval I ⊆ D that can be [a, b] or (a, b) or [a, b) or (a, b].

●​ f′(x) > 0 ∀ x ∈ I ⇒ f is a strictly increasing function over the interval I.

●​ f′(x) ≥ 0 ∀ x ∈ I ⇒ f is an increasing function over the interval I.
●​ f′(x) ≥ 0 ∀ x ∈ I and f′(x) = 0 do not form any interval (that means f′(x) = 0
at discrete points) ⇒ f is a strictly increasing function over the interval I.
●​ f′(x) < 0 ∀ x ∈ I ⇒ f is a strictly decreasing function over the interval I.
●​ f′(x) ≤ 0 ∀ x ∈ I ⇒ f is decreasing function over the interval I.
●​ f′(x) ≤ 0 ∀ x ∈ I and f′(x) = 0 do not form any interval (that means f′(x) = 0
at discrete points)

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Special Points on a Curve

Type Definition / Condition

Stationary Point Point where f'(x) = 0

Critical Point Point where:

(i) f'(x) = 0
(ii) f'(x) does not exist
(iii) Endpoints

Inflection Point Point where concavity changes and tangent exists.

Found by:
- d²y/dx² = 0 or
 - d²y/dx² undefined, but sign changes

Equation of Tangent​
Tangent Equation Formats for Different Curve Types

Curve Type Tangent Equation Format

y = f(x) y - f(a) = f'(a) × (x - a)

F(x, y) = 0 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = (dy/dx at (𝑥1, 𝑦1)) × (𝑥 − 𝑥1)

Parametric (x, y) y - y(𝑡0) = [(dy/dt)/(dx/dt)] × (x - x(𝑡0))

At Origin y = f'(0) × x (if f(0) = 0)

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Equation of Normal:

Normal Equation Formats for Different Curve Types

Curve Type Normal Equation Format

y = f(x) y - f(a) = -1/f'(a) × (x - a)

F(x, y) = 0 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑑𝑦
1
(𝑥 − 𝑥1)
( 𝑑𝑥 )(𝑥 ,𝑦 )
1 1

Parametric (x, y) y - y(𝑡0) = - (dx/dt)/(dy/dt) × (x - x(𝑡0))

Horizontal Tangent x = a (normal is vertical)

Vertical Tangent y = b (normal is horizontal)

Formula to Find the Angle:

tan(θ) = |(m₁ – m₂)/(1 + m₁·m₂)|

Important Mensuration Formulas

Shape / Solid Formula

Cuboid ●​ Volume = l × b × h
●​ Surface Area = 2(lb + bh + hl)

Prism ●​ Volume = Base Area × Height

●​ Lateral Area = Base Perimeter × Height
●​ Total Surface Area = Lateral Area + 2 × Base Area

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Pyramid ●​ Volume = (1/3) × Base Area × Height
●​ Curved Surface Area = (1/2) × Base Perimeter ×
Slant Height

Cone ●​ Volume = (1/3) × π × r² × h

Cylinder ●​ Curved Surface Area = 2πrh

●​ Total Surface Area = 2πrh + 2πr²

Sphere ●​ Volume = (4/3) × π × r³

●​ Surface Area = 4πr²

Circular Sector ●​ Area = (1/2) × r² × θ (θ in radians)

●​ Perimeter = 2r + rθ
 Indefinite Integration

Some Standard Integrals

These are commonly used in solving problems:

𝑛+1
𝑛 𝑥
1.​ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+𝐶 (n ≠ -1)

1
2.​ ∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐶

𝑥 𝑥
3.​ ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝐶

𝑥
𝑥 𝑎
4.​ ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑎)
+ 𝐶 (a > 0, a ≠ 1)

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5.​ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =

6.​ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫cos x

2
7.​ ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶

2
8.​ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =− 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 + 𝐶

9.​ ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶 ​

10.​ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶

1 −1
11.​ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶
1+𝑥
 1 −1
12.​ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶
1−𝑥

1 −1
13.​∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶
1+𝑥

1 1 −1 𝑥
14.​ ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑎 ) + 𝐶
𝑎 +𝑥

1 −1 𝑥
15.​ ∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑎 ) + 𝐶
𝑎 −𝑥

1 2 2
16.​∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 𝑥 +𝑎 | + 𝐶
𝑥 +𝑎

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥−𝑎
17.​∫ 2 2 = 2𝑎
𝑙𝑛| 𝑥+𝑎
|+𝐶
𝑥 −𝑎

𝑑𝑥 2 2

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∫ 2 2
= 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 𝑥 −𝑎 + 𝐶
𝑥 −𝑎

Integration by Substitution (Change of Variable)​

General Rule: If x = g(t), then ∫f(x) dx = ∫f(g(t)) × g'(t) dt

Integration by Parts: Used when the integrand is a product of two

𝑑𝑢
functions. General Rule: ∫ 𝑢 · 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − ∫{ 𝑑𝑥
· ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 } 𝑑𝑥

ILATE Rule for choosing u:​

I: Inverse Trig​
L: Logarithmic​
A: Algebraic

T: Trigonometric​
E: Exponential.
Types of Denominators and Corresponding Partial Fractions

Denominator Type Partial Fraction Form

(x – a)(x – b) 𝐴
+
𝐵
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏

(x – a)² 𝐴
+
𝐵
2
𝑥−𝑎 (𝑥−𝑎)

(x – a)(x² + bx + c) 𝐴
+
𝐵𝑥+𝐶
2
(𝑥−𝑎) 𝑥 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

(x² + bx + c)² 2
𝐴𝑥+𝐵
+
𝐶𝑥+𝐷
2 2
𝑥 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 (𝑥 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)

Standard Techniques Used

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Type of Irrational Suitable Substitution
Expression

√(ax + b) Put t = √(ax + b) or x = t²

√(x² + a²) Put x = a·tan θ

√(x² – a²) Put x = a·sec θ

√(a² – x²) Put x = a·sin θ

Leibnitz Rule (Differentiation under Integral Sign)

Used when the limits or integrand has a parameter.

𝑏(𝑥)
Leibnitz Rule Formula: If 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡, 𝑥) 𝑑𝑡 Then,
𝑎(𝑥)

𝑏(𝑥)
∂𝑓
𝐹'(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏(𝑥), 𝑥) · 𝑏'(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎(𝑥), 𝑥) · 𝑎'(𝑥) + ∫ ∂𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑎(𝑥)
Important Result :

2
●​ 2
∫ 𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2 𝑥
2
2
𝑎 −𝑥 +
2 𝑎
2
−1 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑎 ) + 𝐶

2
2 2 𝑥 2 2 𝑎 2 2
●​ ∫ 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑥 +𝑎 + 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + 𝑥 +𝑎 + 𝐶
2
●​ 2
∫ 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 =
2 𝑥
2
2
(𝑥 − 𝑎 ) −
2 𝑎
2
𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 +
2 2
𝑥 −𝑎 | + 𝐶

1 1 −1 𝑥
●​ ∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 𝑎 ) + 𝐶 (Valid for x > a > 0)
[𝑥 (𝑥 −𝑎 )]

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 Definite Integration

Definite Integral

Let f(x) be integrable in [a, b]

𝑏 𝑎
1.​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

𝑎
2.​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
3.​ ∫[𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑑 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

𝑏 𝑏
4.​ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

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𝑎 𝑎
5.​ If f(x) is even: ∫ f(x) dx = 2 ∫f(x) dx
−𝑎 0

𝑎
6.​ If f(x) is odd: ∫ f(x) dx = 0
−𝑎

7.​ If f(x) is periodic:

𝑛𝑇 𝑇
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 × ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 0

𝑎+𝑛𝑇 𝑎+𝑇
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 × ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

Walli’s Formula:
Gamma Function
For positive real values of m and n:
π/2 Γ((𝑚 + 1) Γ((𝑛 + 1)
𝑚 𝑛 [ 2
× 2
]
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = Γ((𝑚 + 𝑛 + 2)
2×
0 2

Γ(x) is the Gamma function, an extension of the factorial function.

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 Differential Equation

Methods of Solving First-Order ODEs

1.​ Variable Separation Method:

𝑑𝑦
Applicable if the equation can be written as 𝑑𝑥
= g(x)h(y).

1
Steps: Rearrange to ℎ(𝑦)
dy = g(x) dx and Integrate both sides.

2.​ Homogeneous Equations:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
If 𝑑𝑥
= f(y x), substitute y = v x and 𝑑𝑥
= v + x 𝑑𝑥

3.​ 1st-Order & 1st-Degree Differential Equation

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The general form of a first order first degree differential equation is
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥 , 𝑦) where 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is function of two variables defined on a region in the

𝑥𝑦-plane
1st order 1st degree differential equation is also of the form

𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0,

where 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) are functions of 𝑥 and 𝑦.

I.​ Separable Differential Equation: (1/g(y)) dy = f(x) dx

Now, both sides can be integrated independently.

II.​ Homogeneous Differential Equation

A first-order differential equation of the form dy/dx = f(x, y) is called

homogeneous if the function f(x, y) is homogeneous of degree 0, i.e., f(λx, λy) =
 f(x, y) for any non-zero λ. This means that all terms in the function f(x, y) have
the same degree

III.​ Linear Differential Equation of First Order

Standard Form: dy/dx + P(x)y = Q(x) , Where P and Q are functions of x only.

Integrating Factor (I.F.): An expression that makes the equation exact when

∫𝑃(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
multiplied. I.F. = 𝑒

Final Solution: 𝑦 × 𝐼. 𝐹 = ∫(𝑄 × 𝐼. 𝐹 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 , where C is an arbitrary

constant .

Linear in y

Linear in x
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Equation Type Form

dy/dx + P(x)y = Q(x)

dx/dy + P(y)x = Q(y)

Integrating Factor

I.F. = 𝑒
∫𝑃(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫𝑃(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
I.F. = 𝑒

Exact via I.F. Not exact, ∫𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

(x only) (∂M/∂y – ∂N/∂x)/N = f(x) I.F. = 𝑒

Exact via I.F. Not exact, ∫𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦

(y only) (∂N/∂x – ∂M/∂y)/M = I.F. = 𝑒
f(y)

Homogeneous M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0 I.F. =

1
𝑥 ·𝑀 + 𝑦·𝑁
(non-exact)

Bernoulli’s Equation dy/dx + P(x)y = Q(x)yⁿ Use substitution, then

∫𝑃(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
I.F. = 𝑒
 Three Dimensional Geometry

Coordinate System

Distance Between Two Points

The distance d between two points 𝑃(𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3) and 𝑄(𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3) in 3D space is given by
the formula:

2 2 2
d= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1) + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1)

Section Formula

The section formula gives the coordinates of a point dividing a line segment in a given
ratio. For a point P(x, y, z) dividing the line segment joining points 𝐴(𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3) and

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𝐵(𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3) in the ratio m : n, the coordinates of P are:

𝑥 =
𝑚𝑥2+𝑛𝑥1
𝑚+𝑛

Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios

,𝑦 =
𝑚𝑦2+𝑛𝑦1
𝑚+𝑛
and 𝑧 =
𝑚𝑥2+𝑛𝑥1
𝑚+𝑛

1.​ Direction Cosines: For a vector v = (a, b, c) , the direction cosines are given by:
α 𝑏 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠 α = |𝑣|
, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 β = |𝑣|
, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 γ = |𝑣|

Where α, β, γ are the angles the vector makes with the coordinate axes, and is
2 2 2
|𝑣| = 𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐 the magnitude of the vector.​

2.​ Direction Ratios: The direction ratios are simply the components (a, b, c) of the
vector, i.e., the values representing the direction of the vector in space.​
Angle Between Two Intersecting Lines

The angle θ between two lines, given by their direction ratios and 𝑎 = (𝑎1, 𝑏1, 𝑐1) and
𝑏 = (𝑎2, 𝑏2, 𝑐2) , is given by:

𝑎1𝑎2 +𝑏1𝑏2+𝑐1𝑐2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ =
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑎1 + 𝑏1 + 𝑐1 · 𝑎2 +𝑏2 +𝑐2

Shortest Distance Between Skew Lines

The shortest distance D between two skew lines can be found using the formula:

|(𝑏2 − 𝑏1) · (𝑎1 × 𝑎2 )

𝐷 = |𝑎1 × 𝑎2 |

Where:

●​ 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 are the direction vectors of the two lines.

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●​ 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 are points on the two lines.
●​ 𝑎1 × 𝑎2 is the cross product of the direction vectors.​

Plane
The equation of the plane is given by:

𝐴 (𝑥 − 𝑥1) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦1) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧1) = 0

This is the point-normal form of the plane's equation.

Normal Form of the Equation of a Plane

𝑥 −𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
𝐴
= 𝐵
= 𝐶

Where (𝑥1, 𝑦1 ,𝑧1) is a point on the plane, and (A, B, C) is the direction of the normal to the
plane.

Intercept Form of the Equation of a Plane

 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑎
+ 𝑏
+ 𝑐
=1

Where a, b, c are the intercepts of the plane on the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis,
respectively.

Angle Between Two Planes

𝐴1𝐴2 + 𝐵1𝐵2 + 𝐶1𝐶2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ =
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝐴1 +𝐵1 +𝐶1 . 𝐴2 +𝐵2 +𝐶2

𝑁1 ·𝑁2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = |𝑁1| |𝑁2|

Where ‘.’ represents the dot product, and |𝑁1| , |𝑁2| are the magnitudes of the normal
vectors.

𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1
●​ Parallel Planes: 𝐴2
= 𝐵2
= 𝐶2

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●​ Perpendicular Planes: 𝐴1𝐴2 + 𝐵1𝐵2 + 𝐶1𝐶2 = 0

Angle Between a Line and a Plane

1.​ In Vector Form: The angle θ between a line with direction vector 𝑎 = (𝑎1, 𝑏1, 𝑐1)
and a plane with normal vector 𝑛 = (𝑛1, 𝑛2, 𝑛3) is given by:

​
|𝑎 · 𝑛|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = |𝑎||𝑛|

2.​ In Cartesian Form: The formula for the angle θ between the line
𝑟 = (𝑥1, 𝑦1, 𝑧1) + 𝑡(𝑎1, 𝑎2, 𝑎3)and the plane A x + B y + C z + D = 0 is:

​
|𝐴𝑎1+𝐵𝑎2+𝐶𝑎3|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝐴 +𝐵 + 𝐶 · 𝑎1 +𝑎2 +𝑎3

Distance of a Point from a Plane

 The distance D of a point 𝑃(𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0) from the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is given by:
|𝐴𝑥0+𝐵𝑦0+𝐶𝑧0+𝐷|
𝐷 = 2 2 2
𝐴 +𝐵 + 𝐶

Distance Between Two Parallel Planes

For two parallel planes, 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷1 = 0 and 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷2 = 0 , the distance

between them is given by:

|𝐷2−𝐷1|
𝐷 = 2 2 2
𝐴 +𝐵 +𝐶

Condition For Coplanarity Of Two Lines

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 Vectors

Magnitude and Direction Representation

→ → 2 2 2
●​ The magnitude of a vector 𝐴 is given by: 𝐴 = || 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧
→
→ ^ 𝐴
●​ The unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 is 𝐴 = |𝐴|

[Link] Vectors
Three or more vectors are coplanar if they lie in the same plane. A condition for
coplanarity is that their scalar triple product is zero,

→ → →
(
i.e., 𝐴 · 𝐵 ×𝐶 = 0 )
[Link] Vectors (Perpendicular Vectors)

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Two vectors are perpendicular if their dot product is zero, i.e., 𝐴 · 𝐵 = 0

Vector Addition and Its Methods

→ →
1.​ Triangular Law of Addition: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two vectors, their resultant 𝑅 is
→ →

→ → → →
given by: 𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵. The magnitude of 𝑅 is:
→ 2 2 → →
|𝑅| = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ where θ is the angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵 .
→ →
2.​ Parallelogram Law of Addition: For two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵, the resultant is:
→ → →
𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵. The magnitude is given by:
→ 2 2
|𝑅| = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ and tan α =
𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
𝐴+𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ

3.​ Properties of Vector Addition

→ → → →
I.​ Commutative Property: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴

→ → → → → →
II.​ Associative Property: (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
 → → →
III.​ Existence of Additive Identity (Zero Vector): 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴

→ → →
IV.​ Existence of Additive Inverse: 𝐴 + − 𝐴 = 0 ( )
4. Vector Subtraction
→ → → → → →
●​ If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two vectors, then their difference is given by: 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 + − 𝐵 ( )
→ → → →
●​ If 𝐴 = ⟨𝑎1, 𝑏1, 𝑐1⟩, 𝐵 = ⟨𝑎2, 𝑏2, 𝑐2⟩ then their difference is: 𝐴 − 𝐵 = ⟨𝑎1- 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 − 𝑏2 , 𝑐1- 𝑐2

Collinearity of Three Points

Three points A, B, and C are collinear if they lie on the same straight line.

→ → →
●​ If their position vectors are 𝑎 , 𝑏 , and 𝑐 , then there must exist scalars x and y (not
→ → →

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both zero) such that: x 𝐴 + y 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0
●​ This equation helps determine whether three points are collinear.

Coplanar Vectors
→ → →
Vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 are non-zero and non-collinear. A vector 𝑟 is coplanar with them if it
→ →
can be expressed as a linear combination of 𝑎 and 𝑏 :

→ → →
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏

where x , y are scalars.

→ → → →
●​ If three vectors 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are non-zero and non-coplanar, any vector 𝑟 in their plane
→ → → →
can be written as: 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑐 for some scalars x , y , z.
●​ The scalar triple product condition determines coplanarity: a(b×c) = 0 If this
holds, the vectors are coplanar.
Scalar or Dot Product
→ → → →
If 𝐴 = (𝑎1, 𝑎2, 𝑎3) , 𝐵 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2, 𝑏3) then the dot product is given by:𝐴 · 𝐵 = 𝑎1𝑏1 + 𝑎2𝑏2 + 𝑎3𝑏3

Alternatively,

→→ → →
| || |
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐵 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

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●​ Case 1: When θ = 0∘ (Parallel Vectors):

●​ Case 2: When θ = 90∘(Perpendicular Vectors)

●​ Case 3: When θ = 180∘ (Anti-parallel Vectors)

→

𝐴·𝐵= 0
→
→
𝐴·𝐵= 𝐴 𝐵
→ →

→
𝐴 · 𝐵 =− 𝐴 𝐵
→ →
| || |

→ →
| || |

Projection of One Vector onto Another

→ →
→ → 𝐴·𝐵
The scalar projection of 𝐴 in the direction of 𝐵 is: = →
|𝐵|
→ →
This represents how much of 𝐴 lies along the direction of 𝐵.

Properties of Scalar Product

 → → → →
●​ Commutative Property: 𝐴 · 𝐵 = 𝐵 · 𝐴
→ → → →→ → →
(
●​ Distributive Property: 𝐴 · 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴 · 𝐶 )
●​ Scalar Multiplication
→ → → →
●​ ( )
𝑘𝐴 · 𝐵 = 𝑘 𝐴 · 𝐵 ( )
→ → → →
( )
●​ 𝐴 · 𝑘𝐵 = 𝑘 𝐴 · 𝐵 ( )
→ → →2
●​ Dot Product of a Vector with Itself: 𝐴 · 𝐴 = 𝐴 ||
→ → →
●​ Zero Vector Property: 𝐴 · 0 = 0
→ →
●​ Orthogonality Condition: 𝐴 · 𝐵 = 0

Vector or Cross Product

The cross product of two vectors a and b, denoted as a × b, is a vector perpendicular to
^
both a and b. It is defined as: a × b = ∣a∣ ∣b∣ sin θ 𝑛

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where:

●​ ∣a∣, ∣b∣ are the magnitudes of the vectors,

◦ ◦
●​ Θ is the angle between them (0 ≤ θ ≤ 180 ),
^
●​ 𝑛 is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b, determined by the right-hand
rule.
 1.​ Area of a Parallelogram: The magnitude of the cross product ∣a × b∣ represents
the area of the parallelogram formed by vectors a and b.

Area = ∣a × b∣

2.​ Area of a Triangle: If a and b are two sides of a triangle, its area is given by: Area
1
= |𝑎× 𝑏|

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2

3.​ Direction of the Resultant Vector: The resultant vector a × b is perpendicular to

both a and b, following the right-hand rule.

Triple Product of Vectors

1. Scalar Triple Product (STP)
The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b, c is given by: a⋅ (b × c)., It is also
→ → →
represented as [𝑎 𝑏 𝑐].

→ → →
●​ Volume of parallelopiped = [𝑎 𝑏 𝑐]
1 → → →
●​ Volume of the tetrahedron = 6
[𝑎 𝑏 𝑐]

●​ If coplanar, then a⋅(b × c) = 0.

|
●​ Can be written as a determinant: a⋅(b × c) = 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 |
●​ Cyclic Property: a⋅(b × c) = b⋅(c × a) = c⋅(a × b)
2. Vector Triple Product (VTP)
The vector triple product is given by: a × (b × c)

●​ a × (b × c) = (a ⋅ c) b − (a ⋅ b) c

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 Probability

Probability is defined as:

𝑚
P(A) = 𝑛

where: m = number of favourable outcomes (ways event A can happen). n = total

number of possible outcomes (all equally likely)

Classical and Conditional Probability

1.​ Classical Probability

This approach applies when all outcomes are equally likely.

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P(A) = Favourable Cases/Total Cases

2.​ Conditional Probability: It measures the probability of an event happening,

given that another event has already occurred.
P (A∣B) = P(A∩B)/P(B), where P(B) > 0

Important Theorems

Addition Theorem :

●​ For any two events A and B: P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A∩B)

●​ If A and B are mutually exclusive: P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B)

Multiplication Theorem : For independent events: P(A∩B) = P(A) × P(B)

For dependent events: P(A∩B) = P(A) × P(B∣A)

Bayes’ Theorem: Used to find reverse probabilities when outcomes are already
𝑃(𝐵 | 𝐴) 𝑃(𝐴)
observed. P(A | B) = 𝑃(𝐵)

Probability Density Function (PDF)

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For continuous random variables, probability is found using integration:

𝑏
P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) dx
𝑎

Expectation and Variance

●​ Expectation (Mean): E(X) = ∑ x P(X = x) (Discrete case) or E(X) = ∫ 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

2 2
●​ Variance: Var (X) = E(𝑋 ) - (𝐸(𝑋))

Statistical Measures for Binomial Distribution:

●​ Mean = n × p
●​ Variance = n × p × q
●​ Standard Deviation = √(n × p × q)
Binomial Expansion Identity:

(p + q)ⁿ = ⁿC₀ × qⁿ + ⁿC₁ × p × qⁿ⁻¹ + ⁿC₂ × p² × qⁿ⁻² + ... + ⁿCᵣ × pʳ × qⁿ⁻ʳ + ... + ⁿC × pⁿ = 1

Normal Distribution

2
(𝑥−𝑢)
−
1 2

Describes continuous data in a bell curve. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2σ

σ 2π

Where:

●​ x is a value from the data.

●​ μ is the mean of the distribution.

●​ σ is the standard deviation.

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●​ e is Euler's number (approximately 2.718).

2
Chebyshev’s Inequality: For any random variable X with mean µ and variance σ
1
𝑃(|𝑥 − μ|≥𝑘σ) ≤ 2 Used to estimate the spread of data.
𝑘

Odds in Favour of an Event: The odds in favour of an event E are given by the
ratio of the probability of the event occurring to the probability of it not occurring:

Odds in favour of E=P(E)/P(E′)

where:

●​ P(E) is the probability that event E happens.

●​ P(E′) is the probability that event E does not happen, i.e., P(E′) = 1 − P(E).
Odds Against an Event: The odds against an event E are simply the reverse of the
odds in favour:

Odds against E = P(E′)/P(E)

Converting Odds to Probability:

●​ If the odds in favor of an event E are given as a : b , then the probability of E

occurring is: P(E) = a/a + b
●​ If the odds against the event E are given as a : b , then the probability of E
occurring is: P(E) = b /a + b

Important Probability Results/

Let A and B be two events. The following rules apply:

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●​ P(A) + P(A̅) = 1
●​ P(A or B) = 1 - P(A̅ and B̅)
●​ P(A given B) = P(A and B) / P(B)
●​ P(A or B) = P(A and B) + P(A̅ and B) + P(A and B̅)
●​ If A is a subset of B, then P(A) ≤ P(B)
●​ P(B and not A) = P(B) - P(A and B)

Useful Inequalities and Relationships

●​ P(A and B) ≤ P(A) ≤ P(A or B) ≤ P(A) + P(B)
●​ P(A and B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A or B)
●​ P(Exactly one event happens) = P(A and B̅) + P(A̅ and B)
○​ = P(A) + P(B) - 2 × P(A and B)
○​ = P(A or B) - P(A and B)
●​ P(Neither A nor B) = P(A̅ and B̅) = 1 - P(A or B)
●​ P(A̅ or B̅) = 1 - P(A and B)
 Statistics

∑𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑖
The formula for the mean (x) of grouped data is: 𝑥 = ∑𝑓𝑖

where,

●​ 𝑓𝑖 : Frequency of the ii-th class interval

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡+𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

●​ 𝑥𝑖 : Midpoint of the ii-th class interval, calculated as 𝑥𝑖 = 2

●​ ∑𝑓𝑖 : Total frequency

𝑥𝑖
Formula for Mean : Mean (𝑥) = ∑ 𝑛
Where

●​ 𝑥𝑖: Each individual data value.

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●​ n: Total number of data points.

●​ ∑𝑥𝑖: Summation of all individual data values.

Median for Grouped Data

The formula to calculate the median is:

( )
𝑁
−𝐶𝐹+
Median = 𝐿 + 𝑓
2
⋅ℎ

Where:

●​ L: Lower boundary of the median class

●​ N: Total frequency (∑f)

●​ CF: Cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class

●​ f: Frequency of the median class

●​ h: Width of the median class

Mode for Grouped Data

The formula for calculating the mode is:

(𝑓𝑚−𝑓1)
Mode = 𝐿 + ( )
(𝑓𝑚−𝑓1)(𝑓𝑚−𝑓2) ⋅ℎ

where,

●​ L: Lower boundary of the modal class

●​ 𝑓𝑚: Frequency of the modal class

●​ 𝑓1 : Frequency of the class preceding the modal class

●​ 𝑓2 : Frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

●​ h : Width of the modal class

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Coefficient of Range ​
Coefficient of Range =
𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑚 + 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑚

Mean Deviation
The fundamental formula to compute mean deviation for a given data set is as follows :

Mean Deviation (MD) = (1/n) ∑ |X - X̅|

Where:

●​ X = individual value in the data set.

●​ X̅ = mean value of the data set.
●​ n = total number of data values.
●​ | | = absolute value, which means it ignores the negative sign.

Variance Formula: When we have gathered data from every portion of the
population, we are interested in getting an exact value for population variance.
Population variance is given by the formula:

Population Variance (σ²) = (1/N) × Σ(Xi - μ)²

Where :

●​ σ²: Population Variance

●​ N: Number of observations in the population
●​ Xi: ith observation in the population
●​ μ: Population mean or Assumed mean
●​ When we accumulate data from a sample, the sample variance is applied to make
estimates or conclusions about the sample variance.

Standard Deviation Formula :

Below is the formula for standard deviation regarding population and sample:

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Population standard deviation is given by the formula:

Where: σ = Population standard deviation

The sample standard deviation formula is as follows :

Where: s = Sample standard deviation