Combination

Human Development: How it All Begins

Purpose

Understand human changes from conception → end of life

Developmental psychologists often specialize in stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence,

adulthood

Focus areas: physical, mental, social, personality development

Examples of Research Focus

Infant → language development

Adolescents → peer pressure & drug use

Goals of Psychology (applied to development)

Describe, predict, explain, control behavior

Applications:

Improve education (understand children’s thinking → design better environments)

Reduce adolescent risks (peer pressure insights → prevent drug use, delinquency, teen
pregnancy)

Understand effects of war, imprisonment, alcoholism on development

Key Point

Development = mix of predictable patterns + unique life events

Complexity and uniqueness shaped by personal experiences

Nature-Nurture Revisited: How Biology and Culture Lead to Diversity

Influences on Development

Nature (Genetics/biology) → personality, physical traits, language, intelligence

Nurture (Environment & culture) → family, friends, schooling, culture, gender, customs, media,
life events

Nature-Nurture Debate

Central issue in developmental psychology

Not either-or → development results from interaction between nature & nurture

Interaction Examples

Genes can moderate environmental influence

Environment can alter gene expression (epigenetics)

Key Point

Development is shaped by a complex interplay of biology + environment

Prenatal Development

Combination 1
 Genetic Foundation

Conception → sperm (23 chromosomes) + ovum (23 chromosomes) = zygote (23 pairs)

Average human gestation: 38–40 weeks

Stages of Prenatal Development

1. Germinal (Zygotic) Stage → First 14 days

Key feature: Cell division

Zygote → divides (2 → 4 → 100+ cells) = blastocyst (by Day 5)

Travels fallopian tube → implants in uterine wall (~Day 9)

Continues division through Week 2

2. Embryonic Stage → 3rd–8th week

Blastocyst attaches → outer cells = placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic sac

Inner cells = embryo

Key feature: Organogenesis (formation of major organs & systems)

Cardiovascular, digestive, skeletal, excretory, respiratory, nervous systems

Critical stage → most miscarriages & genetic defects occur

By ~4 weeks: heart beats, spinal cord forms, liver produces red blood cells, sex organs
forming (sex visible by 12–18 weeks)

Physical features: eyes, lips, nose, jaw forming, stubs of arms/legs, early fingers/toes

3. Fetal Stage → 9th week → birth

Organism called fetus

Key feature: growth & maturation

By 14 weeks → fetus can kick, swallow, open mouth, turn head; lungs & sex organs
developed

By 24 weeks (6th month) → viability (survival possible with NICU support)

Last 3 months → fetus responsive to sound, light, touch

Pregnancy Risks

~50% of fertilized eggs die before woman knows she is pregnant

15–20% of known pregnancies end in miscarriage

Application: The Importance of Positive Prenatal Environment

Genetic Causes

Chromosomal abnormalities → arise at conception, often detected during embryonic stage

Example: Down Syndrome

Extra 21st chromosome

Distinct facial features (almond-shaped eyes, flat nose)

Higher risk of heart defects + intellectual disability

Detectable with medical tests → highlights need for prenatal checkups

Combination 2
 Environmental Causes → Teratogens

Teratogen = any environmental agent that can harm the embryo/fetus

Examples:

Drugs (alcohol, cocaine, heroin)

Diseases (rubella/German measles)

Chemicals (toxic fumes, cleaning fluids)

Timing critical → greatest risk during embryonic stage (organ formation)

Problem: women often unaware they’re pregnant during this stage → unintentional exposure

Specific Teratogen Effects

Smoking → reduces oxygen → irritable baby, respiratory issues, low birth weight

Alcohol → risk of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) / Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Low birth weight, brain abnormalities, lower IQ

Limb, head, facial deformities

Heroin → baby born addicted, must undergo withdrawal

Cocaine/Crack → premature birth, underweight, irritability, poor feeding habits

Long-Term Behavioral Effects

Children prenatally exposed to drugs → more impulsive, less adaptable, more behavioral issues

Maternal stress/anxiety → higher risk of preterm birth, autism symptoms (esp. in boys), high BP,
obesity, behavioral/emotional problems

Abnormal maternal lipid levels → linked to poor psychological health in children

Medicines & Nutrition

Prescription & OTC drugs → may affect fetus, hence warnings on labels

Many substances pass through placenta or breast milk

Proper nutrition & healthy lifestyle during pregnancy = key to supporting healthy development

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood

Neonate (newborn)

Defined as: birth → 28 days old

Average size: 20 inches long, 7 pounds

1 Year Later

Average length: 29 inches

Weight: tripled since birth → rapid growth

Growth Influences

Nature (genetics) → determines height potential, body fat distribution

Nurture (environment) → nutrition, healthcare, lifestyle impact growth outcomes

Brain & Motor Development

Also shaped by nature + nurture interaction

Combination 3
 Genes provide foundation, environment influences pace and quality of development

Brain Development
Earliest Memories

Most people → no memory before age 3 (infancy amnesia)

Reason: nervous system not fully developed

Infant Brain at Birth & Neural Growth

Billions of neurons, but:

Limited neural connections

Incomplete myelin (slower signaling)

2-month-old → very few neural connections

2-year-old → billions of connections

Formula: Experience + Activity = More connections

Synaptic Pruning (childhood & adolescence)

Used repeatedly → connections become permanent

Unused → connections discarded

Stimulating, age-appropriate activities strengthen development

Impoverished environments → weaker, fewer connections

Brain Plasticity

Young child’s brain = highly plastic & neuron-dense

If damaged → other brain areas can reorganize connections

With age → plasticity decreases (connections already formed/discarded)

Some plasticity remains in adulthood

Brain’s plasticity and density ensure children can adapt to environment

Evident in motor skill development

Reflexes and Motor Development

Helpless at Birth

Cannot feed or walk

Born with: sensory abilities, strong lungs (crying), reflexes

Reflexes → Foundation for Survival & Learning

Definition: Automatic response to stimulus

Build neural connections for later voluntary behaviors

Key Reflexes

Sucking reflex → automatically suck on object touching lips

Rooting reflex → turn head/open mouth when cheek touched (helps feeding)

Combination 4
 Grasping reflex → automatically close hand around object (basis for prehension: later writing,
tying shoes, hugging, etc.)

Crying reflex → alerts caregivers, evolves into intentional communication

Smiling reflex

At birth → reflexive smiles

By 2 months → social smile at everyone

By 6 months → reserved for familiar voices & faces

Locomotive Reflexes

Crawling & stepping reflexes → prepare brain/body for crawling & walking

Sequence of motor milestones = universal (genetic heritage)

Nurture influence: e.g., Ugandan infants sit at 4 months vs U.S. infants at 6 months (Adolph et
al., 2009)

Motor Development

By age 2 → walking, running, exploring

Gross motor skills (large muscles: walking, running, jumping, hopping)

Toddler = waddling, unsteady

Preschooler = more coordinated, less fluid

8-year-old = smooth & fast

Fine motor skills (small muscles: writing, utensils, instruments)

Toddlers/preschoolers less skilled

School-age children become proficient

Sequential Development

Must sit → before crawl

Must walk → before jump rope

Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood

Perceptual Development: Gathering Information from the Environment
Vision
Newborn Vision

Very nearsighted → objects must be close to be seen

Images appear blurry

Eyes lack convergence → can’t focus both eyes on same object → newborns often look cross-
eyed

Maturation

As eyes + neural connections develop → attain visual convergence

Visual Preferences

Combination 5
 Prefer complex, high-contrast stimuli

Spend most time looking at faces → adaptive → fosters caretaker bonding

Face Recognition Development

By 3 months → distinguish caretaker’s face from stranger’s

Easier recognition of faces from own race (own-race bias)

By 9 months → look longer at other-race faces (exploration of unfamiliar)

More difficulty processing male vs female faces

Pareidolia

Tendency to perceive faces in random patterns (e.g., “man in the moon,” faces in clouds/food)

Suggests face perception is early-developing and hard-wired

Evolutionary advantage → rapid detection of friend vs foe → enhances survival

Depth Perception
Development

Infants develop depth perception during first year

Classic experiment: Visual Cliff (Gibson & Walk, 1960)

Apparatus created illusion of drop-off

Infants hesitated to cross → as young as 6 months

Biological Preparation

Depth perception emerges around same time infants become mobile

Adaptive → helps infants navigate environment safely

Safety Note

Depth perception + body coordination not fully developed in early months

Babies at higher risk of falls

Important: never leave infants unattended on elevated surfaces (bed, changing table, etc.)

Hearing
Prenatal Stage

Fetuses react to sounds by ~20th week

Recognize mother’s voice soon after birth (familiar from womb)

Sound Discrimination

Infants can locate direction of sounds

Differentiate similar consonants (e.g., /d/ vs. /p/)

Can remember simple speech sounds for at least a day

Evidence suggests these abilities already present in fetuses

Preferences

Prefer soft, rhythmic sounds → explains enjoyment of lullabies

Strong preference for voices, especially motherese (baby talk)

Combination 6
 Features: drawn-out vowels, exaggerated syllables, rhythmic inflection

Universally used across cultures

Dislike loud noises → can lead to classical conditioning of fear (e.g., thunderstorms)

The Other Senses

Taste

Taste buds functional at birth

Infants show preference for sweet tastes

Smell

Acute sense of smell from birth

By 3 days old, breastfed infants can discriminate mother’s smell vs. unfamiliar female

Touch

Infants are highly responsive to pleasant touch

Benefits of touch/caressing:

Stimulates growth

Promotes social development

Enhances brain and cognitive development

Massage study (Field et al., 1986):

Massaged premature infants gained weight faster

Showed faster neurological development

Left hospital sooner than control group

Standard practice: encourage parents to hold/touch infants often → fosters social development

Overall perceptual abilities

Help infants learn:

Caretakers’ look, sound, and smell

Where food is

Sounds for language development

Early perception lays foundation for cognition (knowing, thinking, remembering)

Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development

Schemas, Assimilation and Accomodation
Schemas

Mental ideas, concepts, or thoughts formed from experiences

Examples:

Infant → “Is this object suckable?” (sucking schema)

Preschooler → “The sun follows me wherever I go”

Adult → “Pressing this button will start the car” or abstract ideas (justice, love, morality)

Combination 7
 Mental Equilibrium

Achieved when schemas fit the environment (cognition matches reality)

Example: Infant sucks pacifier → confirms “suckable” schema

Mental disequilibrium → mismatch between schema and reality

Example: Infant sucks sand → Sand does NOT behave like pacifier, discovers it’s not
suckable → Infant confused → disequilibrium → schema adjusted

Assimilation (apply existing schema)

New experiences fit into existing schema

Add information without changing the schema

Example: Child only knows the word ‘dog’ → Sees a cow → Cow has 4 legs → Looks like a dog →
Child calls cow ‘doggie’

Example: Child has a schema “all round things are balls” → Sees an orange → Call it “ball”

Accommodation (modify/create new schema)

Change schema when it no longer fits reality

Example:

Child sees dog & cow together

Realises cow is too big, different sound, different shape

→ Old schema doesn’t work

👉 Child creates new “cow” schema
Example:

Child picks up orange → tries to bounce it → fails

Learns:

“Ball = round and bouncy”

“Orange = round but NOT bouncy”

👉 New schema created for “fruit”
Process repeats for new animals (horse, cat, hippo, etc.)

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

4 Stages of Cognition

Sensorimotor (Birth - 2yrs)

Key idea: Infants learn through senses + motor actions

Use sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell to form schemas

Reflexes (sucking, grasping, crawling) → foundation for later voluntary behaviors

Schemas in this stage

Only about objects/actions in immediate perception (what they see, hear, touch now)

No mental representation → “out of sight, out of mind”

Example:

Combination 8
 Baby thinks of pacifier only when it’s in mouth/hand

Blankie exists only when visible/present

Object Permanence (major milestone)

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible

Evidence:

< 6 months → do not search for hidden toy

~8 months → begin searching for hidden toy

By 24 months → persistent searching → full object permanence

Modern research

Piaget may have underestimated infants

Infants as young as 3–6 months show basic understanding of object permanence

Develop stronger mental representations with experience

Preoperational (2 -6/7yrs)
Transition

After object permanence → symbolic thinking

Symbols = gestures, language, pretend play (e.g., stick = sword, roleplay “house”)

Foundation for language development

12–18 months → 1-word utterances

20–26 months → 2-word sentences

By 6 years → ~10,000-word vocabulary

Key Characteristics

Symbolic thought → Children can now use words, mental images, and symbols to represent
things not physically in front of them.

Examples

Child hears the word “dog” and can imagine a dog even without seeing one.

Playing with a banana as a phone → shows symbolic play.

Drawing a circle and calling it “Mummy”.

Pretending a box is a “car”.

This ability allows pretend play and fast language learning.

Illogical thinking → Children often explain events with magical or unrealistic ideas because they
cannot use adult logic yet.

Examples

“The moon is following me home.”

“Ocean waves move because someone presses a big switch.”

“If I’m good, Santa can see me through the wall.”

“Thunder is the sky bowling.”

They fill gaps in understanding with imagination.

Combination 9
 Cognitive Limitations

Centration → focus on one feature, ignoring others = leading to incorrect conclusions

1. Appearance-based judgement

Man with long hair → child says “That’s a woman”

Child focuses ONLY on hair length, ignores face/voice/clothes.

2. Conservation error (classic Piaget task)

Pouring water from a short wide cup into a tall thin cup

→ Child says tall one has more water

Because they focus ONLY on height, ignoring width.

3. Sorting objects

Child sees red square and red circle

→ Asked to sort by shape, but puts them together because both are red
→ Only focuses on color.

Egocentrism → belief that others see/think the same as self (cannot understand another
person’s perspective)

1. Hide-and-seek

3-year-old hides by covering their eyes or facing a wall.

→ They think: “If I can’t see you, then you can’t see me.”

2. Showing a toy

Child on the phone shakes the toy at the screen.

→ Thinks the person can see it even if the camera isn’t pointing at it.

3. 3 Mountain Task (Piaget)

Child sees mountains from one side.

Asked what the doll on the other side sees.

→ Child describes their own view, not the doll’s.

4. Assuming shared knowledge

Child says “Look at that!” without pointing.

→ Thinks you know what they’re referring to.

Research Updates

Piaget may have underestimated preschoolers

Egocentrism, centration, and appearance-reality confusion are not always present → fade with
age and more logical thought

Concrete Operations (6/7 -11/12yrs)

Main Features

Children become logical thinkers

Overcome centration → can consider multiple features of an object

Conservation improves → realize tall thin glass ≠ more liquid (volume stays same)

Combination 10
 Egocentrism decreases → can take perspectives of others

Enables empathy, persuasion, humor

Cognitive Abilities

Schemas become more accurate/logical

Accommodation occurs when prior beliefs proven wrong

Thinking tied to concrete objects & actual experiences

Limitations

Struggle with abstract reasoning (ideas not directly observable/testable)

Need hands-on activities/demonstrations for abstract concepts in math & science

Example

Hongyong misinterpreted “private parts” as knees because of concrete understanding of rules

(keep knees covered)

Formal Operations (12yrs -adult)

Main Features

Final stage of cognitive development

Can engage in abstract reasoning → not limited to concrete objects/situations

Ability to imagine & hypothesize what could be

Cognitive Abilities

Understand abstract, scientific, and mathematical concepts

Can envision future consequences of present behavior

Ability to think about potential careers, ideals, possibilities

Piaget’s Influence on Cognitive Development Research

Strengths

Revolutionized understanding of children’s thinking abilities

Accurately described the sequence of cognitive changes across development

Findings replicated in diverse societies (Dasen, 1994; Lourenco & Machado, 1996)

Limitations / Criticisms

Stages & timetable are not always precise → children’s abilities can develop earlier or later

Nurture, culture, and experience can accelerate or alter development

Underestimates the influence of culture on cognitive development

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Culture and Thinking

Contrast with Piaget

Piaget: schemas develop internally

Vygotsky: cognition begins externally through social interactions → later internalized

Private Speech

Combination 11
 Young children talk to themselves while playing → guides actions

Peaks at 5–7 years, becomes silent inner speech by ~9 years

Can reappear in adults when problem-solving or learning

Supported by research: self-talk aids deaf children (via sign), students with emotional disorders,
sports performance, healthier eating

Role of Culture

Language, measurement systems, rituals, beliefs, technology shape thought

Access to tools (books, internet, cultural events) expands conceptual abilities

Cognitive development is not fixed in stages (unlike Piaget) → varies by culture, environment,
and social interactions

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Gap between what child can do alone vs. what they can do with guidance

Scaffolding: adult gives structured support → gradually reduces help → child achieves
independence

Example: dressing child (adult helps hold shirt, later lets child try buttons alone)

Key Idea

Children learn best through interactions with more capable others (parents, teachers, siblings,
coaches)

Cognitive development = internalization of socially shared strategies

Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Method

Used hypothetical moral dilemmas (e.g., stealing money/medicine)

Asked participants what the character should do and why

From responses, proposed 6 stages of moral reasoning, grouped into 3 levels

Preconventional Level (ages ~4-10)

Focus: Consequences → Judges right or wrong based on avoiding punishment / gaining rewards

Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment Orientation

Morality = avoiding punishment

“If I do this, will I get in trouble?”

Examples

Child doesn’t steal a cookie because “Teacher will scold me.”

“Hitting my sister is wrong because mummy will punish me.”

Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange (Self-Interest)

Morality = what benefits me

“What do I get out of it?”

Combination 12
 Fair exchange (“You help me, I help you”).

Examples

“I will share my snack so you share yours later.”

“I’m nice because I want a sticker.”

Conventional Level (ages ~10-16)

Focus: Rules and social approval → People follow rules to fit and maintain social order

Stage 3: Good Boy / Good Girl Orientation

Morality = being liked and gaining approval

“A good person would do this.”

Focus on intentions (“I meant well”).

Examples

Helping mum because “Good children help their parents.”

Not cheating because “My friends will think I’m bad.”

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orintation

Morality = obeying laws, authority, duty

“Rules exist for a reason. Society needs order.”

Examples

Paying taxes because “Everyone must follow the law.”

Not speeding because “If everyone speeds, there will be chaos.”

Postconventional Level (adulthood; not everyone reaches here)

Focus: Universal moral principles → People go beyond laws - Morality = Justice, Human rights

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Laws are important but not absolute

If a law is unfair, society should change it

Morality = greatest good for the greatest number

Examples

Supporting protests for human rights

Breaking a law (like civil disobedience) to protect people’s well-being

“Speed limit should change because this road is safer now.”

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

Morality guided by internal principles (justice, equality, human rights)

Even if laws conflict, the person follows their principles

Very rare (Kohlberg believed few reach it)

Examples

Gandhi breaking unfair laws for justice

A doctor saving a life even if hospital policy forbids the procedure

Combination 13
 Hiding refugees even when the government says not to

Supported:

Cross-cultural studies (27 cultures) → stage sequence is consistent

By adulthood → most at conventional level, few reach postconventional

Limitations:

Cultural bias: Postconventional reasoning emphasizes individual rights → more Western; other
cultures emphasize group well-being

Gender bias: Criticized by Carol Gilligan (argued Kohlberg overlooked women’s moral
perspectives based on care/relationships rather than justice/rules)

Gilligan’s Theory: Gender and Moral Reasoning

Gilligan’s Hypothesis

Males → moral reasoning emphasizes fairness & justice

Females → moral reasoning emphasizes care, concern, and relationships

Claimed that women’s focus on caring is different but equally valid (not inferior)

Research Findings

Studies show little strong support for Gilligan’s claims

In hypothetical dilemmas, both men and women emphasize justice and caring (Walker, 1995;
Jaffee & Hyde, 2000)

Suggests moral reasoning is based on justice/care, independent of gender (Jorgensen, 2006)

Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Childhood

Combination 14
 Temperament: The Influence of Biology
Temperament in infants

Babies show general dispositions to behave in certain ways in response to surroundings

Differences are due more to biological makeup than environment (limited exposure outside
womb)

Defined as differences at birth in behavioural style

Pioneering research by Stella Chess & Alexander Thomas (1977, 1984, 1986)

Variables studied (Chess & Thomas)

General activity level

General mood

Ability to establish regular eating and sleeping patterns

Likelihood of approaching or withdrawing from new people and situations

Ability to adapt to changes in routine

Three temperamental styles

Easy infants

Generally good mood

Regular eating and sleeping patterns

Readily approach new objects and people

Adapt readily to changes in routine

Difficult infants

Intense negative emotions (e.g., frequent crying)

Irregular eating and sleeping patterns

Less likely to approach new people and situations

Sometimes described by parents as “colicky”

Slow-to-warm-up infants

Intermediate between easy and difficult

Less negative than difficult infants

Take longer to adapt to new situations

Impact of temperament

Child’s temperament interacts with parental responses

Shapes the parent-child bond known as attachment

Attachment: Learning About Relationships

Attachment

Emotional bond between infant and primary caretaker

Usually firmly established by 8–9 months

Early psychological view

Combination 15
 Feeding was thought to be the basis of attachment

Infant feels connected to caretaker because hunger is satisfied

Harlow’s animal research (1950s)

Challenged the feeding-based view of attachment

Shifted understanding of how attachment develops

The Origins of Attachment

Harlow & Zimmerman (1959) classic study

Subjects: infant rhesus monkeys

Ethical reason: could not use human infants

Surrogate mothers:

Cloth mother (soft terry cloth fabric)

Wire mother (feeding tube attached)

Findings:

Monkeys went to wire mother for food

Monkeys clung to and spent most time with cloth mother

Feeding was not the basis of attachment

Close, warm contact facilitated attachment

Implication: human infants also attach through warm contact

Infants can form attachments to fathers, grandparents, siblings, teddy bears

Infant behaviours showing attachment (end of first year)

Smile when parent approaches

Raise hands to be picked up

Nestle closer when held by parent

Separation anxiety

Fear/distress when separated from primary caretaker

Appears around 6–7 months

Peaks around 14–18 months

Gradually decreases through toddler and preschool years

Older children may still feel anxious or homesick when separated for long periods (Thurber &
Walton, 2007)

Stranger anxiety

Distress when approached by unfamiliar people

Appears around 8–10 months

May intensify until the end of first year

Usually subsides over the second year

Common for 1–2 year olds to cry or cling to parent when approached by unfamiliar adults (e.g.,
doctor, new babysitter)

Combination 16
 Variations in Attachment Patterns
Strange Situation Procedure (Ainsworth et al., 1978)

Designed to measure qualitative differences in infant attachments

Setting: infant and parent in unfamiliar playroom

Infant behaviours observed:

Exploration of toys in parent’s presence

Response when stranger enters

Reaction when parent leaves

Reaction when parent returns

Four patterns of attachment

Secure attachment

Parent used as supportive base for exploration

Infant explores toys, monitors strangers

May cry when parent leaves but calms quickly upon return

Avoidant attachment

Infant appears to ignore parent

Little attention paid to parent

Not distressed at parent’s departure

Little emotional response when parent returns

Resistant attachment

Infant clings to parent, little exploration

Extreme distress when parent leaves

Angry or resistant when parent returns (e.g., hitting, pushing)

Harder to soothe after reunion

Disorganized/disoriented attachment

Infant appears confused or disoriented

May look away when comforted

Blank facial expression after being calmed

Attachment Style Key Behaviours Example Scenario

- Uses parent as secure base for

Adam explores the playroom, checks back with
exploration - Distressed when parent
Secure Attachment mum, cries briefly when she leaves, but calms
leaves - Easily comforted when parent
quickly and resumes playing when she returns.
returns

- Ignores/avoids parent - Little distress Lily plays alone, treats parent and stranger
Avoidant Attachment when parent leaves - Avoids parent upon similarly, shows no reaction when dad leaves,
return and ignores him when he returns.

Resistant / - Clingy, little exploration - Very distressed Sarah clings tightly to mum, cries intensely
Ambivalent when parent leaves - Seeks comfort but when mum leaves, and when mum returns she
Attachment also resists it (anger) - Hard to soothe wants to be carried but also hits/pushes her.

Combination 17
 Attachment Style Key Behaviours Example Scenario

Disorganized / - Confusion, contradictory behaviours - James approaches caregiver but suddenly

Disoriented Freezing, dazed, or fearful behaviour - No freezes, looks away, or collapses to the floor;
Attachment consistent pattern when parent returns shows fear or confusion during reunion.

Cross-cultural considerations

Secure attachment most common worldwide

Insecure patterns must be interpreted with caution

Cultural differences:

Some cultures emphasize independence

Others emphasize closeness with caretaker

Insecure styles may have evolutionary value

Resistant attachment → quicker to detect danger and warn others

Attachment styles appear across cultures (van Ijzendoom & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008)

Long-term significance of attachment

Securely attached infants more likely to become:

Curious, resilient, self-controlled preschoolers

Persistent in problem-solving

Successful in school

Skilled at peer interaction

Better at recovering from conflict in romantic relationships (Dindo et al., 2017; Kerns et al.,
2007; Orina et al., 2011; Salvatore et al., 2011; Simpson et al., 2011)

Limitations and flexibility of attachment patterns

Secure attachment in infancy does not guarantee absence of later problems

Research inconsistent on negative outcomes of insecure attachments

Some studies: insecurely attached infants more prone to social/behavioural problems

Other studies: no consistent findings

Compensating bonds

Relationships with others can offset insecure attachment at home

Attachment quality can improve as family circumstances improve

Social relationships beyond infancy also influence psychological adjustment

Variation in Parenting Styles

Diana Baumrind’s parenting styles (1967, 1971)

Based on observations of parent-child interactions

Three main styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive

Authoritarian parenting

High control, low affection

High expectations without explanation ("my way or the highway")

Combination 18
 Children not included in discussions of rules or roles

Compliance enforced through force or physical punishment

Outcomes:

Children more withdrawn, anxious, conforming

Linked to higher levels of externalizing problems (e.g., disobedience, aggression) (Pinquart,

2017)

Less parental warmth → poorer self-esteem across cultures (Garcia et al., 2019)

Authoritative parenting

Moderate control, high warmth

Least likely to spank or hit

Rules and consequences established democratically

Children included in family discussions

Reasonable expectations and demands

Outcomes:

Children more competent, happy, self-confident

Considered most effective approach

Benefits observed across U.S. ethnic groups (Abar et al., 2009; Cheah et al., 2009; Kim &
Chung, 2003; Querido et al., 2002; Steinberg et al., 1992)

Permissive parenting

Very low control, lax discipline

Few demands on children

Children often make their own decisions

Two subtypes:

Permissive-indulgent

Warm, affectionate, involved

Few demands placed on children

Outcomes: children are impulsive, disobedient, but emotionally secure

Permissive-neglectful

Few demands, little affection or warmth

Uninvolved in parenting, neglect emotional needs

Outcomes: poorest in social skills, self-esteem, academic achievement

Caution in interpretation

Parenting styles show correlations, not causation

Parent-child relationship is bidirectional

Children’s temperament influences parenting style (Raby et al., 2012)

Other influencing variables:

Quality of parents’ relationship

Combination 19
 Level of family functioning (Caldera & Lindsey, 2006; Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2007)

Development depends on “goodness of fit” between child’s temperament and social relationships
(Bradley & Corwyn, 2008; Chess & Thomas, 1984; Newland & Crnic, 2017; Stright et al., 2008)

Parenting Style Key Characteristics Example Scenario

Child gets a B on an exam.

- Warm, responsive, affectionate - Sets clear Parent says: “I’m proud of you. Let’s
Authoritative (High
rules & expectations - Explains reasons behind see what was difficult and we can
warmth, High control)
rules - Encourages independence with guidance plan together for the next test.”
→ Supportive + firm expectations.

Child gets a B on an exam.

- Strict, rigid rules - Expect obedience without
Authoritarian (Low Parent says: “Why didn’t you get an A?
explanation - Punitive discipline - Little emotional
warmth, High control) You’re grounded until you improve.”
warmth
→ High control, low warmth.

Child gets a B on an exam.

Parent says: “It’s okay, as long as
Permissive / Indulgent - Very loving & accepting - Few rules or
you’re happy. If you don’t want to
(High warmth, Low structure - Allows child to make own decisions -
study, that’s fine too.”
control) Rarely enforces consequences
→ Warm but little guidance or
discipline

Child gets a B on an exam.

Neglectful / Uninvolved - Emotionally detached - Little interest in child’s Parent doesn’t notice the grade, or
(Low warmth, Low activities - Few rules, minimal support - Often says: “I’m busy. Just handle it
control) overwhelmed, unavailable yourself.”
→ Neither warm nor controlling.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: The Influence of

Culture
Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Proposed 8 developmental stages (Erikson, 1963, 1968, 1980)

Each stage = developmental crisis shaped by environment and responses

Outcomes:

Healthy resolution → positive personality growth

Unhealthy resolution → potential long-term negative effects

Damage can sometimes be repaired at later stages

4 stages pertain to childhood, 4 to adolescence and adulthood

Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust (0–1 year)

Key idea: “Can I trust others to take care of me?”

Positive outcome (Trust)

Caregiver responds consistently to crying

Baby is fed, comforted, cuddled

→ Baby learns world is safe, people are reliable

Negative outcome (Mistrust)

Caregiver is inconsistent, rejecting, or neglectful

Combination 20
 Baby left crying for long periods

→ Baby learns world is unpredictable, people can’t be trusted

Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1–3 years)

Key idea: “Can I do things by myself?”

Positive outcome (Autonomy)

Toddler allowed to try feeding, dressing, choosing toys

Encouragement even when messy

→ Child develops confidence & independence

Negative outcome (Shame & Doubt)

Parent criticizes attempts (“Don’t do that! You always spill!”)

Too much control, no opportunities to try

→ Child feels ashamed, doubts abilities, becomes dependent

Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (3–6 years)

Key idea: “Is it okay for me to explore, create, and lead?”

Positive outcome (Initiative)

Child creates games, plays pretend

Adults encourage imagination and questions

→ Child develops initiative, creativity, leadership

Negative outcome (Guilt)

Child scolded for being noisy, asking questions, exploring

Parent says “Don’t disturb me!” or “Stop being troublesome”

→ Child feels guilty about trying new things

Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (6–12 years)

Key idea: “Can I succeed at school and tasks?”

Positive outcome (Industry)

Child praised for effort in schoolwork, sports, chores

Opportunities to learn new skills

→ Child develops competence, feels capable

Negative outcome (Inferiority)

Child compared with others (“Why can’t you be like your sister?”)

Criticized for mistakes, not encouraged

→ Child feels inferior, believes “I’m not good enough”

Combination 21
 Gender-Role Development
Early gender identity (2–3 years old)

Children can label themselves as boy or girl

Can label gender of others

Labels provide framework for understanding:

Clothes

Toys

Colors

Jobs

Behaviours

Children begin developing schemas about gender roles (society’s expectations) (Leaper &
Friedman, 2007)

Gender permanence / constancy

Knowledge that one’s assigned gender will not change

Typically not understood by children under age 6 (De Lisi & Gallagher, 1991; Szkrybalo & Ruble,
1999)

Gender stereotyping in young children

Even without gender permanence, children show rigid gender stereotypes

Observed across ethnic groups (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Halim et al., 2013, 2014; Ruble et al.,
2006)

Children focus on one feature of a situation/object

If behaviour/feature looks like a boy’s → labeled as boy

If behaviour/feature looks like a girl’s → labeled as girl

Example: little boy puts on mother’s dress → may believe he is now a girl

Bem’s Gender-Schema Theory

Children learn what it means to be “male” or “female” through schemas (mental frameworks).

Gender schema is a mental blueprint or rulebook about:

What boys should do

What girls should do

How each gender should act, dress, behave

Combination 22
 Example

Child sees:

Boys = trucks, blue, superheroes

Girls = dolls, pink, princesses

These messages become a schema, which guides how the child thinks and behaves.

How Gender Schema Forms

Children learn gender rules from:

Parents (“Boys don’t cry,” “Girls help in the kitchen”)

Media (TV shows, YouTube, ads)

School and peers

Culture and traditions

They sort information into categories: “for boys” vs “for girls.”

How Schemas Influence Behaviour

Once the schema is formed, children:

Pay attention to gender-consistent information

Ignore or forget gender-inconsistent information

Choose toys, clothes, activities based on their schema

Example

A girl with a strong girl-schema:

Chooses a doll instead of a toy car

Thinks “Cars are for boys”

Ignores a female character who is a firefighter (because it doesn’t fit her schema)

A boy with a strong boy-schema:

Refuses to wear pink

Avoids cooking toys because “that’s for girls”

Nature and Nurture Influences on Gender-Role Behavior

Nature vs nurture in gender-role behaviour

Gender differences appear across cultures and species

Same-sex friendships

Higher activity and physical aggression in males

Gender-specific toy preferences (Hassett, Siebert, & Wallen, 2008; Martin & Ruble, 2010)

Example: rhesus monkeys (Hassett et al., 2008)

Male monkeys → preference for wheeled toys

Female monkeys → broader range of toy preferences

Prenatal influences

Genetic and hormonal factors may shape gender differences

Combination 23
 Females exposed to high levels of male hormones prenatally → increased male-typical play
and aggression (Auyeung et al., 2009; Drea, 2009; Hines et al., 2015)

Environmental/nurture influences

Parents, teachers, peers, and society send gender-related messages (Bussey & Bandura, 1999)

Parents’ influence

Treat sons and daughters similarly in warmth, independence, and educational aspirations
(Paulson & Sputa, 1996; Spera et al., 2009)

Daughters receive more parental involvement in education (Carter & Wojtkiewicz, 2000; Reynolds
& Burge, 2008)

Science achievement bias

Parents more likely to see science as less interesting/difficult for daughters despite similar
performance (Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2003)

Toys and chores

Boys → guns, cars, blocks, balls; chores outside (trash, lawn, cars, garage)

Girls → dolls, tea sets, dress-up; chores inside (dishes, vacuuming, dusting)

Younger parents, less educated parents, and fathers → stronger gender stereotypes, less
accepting of cross-gender behaviours (Kollmayer et al., 2018; Lytton & Romney, 1991;
O’Bryan et al., 2004; Halpern & Perry-Jenkins, 2016)

Parents with fewer stereotypes → children less gender-typed (Warner & Steel, 1999; Halpern &
Perry-Jenkins, 2016)

Children observe parental behaviour

Less stereotypical behaviour by parents → children less gender-typed (Croft et al., 2014;
Hupp et al., 2010; Halpern & Perry-Jenkins, 2016)

Teachers’ influence

Gender bias exists in classrooms (Leaper & Brown, 2014; Stromquist, 2007)

Boys receive more attention (positive and negative), called on more often (Einarsson &
Granstrom, 2004; Jones & Dindia, 2004; Swinson & Harrop, 2009)

Teachers more lenient with wrong answers from girls, encourage boys to try harder (Horgan,
1995; Skelton, 2006)

Girls rated less proficient in math despite equal performance (Brown & Stone, 2016; Keller, 2001;
Robinson-Cimpian et al., 2014; Tiedemann, 2002)

By second grade → stereotype that math is for boys (Cvencek, Meltzoff, & Greenwald, 2011)

Career counseling bias

Boys encouraged → math/science careers (engineering)

Girls encouraged → education, nursing, social work (Brown & Stone, 2016; Halpern et al.,
2007; Sadker, 2000)

Peers’ influence

Reinforce gender schemas from age 3

Same-sex peers praise gender-appropriate behaviours

Gender-inappropriate behaviour → teasing, isolation

Combination 24
 Boys harsher critics of “girlish” behaviour in other boys (Levy, Taylor, & Gelman, 1995; Rose &
Smith, 2009)

Societal influence

Toy stores labeled “Boys” and “Girls”

Male names more prevalent in books, TV, film (Johns & Dye, 2019)

Prime-time TV stereotypes (Aucoin, 2000; Ellithorpe & Bleakley, 2016; Smith et al., 2012)

Males more frequent, dominant, active

Women more passive, dependent, emotional, often unemployed or not in leadership/tech jobs

Men in female roles (e.g., nursing) face masculinity/career doubts (Weaver et al., 2014)

Gender stereotypes in media

TV advertisements

Women → domestic roles, body care, cleaning products

Men → technology, cars, expert portrayals

Women less visible in occupational settings (Furnham & Paltzer, 2010; Matthes et al., 2016;
Nassif & Gunter, 2008)

Frequent viewing → children adopt stereotypes

Film

2017: male lead characters outnumbered female 2-to-1 in top 100 family films

Males had more screen and speaking time

Positive trend: female leads increasing over previous 4 years (The See Jane 100, 2018)

Video games

Exposure linked to greater endorsement of sexist attitudes in males (Bègue et al., 2017;
Stermer & Burkley, 2015)

Physical Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood

Puberty
Puberty

Process of sexual maturation

Involves overall body growth + maturation of sex characteristics for reproduction

Onset:

Average age 10 in females

Average age 12 in males

Occurs ~2 years earlier in females than males (Parent et al., 2003)

Timing varies across individuals and cultures

Age of onset has declined over past 100 years in U.S., Western Europe, Japan

Ethnic differences in U.S.

Combination 25
 African American and Hispanic females enter puberty ~1 year earlier than European
American females (Butts & Seifer, 2010; Mendle, 2014)

Timing and adjustment

Early maturing adolescents

May face pressure to be sexually active or rebellious before cognitive/emotional readiness

Associated with depression, anxiety, delinquent behaviours, substance use, risky sexual
behaviours (Mendle, 2014; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012)

Late maturing adolescents

Generally better adjusted

Pressures to “be adult” arise at an older age, when more cognitively ready

Social context moderates effects

Supportive family → protective factor

Deviant peers → encourage rule-breaking (Mendle & Ferrero, 2012)

Growth during puberty

Growth spurt adds ~10 inches in height and ~40 pounds in weight

Begins ~age 10 for females, ~age 12 for males

Body changes

Females: hips broaden relative to shoulders

Males: shoulders broaden relative to hips

Both sexes gain fat + muscle

Females → more fat

Males → more muscle

Early adolescence often awkward due to abrupt, uneven growth (Malina, 1990)

Sexual maturation

Triggered by sex hormones

Females

Breast, ovaries, uterus, vagina mature

Menarche (first menstrual cycle) begins

Pubic and underarm hair develop

Males

Penis, scrotum, testes mature

Growth of body hair

Deepening of voice due to enlarged larynx

Puberty typically completed within 4–5 years (Rogol, Roemmich, & Clark, 2002)

Emotional and psychological impact

Mixed reactions to physical changes

Better adjustment if prepared + supported by family (Mrug et al., 2008; Omar et al., 2003)

Combination 26
 Moodiness

Attributed partly to hormonal changes

Also influenced by stress from juggling school, sports, peers, family, work, etc. (Adam, 2006;
Nottelmann et al., 1990)

Hormones and emotions may influence each other

Effects of early maturation

Early-maturing males

Higher rates of delinquent acts (vandalism, property damage, speeding)

More likely to drink alcohol, use tobacco/marijuana

Increased sexual activity, porn use (Mendle & Ferrero, 2012)

Early-maturing females

Increased risk of tobacco and alcohol use

Higher likelihood of disordered eating

More likely to be sexually victimized

Lower academic performance (Mendle, 2014; Hamlat et al., 2019)

Brain Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood

Brain development in adolescence and early adulthood

MRI and fMRI show dynamic brain changes into early adulthood (Ashtari et al., 2007; Galvan et
al., 2007; Porter et al., 2011)

Changes start at back of brain and move toward the front

Key brain regions:

Cerebellum

Increased neurons and complexity of connections

Role: balance, muscle tone, motor skills

Amygdala

More active in teens than adults

Larger in males (Koolschijn & Crone, 2013; Scherf et al., 2013)

Role: regulation of emotional reactions

Corpus callosum

Nerve fibers thicken before and during puberty

Connects two cerebral hemispheres (Porter et al., 2011; Thompson et al., 2000)

Cortical gray matter

Second wave of overproduction just before puberty (Durston et al., 2001; Krongold et al., 2017)

Pruning process eliminates unused connections

Growth spurt especially in prefrontal cortex

Role: problem solving, judgment, reasoning, impulse control, planning, execution of

behaviour

Combination 27
 Last area to mature, reaching adult dimensions in early 20s (Casey et al., 2000; Cohen et al.,
2016; Giedd, 2004)

Brain changes and adolescent behaviour

Cerebellum changes → awkwardness, poor coordination in early teens

Immature prefrontal cortex → less sound judgment and reasoning

Structural changes correlate with behaviour but do not cause it

Behaviour also influenced by:

Cognitive development

Psychosocial identity formation

Parenting

Peer pressure

School and media

Cultural differences → same brain development process, but varied behaviours across
environments

Brain plasticity and lifelong development

Brain not fully developed in adolescence

Stem cells continue to generate neurons throughout life (Park & McDonough, 2013; Schmidt-
Hieber et al., 2004; Shors, 2014)

Neural networks reorganize across lifespan

Brain remains plastic, adapting to new experiences (e.g., jobs, marriage, divorce, children,
friendships, financial responsibilities)

Activities that strengthen neural connections (Brant et al., 2013):

Reading

Mathematics

Sports

Music

Combination 28
Combination 29
 Qn: In adolescence, which brain structures mature in order from earliest to latest?

Cerebellum → Amygdala → Prefrontal cortex

The cerebellum develops first (motor and cognitive coordination), followed by the amygdala
(emotional reactivity), while the prefrontal cortex matures last (decision-making and impulse control,
into the mid-20s).

Physical Changes From Early to Later Adulthood

Biological prime (early adulthood)

Major biological systems fully matured

Peak in late 20s to early 30s for:

Physical strength

Stamina

Coordination

Dexterity

Endurance (Whitbourne, 1996)

Gradual decline begins in middle and late adulthood

Sensory abilities

Visual acuity

Peaks in early 20s, remains high until middle adulthood

Combination 30
 Aging → presbyopia (difficulty focusing on close objects), need for reading glasses or
bifocals

Hearing

Age-related loss common in older adults

More pronounced for high-pitched sounds (e.g., telephone, doorbell)

Taste, smell, touch

Remain stable until late adulthood

Physical signs of aging

40s–50s

Wrinkles

Thinning/gray hair

Weight gain due to slowed metabolism → “love handles,” “pot belly”

60s

Weight and muscle loss → sagging skin (Haber, 1994)

Loss of bone tissue + compression of vertebrae → loss of height

Influences on physical decline

Not all declines are inevitable

Lifestyle factors accelerate decline:

Poor diet

Smoking

Alcohol use

Lack of exercise

Cultural influences on aging perceptions

U.S./Western cultures → aging seen as frailty, uselessness, illness → attempts to resist aging

Brazil, China, Japan, Russia → aging valued positively, viewed as a hopeful stage (Gardiner et
al., 1998; Lockenhoff et al., 2009)

Positive perceptions of aging linked to:

More preventive health behaviours (exercise)

Longer lifespan (Levy & Myers, 2004; Levy et al., 2002)

Adaptation in later life

Many older adults maintain active lifestyles (Baltes, 1997)

Daily activities remain manageable with adjustments and more time

Gender and Reproductive Capacity

Female reproductive changes

Fertility steadily decreases from ~age 15 to 50 (McFalls, 1990; Rowe, 2006)

Menopause (~age 50 on average)

Combination 31
 Signals end of childbearing years

Decreasing estrogen levels

Fewer eggs released from ovaries

Ovulation and menstruation stop

Physical changes:

Breasts and uterus shrink

Vaginal walls less lubricated → intercourse may be painful

Male reproductive changes

No direct equivalent to menopause

Hormonal changes after age 60 → andropause (Finch, 2001; Mohr et al., 2005; Whitbourne,
2001)

Gradual decline in male hormone production

Lower sperm concentration

Hair loss on legs and face

Males remain capable of fathering children into 70s, 80s, 90s

Older adults remain sexually active into their 80s (Lee et al., 2016; Lindau et al., 2007)

Perceptions of aging and attractiveness

Many cultures equate "looking old" with being unattractive, especially for females

Middle age and later life may be viewed negatively due to appearance changes

Health and well-being in later life

40% of noninstitutionalized adults over 65 report very good to excellent health (vs 65%)

Cognitive Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood

Formal Operations Revisited
1. Adolescent Thinking vs Adult Thinking
Adolescents:

Start practicing abstract thinking

Can imagine “what if” situations

Begin forming identity and opinions about the world

Example
A 14-year-old says:

“Why do governments allow poverty? If I were in charge I would fix everything.”

→ This is “idealism of youth”—believing simple solutions exist.

Adults usually think:

“Poverty is complex; many factors involved.”

Combination 32
 2. Formal Operations (Piaget)
Ability to think abstractly, logically, and hypothetically.

Real-life examples:
Solving algebra: If 2x + 3 = 11, what is x? (abstract reasoning)

Understanding metaphors: “Time is money”

Thinking about the future: “What career should I choose?”

School examples:
Science experiments: “What happens if we change temperature?”

Geometry proofs

Discussing justice, fairness, ethics

3. Return of Egocentrism in Adolescence

Teens can think abstractly but become overly self-focused.
They believe:

Others are watching them

Their experiences are special

Their emotions are the most intense

This comes in two parts: imaginary audience + personal fable.

4. Imaginary Audience
Teens think everyone is watching/judging them.

Examples:
A teen with one pimple refuses to go to school:

“Everyone will stare at me!”

A student changes outfits 10 times before going out

A teen is too embarrassed to read aloud in class:

“What if they laugh at me?”

This is why teens show:

Dramatic behavior

Loudness

Extreme self-consciousness

5. Personal Fable
Teens believe they are special, unique, and invincible.

Emotional examples:
Teen heartbroken after breakup:

“No one will ever understand this pain.”

Combination 33
 Teen fights with parents:

“Nobody understands me.”

Risk-taking examples:
Speeding on a motorcycle:

“Others might crash, but not me.”

Having unprotected sex:

“I won’t get pregnant.”

Taking drugs:
“I’m not like other people—I won’t get addicted.”

This “invincibility fable” leads to risk-taking behavior.

Postformal Thought: Developing Adult Reasoning

Hongyong’s dilemma

Traveling during war with baby and three young children

Baby injured, survival questionable

Added weight makes walking difficult after days without food/water

Dilemma:

Leave baby to save rest of family (Hongyong’s choice)

Insist baby be carried despite hardship (Dukwah’s choice)

Raises moral/ethical question: is there a right or wrong answer?

Adolescent vs adult reasoning

Adolescents

Tend to use dualistic thinking (Perry, 1981)

See issues in terms of black/white, right/wrong, good/bad

Believe there is only one solution

In Hongyong’s case: adult must do everything (carry baby, lead family, reach safety)

Adults

More capable of relativistic thinking

Recognize that many situations lack a single right answer

Consider situational/contextual factors

Distance left to travel

Whether younger children can help carry baby

Mother’s chance of survival if she continues carrying baby

Postformal thought

Relativistic thinking viewed as a qualitative change beyond formal operations (Sinnott, 1998;
Yang, Wan, & Chiou, 2010)

Key features:

Combination 34
 Correct solutions may vary by situation

Multiple solutions can be

Changes in Mental Abilities

Schaie’s Research: What It Means
Schaie found that aging affects different mental abilities differently.

Not all abilities decline with age. Some peak early, some peak late, some stay stable for decades.

1. Fluid Intelligence
“Quick thinking” / mental processing speed

✔ Depends on biology + brain functioning

✔ Peaks when the brain matures (early adulthood)
✔ Declines slowly with age
Age Pattern

Perceptual speed + numeric ability → decline earliest (late 20s – early 30s)

Spatial + inductive reasoning → stay stable until about 50s, then decline

Fluid Skill Example

Reaction time How fast you press the brake when a kid runs across the road

Working memory Doing math in your head: 47 × 6

Perceptual speed Spotting differences quickly in “find the object” puzzles

Numeric ability Mental calculation during shopping

Spatial orientation Figuring out directions on a map or parallel parking

Inductive reasoning Detecting a pattern in a puzzle

2. Crystallized Intelligence
“Knowledge-based intelligence”

✔ Depends on learning, experience, culture, education

✔ Grows throughout adulthood
✔ Declines only late in life (~70s+)
Age Pattern

Increases through adulthood

Peaks in middle age

Declines slowly after 70

Crystallized Skill Example

Vocabulary Knowing many words like “resilient,” “ambiguous,” “conscientious”

General knowledge Knowing that Singapore separated from Malaysia in 1965

Social judgment Knowing what to say when someone is grieving

Job expertise Doctor spotting a pattern from years of practice

Verbal memory Remembering stories, facts, or recipes

Combination 35
 Factors That Influence Mental Ability — Beyond Age

❌ Negative Influences (speed up decline)

1. Poor health
Example: High blood pressure reduces blood flow to the brain.

2. Diseases
Example: Diabetes increases risk of cognitive slowing.

3. Some prescription medications

Anxiety meds → slower reaction time

Sleep meds → impaired attention

4. Mental inactivity
“Use it or lose it.”

Not reading

No social interaction

No problem-solving tasks

→ Higher Alzheimer’s risk

✔ Positive Influences (protect the brain)

1. Physical exercise
Improves blood flow & neuron growth.

Examples:

Jogging

Swimming

Yoga

Brisk walking

2. Mental stimulation
Keeps neural connections strong.

Examples:

Crossword puzzles

Word search

Sudoku

Chess

Reading books

Learning a language

Traveling to new places

Taking courses

Combination 36
 This delays cognitive decline and improves memory.

Psychosocial Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Adolescence and Adulthood
Identity Versus Role Confusion
Key idea: “Who am I? What do I believe? Where do I fit?”

Positive outcome — Identity

Teen explores values, beliefs, career interests, relationships

Tries different versions of self (clothes, hobbies, social groups)

Uses abstract reasoning to imagine future selves

Forms a stable sense of personal identity:

“I know what I like, what I value, and what I want.”

Examples

Teen tries art club, robotics, and debate → chooses debate

Tries different styles, then decides they like the “sporty” look

Realises: “I want to work in healthcare; I value helping others.”

Negative outcome — Role Confusion

Unsure of beliefs or values

Changes identity based on peers

Overwhelmed by choices; lacks direction

May withdraw, rebel, or feel “empty”

Examples

Teen switches friend groups constantly

One week wants to be a musician, next week a pilot, then nothing

Says: “I don’t know who I am or what I want.”

Intimacy Versus Isolation

Key idea: “Can I form deep, committed relationships?”

Positive outcome — Intimacy

Comfortable with emotional closeness

Maintains identity while sharing life with someone

Forms stable romantic partnerships or deep friendships

Shows trust, empathy, tolerance

Examples

Refines own values to accommodate partner’s needs

Combination 37
 Shares goals, future plans, vulnerabilities

Best friends who confide in each other and support one another

Negative outcome — Isolation

Fear of losing independence → avoids commitment

Difficulty trusting others

Withdraws or keeps relationships superficial

Defensive, avoids vulnerability

Examples

Breaks off relationships when they get serious

Refuses to open up emotionally

Says: “People always leave; I don’t want to get close.”

Generativity versus Stagnation

Key idea: “Am I contributing to something meaningful?”

Positive outcome — Generativity

Feels productive and useful

Contributes to society through:

Parenting

Career success

Mentorship

Community work

Sense of purpose: “I’m helping the next generation.”

Examples

A teacher mentors struggling students

A parent raising children

A worker training younger staff

Volunteering to help the community

Negative outcome — Stagnation

Feels stuck, unproductive

Focused only on self

Sense of failure or emptiness

Midlife crisis may appear (but rare)

Examples

Adult feels their job is meaningless

Withdraws from family/friends

Says: “My life hasn’t amounted to anything.”

Combination 38
 Integrity versus Despair
Key idea: “Did I live a good life?”

Positive outcome — Integrity

Reflects on life with acceptance

Feels proud of accomplishments

Accepts mistakes with peace

Ready to face death without fear

Examples

Elderly person says: “I made mistakes, but overall I’m happy.”

Looks at family, career, relationships with pride

Negative outcome — Despair

Reflects on life with regret

Feels disappointed, bitter, hopeless

Fears death

Believes it’s too late to change anything

Examples

Elderly person says: “I wasted my life.”

Regrets opportunities not taken

Feels angry or depressed about aging

Emerging Adulthood
A distinct developmental stage from late teens to mid-20s

A transition phase where young people are no longer teens but not yet fully adults

Seen mostly in developed countries where adult responsibilities (marriage, career, parenthood)
happen later

Example:

A 22-year-old university student who still lives with parents and is unsure about future career
feels “not fully adult yet.”

Why does emerging adulthood occur? (Contributing Factors)

1. More young people attend college

Higher education delays full-time work and financial independence

Especially common for women today

Example:
A 19-year-old enters a 4-year university program → postpones adult responsibilities.

2. People marry later

Median age of marriage has increased over decades

Combination 39
 Young adults spend more time dating or exploring relationships

Example:

Instead of marrying at 22 like past generations, many marry at 29–32.

3. Delayed parenthood
People choose to have children later due to:

career goals

financial concerns

personal growth

Example:
A couple decides to travel and stabilize careers before having their first child at 33.

4. Extended identity exploration

Young adults spend time exploring:

Education → trying new courses, majors

Careers → internships, job-hopping

Romantic relationships → dating, breakups, learning about personal preferences

Travel → gap years, working holidays, volunteering abroad

Example:

A 24-year-old works in marketing, then tries UX design, travels to Japan, and later returns to school.

5. Higher risk for addictions

Because this period includes freedom + exploration

Increased experimentation with:

substances

alcohol

gambling

social media or gaming addictions

Example:

A 21-year-old living independently begins binge-drinking at parties or staying up all night gaming.

How do young adults describe this stage? (Subjective Experience)

Many say they do not fully feel like adults

They feel “in-between”

Example:

A 23-year-old pays their own phone bill but still depends on parents for rent, saying:

“I feel adult in some ways, but not in others.”

Study: 56% of 18–35-year-olds reported feeling only “somewhat adult.”

Career Development

Combination 40
 1. Implementation Phase (late teens → early 20s)
Transitioning from school to work

Trying out different jobs, internships, or training programs

Focus: discovering what you enjoy and what fits your abilities

Examples:

A 19-year-old works part-time in retail, then tries a café job, then an internship to see what suits
them.

A fresh graduate tests out roles like marketing assistant or HR intern.

2. Specification Phase (early 20s)

Narrowing down to a specific career path

More serious goal-setting

Pursuing specialised training or higher education related to chosen field

Examples:

A 22-year-old decides: “I want to be a physiotherapist” and applies for a degree program.

Someone chooses UX design as a career and enrolls in a certification course.

3. Establishment Phase (mid-20s → mid-40s)

Building a stable career after early experiences

Securing long-term roles, promotions, and increasing responsibilities

Reality shock may occur: actual job feels harder or different from expectations

Examples:

A 28-year-old becomes a full-time teacher, begins climbing the ladder, and takes on leadership
roles.

A new nurse feels overwhelmed by workload and shift stress (reality shock).

4. Deceleration Phase (mid-60s and beyond)

Gradually reducing workload

Preparing for retirement

Shifting to part-time roles, consulting, or mentoring others

Examples:

A 67-year-old accountant works only 3 days a week and mentors junior staff.

A retired engineer takes occasional consulting projects instead of full-time work.

Variations in Social Relations in Adolescence and Adulthood

Dating and Singlehood
Teen dating trends

Most teens date at some point in adolescence

Regular dating has declined

Combination 41
 49% of high school seniors report never dating/romantic involvement (Child Trends, 2019)

Shift in language: “hanging out” or “hooking up” vs “dating”

iGen (born 1995–2012)

Less likely to date (Twenge, 2017)

More likely to go out with parents

Partner preferences

Males: attractiveness most important

Females: attractiveness + social status (Ha, Overbeek, & Engels, 2010)

Functions of dating

Outlet for fun and recreation

Learn cooperation and compromise (e.g., choosing movies/restaurants) (Lambeth & Hallett,
2002)

Self-discovery and awareness of others’ needs

Flirting via social media/texting

Sexual experimentation (Lenhart et al., 2015; Smetana et al., 2006)

Foundation for adult intimate relationships

Marriage trends

Increasing number of young adults start adulthood unmarried

28% of U.S. adults (18+) have never married (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018)

Median age for first marriage in U.S.:

Men: 29.8

Women: 27.8 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018)

Global trends

Delaying marriage is common worldwide

Lower average marriage ages: Indonesia (21.9), India (22.8)

Higher average marriage ages: Spain (33.4), Sweden (34.8) (United Nations, 2017)

Being single in young adulthood

Opportunity to explore different friendships and relationships

Time to refine and define identity

Career building often involves moving/traveling → can hinder relationships

Cohabitation
Cohabitation trends

Increasing steadily in the U.S.

48% of women ages 15–44 have cohabited before marriage

Outcomes within first 5 years:

33% marry

Combination 42
 22% continue cohabiting

Median duration: ~2 years (Copen, Daniels, & Mosher, 2013; Lamidi, Manning, & Brown, 2015)

Same-sex couples show similar statistics (Manning, Brown, & Stykes, 2016)

Global context

Higher cohabitation rates in:

Swe

Marriage: Adaptation, Satisfaction and Gender

Marriage in the U.S.

More than 90% of Americans marry at some point (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015)

Marriage involves adaptation:

New role as spouse

Adjustment to living as a couple

Early changes after first year

“I love you’s” less frequent

Sexual activity less frequent

More time on daily chores/tasks vs talking and having fun

Many couples still report satisfaction

Factors increasing marital satisfaction

Similarities in:

Family background

Social class

Education

Religion (Gaunt, 2006)

Marrying in mid- to late-20s vs earlier (Glenn, Uecker, & Love, 2010)

Warm, positive family relationships (before and during marriage)

Supportive spouse behavior

Willingness to sacrifice

Viewing partner positively/ideal mate

Secure financial circumstances (Ackerman et al., 2013; Clark et al., 2010; Kogan et al., 2010;
McNulty et al., 2017; Murray et al., 2011; Waldinger & Schulz, 2016)

Factors harming marital satisfaction

Boredom

Negative comments

Contempt

Defensiveness

Criticism (Gottman, 1999a, 1999b; Helland et al., 2014; Lavner & Bradbury, 2010; Robles &
Kiecolt-Glaser, 2003)

Combination 43
 Gender and marital satisfaction

No significant gender differences in heterosexual couples (Jackson et al., 2014)

Married people (different-sex and same-sex) report greater life satisfaction and well-being than
single people

Lesbians report higher well-being when cohabiting (Chen & van Ours, 2018; Holt-Lunstad et al.,
2008; Myers, 2000)

Global patterns

Study of 166 nations: married people report slightly higher life satisfaction across lifespan (Jebb
et al., 2020)

Health associations

Marriage (especially happy marriage) linked to better physical and mental health

Men → more physical health benefits

Women → more psychologically and physically vulnerable to marital strain/conflict (Donoho et

al., 2013; Liu & Waite, 2014; Read & Grundy, 2011; Revenson et al., 2016; Wanic & Kulik, 2011)

Health benefits for women stronger in highly satisfying marriages (Gallo et al., 2003)

Important note

Findings are correlational, not causal

Possible interpretations:

Close, stable, satisfying partnership protects against stress

People already physically and mentally healthy are more likely to marry and stay married

Results most applicable to highly satisfying marriages

Not all marriages are satisfying → may lead to divorce

Divorce
Divorce prevalence

About 1 in 5 adults experience divorce

Higher divorce rates among:

Couples without children

Couples with lower education

Couples marrying young

Couples whose parents divorced (Amato & DeBoer, 2001; Aughinbaugh et al., 2013; Goodwin
et al., 2010; Shulman et al., 2001)

Divorce patterns by demographics:

Higher among African Americans and European Americans

Lower among Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans

Higher among lower-income couples than higher-income couples (Aughinbaugh et al., 2013;
Lin et al., 2018; U.S. Census Bureau, 2010)

Stresses and adaptations of divorce

Typically preceded by conflict and dissatisfaction (Lucas, 2005)

Combination 44
 Challenges include:

Emotional, economic, legal, and practical adjustments

Division of household into two

Custody arrangements for children

Shift in identity: “us” → “me”

Potential fading of friendships with couples

Emotional struggles: anger, rejection, disappointment, loneliness (Amato, 2000)

Initial impact:

Higher levels of psychological distress

Increased risk of physical health problems (Hughes & Waite, 2009; Lorenz et al., 2006;
Sbarra, 2015)

Long-term:

Most people are resilient and adjust (Amato, 2010; Mancini et al., 2011; Sbarra et al., 2015)

Many remarry, especially men (Wang & Parker, 2014)

Effects on family and children

Parenting changes:

Custodial parent → assumes more discipline responsibility

Noncustodial parent → may become more permissive

Children’s emotional responses:

Loss, grief, anger at parents

Increased likelihood of misbehavior

Common child outcomes:

Aggression, disrespect, disobedience

Withdrawal, moodiness

Decline in school performance (short-term) (Lansford, 2009; Weaver & Schofield, 2015)

Key harms:

Breakdown in parenting effectiveness

Exposure to marital conflict before and after divorce (Amato, 1993; Amato & Booth, 1996;
Cummings & Miller-Graff, 2015)

Note: A high-conflict two-parent household can be just as harmful as divorce (Booth & Amato,
2001; Lansford, 2009)

Parenting
Parenthood as a choice

More birth control options → parenthood is less automatic

14% of U.S. women ages 40–44 have never had a child (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018)

More single adults, cohabiting couples, and gay couples having/adopting children

Transition to parenthood

Combination 45
 Major life transition with new roles and responsibilities

Positive: joy and elation of newborn

Challenges:

Less sleep, leisure, and couple time

Life satisfaction decreases (Luhmann et al., 2012)

Financial cost: ~$230,000 to raise child to 17 (Lino et al., 2017)

Work–family juggling

Gender roles after childbirth

Fathers more involved in child care/housework than before (Coley, 2001)

Heterosexual couples revert to traditional roles:

Mothers (even working) → primary caregiver

Fathers → intensify provider role (Baxter et al., 2015; Katz-Wise et al., 2010)

Variables influencing adjustment

Baby’s temperament (easy vs difficult) affects stress (Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2007; Slagt et al.,
2016)

Parent’s age:

Older parents → adjust better (Belsky & Rovine, 1990; Umberson et al., 2005)

Younger couples → juggle marriage and parenthood simultaneously

Income, spousal support, and extended family support affect stress (Conger et al., 2013; Levy-
Shiff, 1994)

Parenting through child’s growth

Adjust discipline styles as children age (O’Brien, 1996)

Middle school years:

More stressful for parents

Marital satisfaction decreases (Cui & Donnellan, 2009; Hirschberger et al., 2009; Kurdek,
1999; Waldron-Hennessey & Sabatelli, 1997)

Parent–child conflicts increase as adolescents form identity (Steinberg & Morris, 2001)

Parents (middle-aged) may also question their own lives

Leads to more shared decision-making with teens

Empty nest

After last child leaves home (college or independence)

Parents may feel lonely and aware of aging

Positive outcomes:

Marital satisfaction increases

Women feel better about themselves

Stress/responsibilities decrease (Gorchoff et al., 2008; White & Edwards, 1990)

Full nest / boomerang generation

Combination 46
 Children stay or return home due to divorce, finances, or extended schooling

Over half of U.S. 18–24 y/o and 16% of 25–34 y/o live with parents (U.S. Census Bureau, 2018)

More common in Hispanic, African American, and Asian families (Arnett, 2004; Lei & South, 2016)

Outcomes:

Positive if children act responsibly (Igarashi et al., 2013)

Stressful for some parents → harms marital quality (Davis et al., 2018; Gitelson & McDermott,
2006)

Requires redefining roles and expectations (Burn & Szoeke, 2016)

Parenthood and well-being

Correlated with:

Lower marital satisfaction

Higher stress

Despite negatives:

Most parents report no regret

Parents report higher happiness, positive emotions, and meaning in life than nonparents
(Nelson et al., 2013)

Differences by age and gender (Nelson et al., 2014):

Male and middle-aged parents → greater well-being

Young and single parents → lower well-being

Death and Dying

Emotional Reactions to Death: Kübler-Ross’s Stages
Denial

Initial reaction to a terminal diagnosis: behaving as if death isn’t real.

May insist on multiple medical opinions or continue life unchanged.

Functions as a coping mechanism, giving time to process reality.

Anger

Emotional reaction once denial fades.

“Why me?” → Lashing out at loved ones, doctors, or others.

Anger reflects frustration over the unfairness of death.

Bargaining

Attempt to negotiate for more time with doctors, God, or fate.

Often unrealistic: “Let me live until my child graduates” / “Just make it through one more holiday.”

Provides a sense of temporary hope or control.

Depression

When denial, anger, and bargaining fail to change reality.

Combination 47
 Deep sadness, withdrawal, loss of interest in activities.

Serves as mourning one’s own death.

Acceptance

Final stage: peace, calm, preparation for life’s end.

Individuals may withdraw from many but remain close to a few loved ones.

Research shows last words/blogs of the dying often grow more positive as death nears.

Key Notes

Not everyone experiences all stages.

Stages may not occur in order.

Influenced by personality, coping style, social support, and illness type.

Model is also applied to other losses (e.g., divorce, job loss, death of loved one).

Bereavement and Grief

Bereavement → Experience of losing a loved one

Grief → Emotional reaction to bereavement

Highly personal, but research identifies 3 phases (Bowlby, Parkes, Rand

1. Impact / Shock Phase

First reaction: numbness, disbelief, shock

Acts performed “as if in a dream” (funeral arrangements, informing relatives)

Adaptive: dulls painful emotions of loss

Stronger if death is sudden

2. Confrontation Phase

Deep despair, agony, uncontrollable weeping

Anxiety, guilt, anger common → yearning for loved one’s return

Difficulty concentrating, sleeping, eating

By confronting despair, person slowly realizes the reality of the loss

3. Accommodation / Acceptance Phase

Pain subsides → acceptance of death

Memories of deceased are internalized

Survivors reengage with life and redirect emotional energy to daily events & relationships

Additional Notes

Duration: varies by person (some adjust after 1–2 years, others take longer; some never recover,
e.g., death of a child)

Influencing factors:

Personality traits

Cultural background

Circumstances of death

Combination 48
 Family dynamics (supportive vs. conflict)

Gender differences:

Women more likely to seek social support and express feelings openly

Men may grieve more privately

Cultural variation:

Norms, customs, and rituals of grieving differ by culture

Views on death & grieving shaped by cultural upbringing

Learning
Definition: A relatively permanent change in behavior, or the potential for behavior, that results from
experience.

Key points:

Comes from many life experiences (school, observation, practice).

May appear in behavior (e.g., riding a bike) or stay hidden (e.g., knowing speeding is wrong but
still doing it).

Duration: Some learning is long-lasting (bike riding), others temporary (slowing down after a
ticket).

Importance: One of life’s most crucial activities—helps us adapt and grow.

Types of Learning (to be covered in chapter)

1. Habituation → Simplest form of learning

2. Classical Conditioning

3. Operant Conditioning

4. Observational Learning

Habituation
Orienting Reflexes and Habituation
Orienting Reflex
Definition: Automatic response when we stop what we’re doing to direct our senses toward an
unexpected stimulus (Pavlov, 1927/1960)

Examples:

Loud banging noise → turning head

Getting poked in the back → turning around

Flash of light in restaurant → looking toward it

Student entering class late → everyone looks at the door

Function:

Helps with self-protection

Allows quick information gathering about potentially threatening stimuli

Combination 49
 Linked to the sympathetic nervous system (fight-or-flight response)

Habituation
Definition: Decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure

Not forming a habit → instead, conserving attention and energy by ignoring irrelevant stimuli

Example:

Initial reaction to banging noise in hallway → later ignoring it after realizing it’s harmless (e.g.,
hammering bulletin board)

Importance:

Prevents wasted energy and attention

Keeps focus on more relevant tasks (e.g., lecture)

Universality:

Seen in almost all creatures (even simple nervous systems)

Present in newborn infants and even fetuses

A baby may startle at a loud noise the first few times, but if the sound repeats and poses no
threat, their startle response decreases.

Visual habituation: babies look less at a toy/picture they’ve seen many times, but will look
longer at a new one (used in developmental studies to test memory & recognition)

Neural evidence:

fMRI studies show decreased brain activity (cerebellum + other structures) with repeated
exposure to painful pictures

Linked to decreased activity in neural networks

Also observed in deep brain stimulation therapy patients when treatment effect diminishes over
time

Possible Benefits of Habituation

Value of Habituation
Prevents constant distraction → without habituation, every sight, sound, touch, taste, or smell would
demand attention

Allows focus → ignore repeated, harmless stimuli while still responding to novel or potentially
dangerous ones

Provides flexibility → balance between attending to new threats and tuning out irrelevant background
stimuli

Habituation & Brain Protection

May protect the brain from overstimulation by filtering out irrelevant input

Migraines as example:

Linked to genetic marker MTHFR C677T → higher risk, especially with aura migraines

Associated with higher homocysteine levels in the body

People with migraines often show reduced ability to habituate to stimuli at a neuronal level

Combination 50
 Less habituation to stressful sounds

Less habituation to visual stimuli

Impaired habituation → may cause brain hyperactivity, triggering migraine pain

Therapeutic relevance: training migraine patients to increase habituation can reduce frequency of
migraine attacks

Dishabituation
Occurs when an organism resumes responding more intensely to a stimulus it had previously
habituated to

Restores attention when circumstances change

Causes of Dishabituation
Change in stimulus quality

Ex: habituated to hammering → dishabituate when loud music starts

Passage of time

Ex: after worker’s 1-hour lunch break → hammering feels “new” again briefly

Adaptive Function
Balances responsiveness:

Habituate → ignore irrelevant, non-threatening stimuli

Dishabituate → re-check new or changed stimuli for possible threat

Ensures flexibility → we don’t remain in a permanent state of habituation

Practical Applications of Habituation

1. Motion Sickness & Vertigo

Habituation training used in physical therapy

Clients repeatedly exposed to triggers → gradually stop responding

Helps reduce dizziness/nausea from visual & vestibular signals

Applied to:

🚀 Astronauts
🛩 Pilots
⛸ Figure skaters
2. Mental Health Treatments

Prolonged Exposure Therapy (PET)

Used for PTSD

Repeated exposure to trauma-related triggers → reduces fear/anxiety

Mindfulness & Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Enhance habituation in the HPA axis (stress response system)

→ Less physiological reactivity to stressors

Combination 51
 Effective for anxiety disorders

Key Point
Habituation = useful but basic form of learning

Explains tuning out irrelevant or repeated stimuli

❌ Does NOT explain complex learning (skills, emotional associations, fears, etc.)
Leads into ➝ Classical Conditioning (next topic)

Classical Conditioning
Background

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Russian physiologist

Research focus: digestive processes of dogs → won Nobel Prize

Method: surgically implanted devices to measure saliva production

Initial Observation (Accidental Discovery)

Dogs sometimes salivated before food was presented

Triggered by:

Sight of food dish

Sound of approaching footsteps

Pavlov reasoned: dogs had learned to associate cues (stimuli) with food

→ Salivation response was conditioned to non-food stimuli

Systematic Investigation

Pavlov paired neutral stimuli with food (e.g., buzzer → food)

After repeated pairings:

Dog salivated at sound of buzzer

Salivation occurred even without food

Conclusion:

The neutral stimulus (buzzer) became a conditioned stimulus (CS)

Produced a conditioned response (CR) → salivation

The Elements of Classical Conditioning

Definition

Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US)
that reliably causes an unconditioned response (UR); and because of this association, the
neutral stimulus (NS) loses its neutrality and takes on the same power as the unconditioned
stimulus (US) to cause the response

Steps in the Process

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) → Unconditioned Response (UR)

Stimulus naturally and reliably causes a reflexive response

Combination 52
 Example: Food (US) → Salivation (UR)

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Does not naturally cause the UR

Example: Buzzer (NS) → No salivation

Pairing NS + US

NS repeatedly paired just before US

Example: Buzzer (NS) + Food (US) → Salivation (UR)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) → Conditioned Response (CR)

Former NS becomes CS after pairing, now elicits the learned response

Example: Buzzer (CS) → Salivation (CR)

Stage Stimulus Response Example (Pavlov’s Dog)

Before Conditioning US → UR Natural reflex Food (US) → Salivation (UR)

Before Conditioning NS → No UR Neutral Buzzer (NS) → No salivation

During Conditioning NS + US → UR Association forming Buzzer (NS) + Food (US) → Salivation (UR)

After Conditioning CS → CR Learned reflex Buzzer (CS) → Salivation (CR)

Combination 53
 Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning
Relationship In Time: Contiguity
Definition: Refers to the degree to which the neutral stimulus (NS) / conditioned stimulus (CS) and
the unconditioned stimulus (US) occur close together in time

Timing matters

NS/CS and US must be separated by only a short period of time

If the interval is too long → no association → no conditioning

Example

Pavlov’s buzzer (NS) 2 hours before food (US) → no conditioning

Strength of learning

If US lags behind NS/CS by more than a few seconds → weaker conditioning

Optimal interval varies depending on the response being conditioned

In general → longer the interval = weaker the learning

Combination 54
 Relative placement (order of NS/CS and US)

Forward (delayed) conditioning → strongest conditioning

Backward conditioning → weakest conditioning

Other placements (trace, simultaneous, etc.) vary in strength

Type of
Timing Explanation Example
Conditioning

Forward Delayed NS → (overlaps) → USNS Bell rings → continues ringing

NS predicts the US →
Conditioning starts before US and stays → food is [Link]
organism learns very well
(strongest) on until US begins expects food when bell rings.

Bell rings (1 second) → stops →

NS still predicts the US, but a
Forward Trace NS → (gap) → USNS ends 1–2 seconds later food
memory trace is needed →
Conditioning before US begins [Link] must remember
slightly weaker than delayed
bell.

Bell rings (1 sec) → stops → 20

NS → (long gap) → USNS
Forward Trace With Memory trace fades → seconds later food [Link]
ends, long delay (10–30
Longer Delay (weak) learning becomes weak likely forgets bell, weak
sec), then US
salivation.

NS does not predict the US Bell rings at exact moment food

Simultaneous
NS + US occur at EXACT → organism pays more enters [Link] focuses on
Conditioning (very
same time attention to US → learning food → weak or no salivation to
weak)
poor bell.

Food given first → then bell

Backward NS does not signal the US →
US → NSUS comes before [Link] signals “food is
Conditioning may form inhibitory (safety)
NS already over,” not “food is
(weakest) learning instead
coming.”

Consistency and Reliability: Contingency

Combination 55
 Definition: Refers to the degree to which the neutral stimulus (NS) / conditioned stimulus (CS)
reliably signals that the unconditioned stimulus (US) is going to be presented

Key idea: Reliability of prediction → stronger association

Why it matters

If NS/CS does not consistently predict US → weak or no conditioning

Clear, reliable pairing → strong learning

Example

Pavlov’s buzzer (CS) → sometimes followed by food (US), sometimes not

→ Dog learns buzzer is unreliable → weaker salivation response

Best way to ensure strong conditioning

Present only one NS/CS

Consistently present it immediately before the US

Combines both contiguity (timing) and contingency (prediction)

Contiguity = Timing closeness

Contingency = Predictive reliability

Real-World Applications of Classical Conditioning

Not limited to laboratory settings → occurs frequently in daily experiences

Many of our emotional reactions are products of classical conditioning

Smelling a familiar perfume → happiness (linked to mother)

Seeing a snake → fear

Higher-Order Classical Conditioning

Definition: Classical conditioning that occurs on top of preexisting conditioning

Process

First-order conditioning

Snake bite (US) → fear (UR)

Snake (CS1) → fear (CR)

Second-order conditioning

Woods (NS) + Snake (CS1) → Woods becomes CS2

Woods (CS2) → fear (CR)

Result: New conditioned response to a stimulus never directly paired with the original US

Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses

Little Albert Experiments (Watson & Rayner, 1920)

Goal → show that fear responses can be classically conditioned in a child

Subject → 11-month-old Albert

Procedure

Combination 56
 Albert given a white rat (NS) → no fear

Loud noise (US) → fear/crying (UR)

Pairings of rat (NS) + noise (US) → Albert cried (UR)

Rat lost neutrality → became CS → Albert cried (CR) when seeing rat alone

Parallel to Pavlov’s dogs → just as buzzer became CS for salivation, rat became CS for fear

Emotional Conditioning in Real Life

Example: Professor developed fear of bees after multiple bee stings

Bee stings (US) → fear (UR)

Bees (NS → CS) → fear (CR)

Emotional reactions like fear, happiness, disgust, etc., are often classically conditioned outside
the lab

Stimulus Generalization

Definition → CR occurs in response to stimuli similar to the CS

Professor’s fear spread to wasps, yellow jackets, other flying insects (though never stung by
them)

Little Albert → fear generalized to dog, rabbit, fur coat, fake Santa beard (similar to rat)

Stimulus Discrimination

Definition → CR occurs only to a particular CS, not to similar stimuli

Importance → knowing when to generalize vs. discriminate can aid survival

Example 2: Baby + Mother’s Voice

Baby smiles and becomes excited when hearing mother’s voice.

Baby does not show the same response to other women's voices.

👉 Baby discriminates one voice from similar ones.

Example 3: Fear Conditioning

Person bitten by a large black dog.

Person is afraid of large black dogs ONLY.

Person does not fear:

small dogs

brown dogs

puppies

👉 The fear response is discriminated to one type of dog.

Classical Conditioning of Physiological Reponses (Taste Aversion)
Classically Conditioned Taste Aversion (CTA)

Definition: A form of classical conditioning where a previously neutral taste (NS/CS) becomes
associated with nausea (US → UR), resulting in an aversion to that food (CR)

Key Features

Physiological Response → nausea is a common CR

Combination 57
 Unique aspects:

1. One-trial learning → a single pairing of food (NS/CS) + nausea agent (US) is often enough

2. Long delay possible → interval between food and sickness can be hours later (up to 7 hrs in
humans, 24 hrs in animals)

Biological Preparedness (Seligman, 1970) → humans & animals are genetically predisposed to
learn taste aversion quickly for survival

Evolutionary Value

Protects against poisonous plants/substances

Genes favoring fast CTA learning were naturally selected

Seen widely across species (Garcia, 1992)

Applications in Animals

Coyotes & Sheep Ranchers (Gustavson & Garcia, 1974)

Coyotes eat tainted sheep carcasses → nausea → long-lasting aversion to sheep

Humane alternative to shooting/poisoning

Used to train monkeys to avoid human crops (Pebsworth & Radhakrishna, 2020)

Applications in Humans

Aversion Therapy for Alcoholism

Drug disulfiram + alcohol → intense nausea & headache → CTA to alcohol

Shown to reduce intake / motivate abstinence, but not a cure

Limitations → relapse common, side effects, long-term compliance issues

Potential Use with Other Drugs

Cocaine → Disulfiram may intensify negative effects (e.g., anxiety), motivating avoidance
(Kosten et al., 2013)

Mixed results: some studies found reduced cocaine use even without increased negative
symptoms (Schottenfeld et al., 2014)

Methamphetamine → Disulfiram currently being investigated as a possible treatment

(deMoura, Kohut, & Bergman, 2018)

Extinction and Counterconditioning

Extinction

Process: Present CS alone without US → CR decreases.

Example: Eating peppermint ice cream (CS) without being sick (no US flu) → nausea response
weakens.

Pavlov’s dogs: Buzzer (CS) without food (US) → gradual decline in salivation (CR).

Spontaneous Recovery

Even after extinction, CR can temporarily reappear.

Example: Author still occasionally feels mild nausea when thinking of peppermint ice cream.

Usually brief → extinction resumes afterward.

Combination 58
 Extinguished responses are reacquired faster if CS-US pairing occurs again.

Counterconditioning

Replace unwanted CR with a new, incompatible response.

Example: Little Albert’s fear of rat (CS) could be reduced by pairing rat with candy (US → positive
emotion).

Works by associating CS with a positive outcome instead of a negative one.

Operant Conditioning: Learning from the

Consequences of Our Actions
E. L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by positive/satisfying consequences → strengthened, more likely repeated

Behaviors followed by negative/discomforting consequences → weakened, less likely repeated

Unlocking the Puzzle of Learning

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box Experiment

Setup: Hungry cat placed in puzzle box with food outside

Initial behavior: Cat thrashed randomly until accidentally tripping the mechanism to escape

Repeated trials: Time to escape gradually decreased → showed learning

Observation: Cat associated its behavior with the consequence (escape + food)

Random Actions and Reinforcement

Initial behaviors: Cat performs many random actions (clawing, hissing, biting bars, meowing)

Trial and error: These random behaviors do not open the box

Accidental discovery: Cat eventually steps on the foot pedal → box opens → food reward

Reinforcement:

Stepping on pedal = pleasant consequence (food + freedom)

This behavior is strengthened and more likely to occur again

Combination 59
 Future trials:

Cat increasingly chooses stepping on the pedal

Other unrewarded behaviors die out (extinction)

B. F. Skinner and the Experimental Study of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning = behavior operates on the environment to produce consequences.

Classical (respondent) vs Operant: classical = involuntary reflexes; operant = voluntary choices.

Skinner Box: chamber for rats/pigeons (lever press or disk peck → food).

Key idea: reinforcement increases behavior; Skinner’s methods allowed precise, faster study of
learning.

Applying Skinner Box Technology in the Real World

Skinner (1958): Teaching Machines

Based on operant conditioning

Correct answer → reinforcement (advance to next step)

Incorrect answer → no reinforcement (withholding progress)

Modern Versions

Leap Pads, consoles (Nintendo, PlayStation, Xbox), apps

Reinforcement: points, levels, reward tones, praise

Punishment: lose points, character “death,” failure tones

Effects of Video Games

Negative: violent games linked to ↑ aggression, delinquent behavior, distorted perceptions of

strength/toughness

Positive: cooperative play ↑ prosocial behavior; faster, accurate decisions; fulfill social &
psychological needs (friendship, teamwork, autonomy)

Educational/Cognitive Benefits

Leap Pad → ↑ reading enjoyment/proficiency in children

Brain training games → ↑ engagement & enjoyment in older adults

Exergames (Wii Fit, Nintendo Switch) → ↑ physical & cognitive function in older adults & ADHD
children

Avatar-based exercise → ↑ motivation to continue

Physical activity via gaming → protect against age-related cognitive decline, improve health

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Behavior → adds something pleasant to the environment

Example: Cat steps on pedal → food is given → behavior increases

Example: Child completes homework → gets praise (“Great job!”) → continues completing
homework

Negative reinforcement

Combination 60
 Behavior → removes something unpleasant from the environment

Example: Cat steps on pedal → imprisonment removed → behavior increases

Example: Student behaves well → teacher reduces homework → student behaves well again

Key Clarification

Reinforcement (positive or negative) → always increases behavior

Punishment → introduces an unpleasant consequence → decreases behavior

“Negative” ≠ punishment

Negative = removal (of something unpleasant)

Punishment = addition of unpleasantness (to weaken behavior)

Positive and Negative Punishment

Positive Punishment

Behavior → adds something unpleasant to the environment

Example: Cat steps on pedal → shock delivered → behavior decreases

Example: Student is running in hallways → teacher makes student walk back → running
decreases

Negative Punishment

Behavior → removes something pleasant from the environment

Example: Cat steps on pedal → view outside taken away → behavior decreases

Child scribbles instead of doing work → teacher removes play time → scribbling decreases

Consequence Definition Child Example Effect on Behavior

Positive Behavior → adds something Child cleans their room → parent Increases room-
Reinforcement pleasant gives them ice cream cleaning

Negative Behavior → removes Child finishes homework → parent Increases homework

Reinforcement something unpleasant stops nagging completion

Positive Behavior → adds something Child hits sibling → parent scolds

Decreases hitting
Punishment unpleasant loudly

Negative Behavior → removes Child refuses to share toy → toy is Decreases refusal to
Punishment something pleasant taken away share

Acquisition and Extinction

Acquisition

Behavior is conditioned when reinforced

Example: Rat presses bar → gets food pellet → bar pressing increases

Behavior grows until it reaches a maximum strength (limited by practical factors, e.g., how fast
rat can eat)

Extinction

Behavior decreases when reinforcement is removed

Example: Stop paying employee → eventually they stop working

Combination 61
 Extinction burst: Temporary increase in behavior when reinforcement first withheld (e.g., child
cries louder when ignored)

Extinction occurs gradually over multiple trials

Practical application

Identify what reinforcement maintains unwanted behavior

Remove reinforcement consistently to extinguish it

Example: Parent ignores child’s whining instead of giving in → whining decreases

⚠️ If reinforcement is inconsistent (one parent gives in), extinction fails

Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
Definition

Every instance of desired behavior is reinforced

Example (Skinner box): Rat presses bar → pellet delivered each time

Example (real life): Reaching for an object → almost always reinforced when object is grasped

Advantages

Fast acquisition: Behaviors learned quickly since reinforcement is consistent

Drawbacks

Impractical: Hard to reinforce every instance in real life (e.g., praising a child every time they’re
polite)

Vulnerable to extinction:

Once reinforcement stops, behavior disappears quickly

Clear contingency → when broken, organism quickly realizes reinforcement is gone

Partial Reinforcement
Definition

Reinforcement occurs only some of the time

Makes behaviors more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement

Ratio Schedules (based on number of responses)

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Definition: Reinforcement is given after a fixed, set number of responses

Pattern: Predictable

Examples:

Factory worker paid every 100 products completed

Child gets 1 sticker for every 5 math questions completed

Salesperson earns a bonus after every 10 sales

Effects on Behaviour

Combination 62
 High response rate (because the child/person knows reinforcement is coming after a fixed
number)

Post-reinforcement pause: After receiving the reward, there is usually a short break before
starting again

e.g., child gets a sticker → relaxes → then starts next 5 questions

Variable Ratio (VR)

Definition: Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses, but averages to

a certain ratio

Pattern: Unpredictable

Example

Slot machines (you don’t know how many pulls will win)

Fishing (don’t know how many times you cast before catching a fish)

Student raises hand; teacher randomly chooses when to call on them

Child receives a token after 3 responses, then 7, then 2, then 9… (averaging maybe VR5)

Effect on Behaviour

Very high, steady rate of responding

No pauses, because reinforcement is unpredictable

Most resistant to extinction

e.g., gamblers keep playing because “the next one might be a win!”

Interval Schedules (based on time)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Definition: Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time, but only after the first response
following that interval.

Example:

Weekly quiz every Friday

Annual performance review

Child gets to play iPad if they sit quietly for 10 minutes

Behaviour Pattern
✔ Scalloped pattern:
Low responding right after reinforcement

Sharp increase of responding just before the interval ends

Why? → Because the learner knows the timing → “No point studying right after the quiz… I’ll
start again when Friday is near.”

Extinction

Moderately resistant, but not as strong as VR or VI, because:

Once time passes with no reinforcement:

→ Learner quickly notices interval is broken

→ Responding decreases

Combination 63
 Variable Interval (VI)

Definition: Reinforcement is given after unpredictable time intervals, but still only after the first
response.

Example:

Pop quizzes

Surprise bag checks

Surprise work evaluations

Checking emails (reward = new message)

Behaviour Pattern

Steady and moderate responding

Why? → Learners know reinforcement can come anytime.

Extinction

Very resistant (second only to VR) because:

You never know when the next reinforcement can happen

You keep checking/responding consistently

✅ Key Takeaways
Continuous reinforcement → fastest learning, but fastest extinction

Ratio > Interval for higher response rates

Variable > Fixed for stronger resistance to extinction

Combination 64
 Discrimination and Generalization
Discrimination → You learn to respond only to the specific situation where behaviour is rewarded.
Generalization → You take the learned behaviour and apply it to other similar situations.

Discrimination

Definition: Learning to respond to a specific stimulus because only that one gives
reinforcement.

You figure out where your behaviour is rewarded and where it is not.

Example: (Workplace)

Doing your job → pay

Doing coworker’s job → no extra pay

➡ You learn to only put effort into your own tasks.

Example: (Child in School)

Child raises hand in class → teacher praises

Child raises hand at the dinner table → ignored

➡ Child learns: hand-raising works in class, not at home.
Positive effect of discrimination:

You focus your energy where reinforcement happens

Example — Student studies for the classes that give grades, not the ones that don’t.

Negative effect of discrimination:

Could lead to treating some groups nicely but rejecting others

Example — A child is kind to same-race peers but avoids children from another race because
of learned cues from adults.

Generalization

Combination 65
 Definition: A behaviour learned in one situation is applied to similar situations.

Example: (Study Skills)

Student finds that making flashcards works in Psychology

They try the same strategy in History

➡ Behaviour has generalized.
Example: (Fear Generalization)

Bitten by one dog

Becomes scared of all dogs

➡ Negative generalization.
Example: (Child Learning Manners)

Child learns to say “please” at home

Says “please” to teachers, grandparents, friends

➡ Social behaviour generalizes.
Positive effect of generalization:

Skills transfer across contexts

Example — Studying method, communication skills, time management.

Negative effect of generalization:

Prejudice

Meeting one rude person from a particular group

Then assuming everyone from that group is rude

➡ Generalization → discrimination in behaviour
Example:

One bad encounter with a foreign worker → “all foreign workers are rude”

This is an incorrect generalization.

Shaping New Behaviours

Shaping (successive approximations)

Reinforce small steps toward a desired novel behavior

Example: Dog learning to walk on hind legs

Look at trainer → treat

Sit up → treat

Rear up → treat

Stand on hind legs → treat

Walk on hind legs → treat

Instinctive Drift

Conditioned behavior may “drift back” to instinctive responses

Combination 66
 Example: Cat punished for scratching furniture → may stop temporarily, but eventually returns
because scratching is instinctive

Shows limits of conditioning when instincts are strong

Applications in Humans

Parents can shape study habits

Reinforce small study behaviors → assignments → exams → full course grades → overall
good performance

Behavior modification: use of operant conditioning to reduce problematic behavior & encourage
healthy alternatives

Example: Rewarding weight loss with a new piece of clothing

Reinforcing non-aggressive responses to frustration

Decisions That Must Be Made Using Operant Conditioning

Punishment or Reinforcement
✅ Reinforcement (preferred)
Teaches correct/desired behavior

Builds positive parent–child relationship

Safer & more effective than punishment

🚫 Risks of Punishment
Doesn’t teach correct behavior → only tells child what not to do

Models aggression → child may imitate aggression (e.g., spanking teaches hitting = control)

Short-term effect only → behavior stops only when parent is present

Negative emotional reactions → fear, anger, anxiety → unhealthy, fear-based relationship

Long-term effects of physical punishment

More aggression & disruptive behavior

Fewer prosocial behaviors

Poorer mental health & physical health in adulthood

More relationship problems later in life

Linked to higher family conflict

✅ Practical Alternatives to Physical Punishment

Clearly state desired behavior and reinforce it

Minimize situations that tempt undesired behavior

Use punishments that are genuinely aversive to the child (but nonphysical)

Apply punishment immediately and consistently

Stay calm → prevents escalation/abuse

Always pair with reinforcement of correct behavior

Combination 67
 Choosing a Reinforcer That Is Reinforcing
Reinforcer must be valued by the individual

If it’s not liked or meaningful → conditioning will fail

Example: Cooking a meal your partner dislikes after they clean → not reinforcing → won’t
increase cleaning

Key tip:

When unsure, ask/discuss what the person finds rewarding before starting reinforcement

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers → Natural, biological rewards that are inherently satisfying. (We DO NOT need
to learn their value)

Examples:

Food → satisfies hunger

Water → satisfies thirst

Warmth / warm bed → reduces discomfort

Sleep → reduces tiredness

Physical touch (hug, affection) → natural comfort

Sexual pleasure → biologically reinforcing

Combination 68
 Pain relief → reduces discomfort

Applied

Teacher gives a snack for completing homework → child is motivated

Parent hugs child after a fall → child feels comforted

Secondary reinforcers → Rewards that gain value through learning and association with primary
reinforcers. (Not inherently rewarding on their own)

Example:

Money → buys food, shelter

Stickers / stars → lead to prizes

Grades → lead to rewards, praise

Praise (“Good job!”) → associated with love or approval

Tokens / points → can be exchanged for items

Certificates / trophies → linked to pride and social approval

Applied

Teacher gives stickers → child can trade stickers for extra playtime

Praise: “Well done!” → makes child feel proud, associated with attention

Tokens in a token economy → exchanged for snacks/toys (primary reinforcers)

Token Economy

Definition → system where desired behaviors are reinforced with tokens (e.g., stars, chips)

Tokens can later be exchanged for primary reinforcers

Uses →

Schools & classrooms

Families

Treatment for intellectual disabilities

Inmates / rehabilitation centers

Workplaces

Advantages

Can target multiple behaviors in a group

Allows for immediate reinforcement (tokens now → rewards later)

Teaches delay of gratification (important life skill)

Drawbacks

Often uses continuous reinforcement, making behaviors vulnerable to extinction

May reduce motivation when no tokens or reinforcers are expected

The Role of Cognition In Learning

Limits of Behaviorism

Habituation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning → all require an observable response

Combination 69
 Behaviorists (Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner) → avoided thoughts/feelings, focusing only on
observable behavior

Skinner: argued cognition could not be studied scientifically

Köhler’s Insight Learning (1925)

Observed chimpanzees solving problems with sudden insight (not trial-and-error)

Example: chimp used stick to reach banana → solution appeared after mental planning, not
random behaviors

Shows goal-directed, purposive behavior (not just reinforcement history)

Evidence that reasoning & cognition influence learning

Tolman’s Latent Learning (1930)

Maze experiment with rats:

Group 1: reinforced with food → learned maze faster

Group 2: no reinforcement → wandered maze but still learned layout

On Day 11, once reinforcement was added, Group 2 ran maze just as fast → learning occurred
without reinforcement

Introduced latent learning = learning not immediately expressed in behavior

Proposed cognitive maps = mental representations of environment

Observational Learning or Modeling

Definition

Learning by watching others and then imitating (modeling) their behavior

Also called social learning or modeling

Example

Kim Peek: father had to model brushing teeth & buttoning shirt daily → Kim learned by watching

Children often learn everyday skills (e.g., tying shoes, brushing teeth) through observation

Departure from strict behaviorism

1. Learning can occur without direct reinforcement or immediate behavior change

2. Recognizes the role of cognition in learning (attention, memory, imitation)

Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiments

Setup

Children watched films of a model aggressively attacking a Bobo doll

Conditions:

Rewarded (model reinforced)

Punished (model punished)

No consequences

Findings

Combination 70
 Children in reward + no consequences groups → most likely to imitate aggression

Children in punished group → hesitant to imitate, but still learned aggression (shown when
asked to reproduce behavior later)

Learning can be latent → knowledge acquired even without overt behavior

Key Insights

You don’t need direct reinforcement to learn → vicarious reinforcement/punishment matters

Observing others can shape both behavior and expectations of consequences

Observational Learning & Media

Children learn from TV & media

Kids don’t just watch → they model behaviors & attitudes

Violent or aggressive content → ↑ likelihood of aggressive play & attitudes

Advertising exposure → ↑ materialism, consumerism, and preference for Western brands

Even infants learn from media

12-month-olds imitate televised models’ positive/negative reactions to toys

Influence amplified when parents also pay attention

Executive functioning concerns

Excessive screen time linked to poorer attention, working memory, processing speed in some
children

Policy & guidelines

American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP, 2016): discourage media exposure before 18 months

For older children → not total ban, but limits & regulation of content recommended

Observational Learning and Cognition

Bandura’s 4-Step Modeling Process (1986)
1. Attention

Must first notice the model’s behavior

Children more likely to attend to warm, nurturing, powerful, or popular models (parents,
teachers, peers, TV characters)

As people mature → prefer models similar to themselves (same sex, ethnicity, occupation)

2. Retention (Memory)

Need to store a mental representation of the behavior

Example: remembering how a superhero acted on TV before imitating it later on the playground

3. Reproduction (Ability)

Must be able to physically reproduce the behavior

Example: child can pretend to fly like a superhero, but can’t literally fly

4. Motivation

Decision to actually perform the behavior depends on expected outcomes

Combination 71
 More likely if expecting reward; less likely if expecting punishment

Seen in Bobo doll study → kids knew aggression but hesitated if they had seen punishment

Key takeaway: Unlike classical and operant conditioning, observational learning emphasizes
cognitive processes (attention, memory, planning, motivation), explaining why children can learn
behaviors without direct reinforcement and reproduce them later

SUMMARY
Aspect Habituation Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Learning in which behavior is

Learning through associating a
A decrease in response influenced by consequences
neutral stimulus (NS) with an
Definition to a repeated, harmless (reinforcement ↑ or
unconditioned stimulus (US) →
stimulus punishment ↓ likelihood of
conditioned response (CR)
behavior)

- Explains how automatic - Can teach complex,

- Helps filter out irrelevant
responses (e.g., fear, salivation) can voluntary behaviors - Highly
stimuli → saves energy
Benefits be learned - Foundation for flexible (used in parenting,
and attention - Simple,
therapies (e.g., counterconditioning, education, animal training,
adaptive form of learning
exposure therapy) therapy)

- Requires organism to first

- Only works with
- Limited to reflexive/automatic perform the behavior -
repeated harmless
responses, not voluntary actions - Reinforcement schedules may
Limitations stimuli - Doesn’t teach
Requires close timing between NS be hard to maintain -
new behavior, just
and US (contiguity) Punishment can have side
weakens response
effects

- Pavlov’s dogs: bell (CS) →

- Stop noticing the sound - Skinner’s rats: press lever →
salivation (CR) after pairing with
of an aircon after a while - food pellet (reinforcement) -
Examples food (US) - Child develops fear of
Ignoring background Child cleans room → gets
dentist drill (CS) after painful visit
chatter in a café praise (positive reinforcement)
(US)

Habituation → simplest, reduces response to irrelevant stimuli.

Classical conditioning → links stimuli to reflexive responses.

Operant conditioning → uses consequences to shape voluntary behaviors.

Theories of Motivation
Motive = tendency to seek positive incentives/rewards & avoid negative outcomes (Atkinson,
1958/1983; McClelland, 1987)

Motivation drives behavior in daily life → eating, drinking, studying, working, socializing

Motives often serve protective functions

Hunger → motivates eating → prevents malnutrition/starvation

Studying → motivates learning → pride & advancement

Without motivation, essential health & survival behaviors would not occur

Motivation as Instinct
William James (1890) → proposed that motives = genetically determined instincts evolved for
survival & reproduction

Combination 72
 Instincts = internal impulses that direct/motivate behavior

James listed 35+ instincts → e.g., love, fight, imitate, talk, acquire things

✅ Benefits
Explained motivation as biological & evolutionary

Highlighted link between instincts & survival/reproduction

❌ Limitations
List of instincts became too long & vague

Difficult to prove whether many behaviors are innate vs learned

Some “instincts” (e.g., sympathy, secrecy) may actually be learned behaviors

Drive-Reduction Theory
Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation

Proposed by: Clark Hull (1943)

Definition: Motivation stems from the desire to reduce internal tension (drive) caused by unmet
biological needs

Goal: Maintain homeostasis — the body’s internal balance

How it works

Unmet biological need → produces drive state → motivates behavior → behavior reduces the
drive → return to homeostasis

Example: Hunger (drive) → eating (behavior) → satisfaction (drive reduced)

Types of Drives

Primary drives → innate biological needs, essential in maintaining homeostasis

Hunger → Motivates eating

Thirst → Motivates drinking

Characteristics

Automatic and not learned

Directly linked to bodily functions and survival

Secondary drives → learned or acquired drives that develop through experience and
socialization

Achievement → motivates studying or working hard

Approval → motivates seeking praise or social acceptance

Autonomy → motivates making independent choices

Money → motivates working to buy food or comfort

Characteristics

Not innate — developed over time

Can vary between individuals and cultures

Both motivate behavior but primary drives are tied to survival while secondary are tied to
psychological needs

Combination 73
 Biological Mechanism

Negative feedback loop monitors internal states

e.g., like a thermostat → activates processes when levels deviate from ideal balance

Strengths & Limitation

Strengths

Explains basic biological motivations well

Emphasizes homeostasis as essential for survival

Limitations

Cannot explain non-biological motives (e.g., academic, social, emotional drives)

Fails to explain over-motivation (e.g., overeating) or thrill-seeking behaviors that increase

arousal

Secondary drives vary among individuals and are harder to quantify

Arousal Theories of Motivation

Arousal Theory of Motivation

Proposed by: Richard Yerkes & John Dodson (1908)

Core idea: Motivation stems from our desire to maintain an optimal level of arousal — not too
high, not too low

Key concept: The Yerkes-Dodson Law → performance improves with arousal up to a point, then
declines if arousal is too high

Yerkes-Dodson Curve

Combination 74
 Moderate arousal → best performance

Low arousal (underaroused) → boredom, low motivation, poor performance

High arousal (overaroused) → stress, anxiety, reduced focus

Situational Differences

Optimal Arousal
Task Type Why This Arousal Level Works Examples
Level

- Task requires less attention and

less working memory - Higher - Running on a treadmill - Folding
Higher arousal →
Easy / Well- arousal helps maintain alertness, laundry - Repeating a memorised
better
Practiced Tasks energy, and speed - You don’t need dance routine - Taking a very easy
performance
to focus deeply, so arousal doesn't MCQ quiz - Packing items at work
interfere

- Need some focus, but not as

- Driving in light traffic - Preparing a
demanding as complex tasks - Too Moderate arousal
Moderately simple presentation - Revising
high arousal distracts; too low makes → best
Difficult Tasks homework - Playing a familiar but
you bored - Middle level helps performance
slightly challenging piano piece
maintain balance

- Require deep concentration,

- Solving math problem / chemistry
problem-solving, memory, planning
calculations - Taking a final exam
- High arousal (anxiety/stress)
Difficult / Low arousal → with essay questions - Doing surgery
interferes with working memory →
Complex Tasks best performance or medical procedures - Learning a
mental “blanking out” - Lower
completely new concept - Playing
arousal keeps mind calm and
chess or strategic tasks
organised

Individual Differences

Optimal arousal level varies between individuals

Some prefer calm, low-arousal environments (e.g., reading, journaling)

Others seek high-arousal activities (e.g., roller coasters, competitive sports)

Biological & Environmental Factors

Early life stress can influence preferred arousal levels

Rats raised in stressful settings performed better under higher stress later in life (Chaby et al.,
2015)

Strengths and Limitations

Strengths

Explains why people seek stimulation or relaxation

Useful for understanding performance optimization and stress management

Combination 75
 Limitations

Difficult to measure individual arousal levels precisely

Does not fully explain goal-directed or cognitive motivation

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation

Proposed by: Deci & Ryan (1985, 2008)

Suggests humans are motivated by three basic psychological needs

Competence → feeling skilled and capable

Autonomy → feeling in control of one’s own actions

Relatedness → feeling connected and supported by others

Two Types of Motivation

Autonomous motivation → behavior driven by personal choice or interest

Example: studying because you enjoy learning or want to master a subject

Controlled motivation → behavior driven by external pressure or obligation

Example: studying to avoid disapproval or to please someone else

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation

Comes from internal satisfaction or enjoyment of the activity itself

Examples: pride, curiosity, enjoyment, personal growth

Extrinsic motivation

Driven by external rewards or consequences

Examples: money, grades, praise, avoiding punishment

Conscious vs Unconscious Motivation

awareness of motives, not whether they’re internal or external

Conscious motivation

You’re aware of it as you act or decide

Unconscious motivation

Hidden at the time of behavior

Motivation Source of Awareness

Feels Like Includes Example
Type Drive (Conscious/Unconscious)

Studying
because you
enjoy learning
(intrinsic) or
Usually conscious, but
Self-endorsed, Voluntary, Intrinsic + value
Autonomous can have unconscious
internalized meaningful some extrinsic education and
values influencing it
want to
succeed
(autonomous
extrinsic)

Combination 76
 Motivation Source of Awareness
Feels Like Includes Example
Type Drive (Conscious/Unconscious)

Studying to
avoid scolding
Can be conscious (aware
(conscious
External or of the pressure) or
Forced, controlled) or
Controlled internal Mostly extrinsic unconscious (act
pressured overworking to
pressure automatically to please or
avoid rejection
avoid guilt)
(unconscious
controlled)

Playing piano
Inherent for pleasure or
Fun, self- Always Typically conscious, as
Intrinsic enjoyment, drawing
fulfilling autonomous enjoyment is felt directly
curiosity because it’s
relaxing

Doing it for
approval or
reward
(controlled
Often conscious, but
To gain reward Can be extrinsic);
unconscious motives may
Extrinsic or avoid Goal-directed controlled or doing it
underlie (e.g., approval-
punishment autonomous because you
seeking)
value the
outcome
(autonomous
extrinsic)

“I’m studying
Can be any of
Conscious Known reasons Deliberate, Aware of motive while because I want
the above
motivation or intentions intentional acting to get into med
types
school.”

Overworking
Often linked
Hidden Automatic, due to a hidden
Unconscious with controlled Not aware until later
psychological emotionally fear of
motivation or defense- reflection
drives charged rejection or
based motives
failure

Research Highlights

People are often motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors

Firefighters exercise to stay fit (intrinsic) and to not let their team down (extrinsic) (Long et
al., 2014)

Intrinsic motivation is linked to

Higher academic success and persistence

Lower likelihood of drug use or cheating

Better adherence to exercise programs due to enjoyment (Bock et al., 2019)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Definition

Proposed by Abraham Maslow (1970)

Human motivation is organized in a hierarchy of needs, where lower-level needs must be met
before higher-level ones

Combination 77
 Visualized as a pyramid — from basic physiological needs at the bottom to self-fulfillment at
the top

Levels of the Hierarchy

1. Physiological Needs

Basic biological needs like food, water, warmth, sleep

First priority for survival

2. Safety Needs

Desire for security, stability, and protection

Examples: safe housing, job security

3. Belongingness & Love Needs

Motivation to form relationships, love, and social connections

Feeling accepted and valued by others

4. Esteem Needs

Need for achievement, competence, respect, and self-worth

Includes recognition from others and self-confidence

5. Cognitive Needs

Desire to know, understand, and explore

Curiosity and intellectual growth

6. Aesthetic Needs

Appreciation for beauty, balance, and order

7. Self-Actualization Needs

Motivation to reach one’s full potential and express creativity

8. Transcendence Needs

Desire for spiritual fulfillment or contributing beyond oneself

Level (Bottom →
Definition Examples
Top)

1. Biological / Basic survival needs that the • Eating when hungry• Drinking water• Sleeping• Taking
Physiological Needs body must have shelter from rain

2. Safety & Security Feeling protected, stable, and • Living in a safe home• Locking doors• Having financial
Needs free from danger savings• Job security

• Making friends at school• Feeling included in a CCA•

3. Love & Belonging Need for relationships,
Spending time with family• Being part of a community or
Needs friendships, and connection
group

Need for respect,

• Receiving praise for good work• Getting good grades•
4. Esteem Needs accomplishment, and
Winning an award• Feeling competent at a skill
confidence

• Enjoying learning new psychology concepts• Googling

5. Cognitive Needs Desire to learn, explore,
things out of curiosity• Asking questions in class• Reading
(Knowledge) understand
books to understand the world

6. Aesthetic Needs Need for beauty, balance, • Decorating your room nicely• Going to aesthetic cafés
order, harmony (you!)• Enjoying music, art, nature• Preferring visually

Combination 78
 Level (Bottom →
Definition Examples
Top)
pleasing notes or layouts

Achieving full potential; • Pursuing med school because you want to help others•
7. Self-Actualization becoming the best version of Creating your tourism app idea• Starting your café or
oneself clothing brand• Fulfilling personal goals and dreams

• Teaching your student and guiding their growth• Creating

8. Transcendence Helping others achieve their
content to inspire others• Volunteering for community
Needs potential; purpose beyond self
causes• Mentoring younger students

Key Points

Lower needs must be mostly satisfied before higher needs become motivating

People like Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa represent self-actualization or
transcendence

Supported by research (e.g., Taormina & Gao, 2013) showing that fulfilling one level increases
satisfaction of the next

Influential in management, motivation, and advertising fields

Limitations

Not always sequential — people may pursue higher needs despite lower needs being unmet
(e.g., skipping lunch to study)

Lacks strong empirical evidence

Cultural and individual differences not fully accounted for

Combination 79
 Hunger and Eating
The Origins of Hunger
Purpose of Hunger

Hunger is a primary drive that motivates us to eat when our body needs fuel and nutrients

Works like a thermostat, using a negative feedback loop to maintain homeostasis

How Hunger Maintains Homeostasis

When fuel levels drop, the body signals the brain → triggers hunger → motivates eating

After eating, nutrient levels rise → hunger signals decrease

Keeps internal balance between energy intake and energy use

Set Point Theory (Levin, 2010)

Each person has a natural body weight (set point) the body tries to maintain

When body weight drops below the set point → hunger increases → metabolism slows → weight
returns

Protects against starvation, but also makes weight loss hard to sustain

Key Idea

Hunger motivation depends on biological feedback signals to the brain about the body’s fuel
and nutrient levels

Hunger Feedback from the Body

Hormones or
Source / System Key Mechanism Effect on Hunger Example / Notes
Signals

Ghrelin triggers
strong hunger
Stomach (Empty)
Stomach walls contract
when empty
Ghrelin 🔺 Increases hunger signals even when
not energy-deficient
(Bake et al., 2019)

Distention sends
“full” signals to

Stomach (Full)
Stomach distends as
↓ Ghrelin
🔻 Reduces hunger brain; nutritive food
food enters (satiety) lowers ghrelin more
than non-nutritive
(Ly et al., 2016)

Overweight

Emotions & Emotional state affects Ghrelin + 🔺 Emotional eating in individuals eat more
under stress due to
Ghrelin ghrelin release Stress/Anxiety stress or loneliness
ghrelin release
(Sinha et al., 2019)

🔺 Hunger when Works as a

Liver
Monitors blood
glucose and glycogen —
glycogen → glucose 🔻 biochemical “fuel
Fullness when glucose → gauge” sending
levels
glycogen feedback to brain

Combination 80
 Hormones or
Source / System Key Mechanism Effect on Hunger Example / Notes
Signals

Drop in blood
Pancreas
(Endocrine
Moves glucose into
Insulin
🔺 Can increase hunger glucose after insulin
cells indirectly release triggers
System)
hunger

Candy vs. apple —

High Glycemic
Foods
Rapid blood sugar
spikes then crashes
Excess insulin 🔺 Hunger returns quickly apple sustains
satiety longer

Works with insulin to

Small Intestine
Releases satiety
hormone after eating
CCK
(Cholecystokinin)
🔻 Decreases hunger signal satiety to
brain

Mice lose weight

with leptin injections

Fat Cells
Release hormones that
inform brain of energy Leptin
🔻 Reduces hunger when (Pelleymounter et
al., 1995); humans
(Adipose Tissue) fat stores are high
stores less clear due to
complex hormone
interactions

Fat tissue now

Other Factors
Brain neurotransmitters Dopamine, ⚖️ Regulate appetite viewed as part of
& circadian hormones Melatonin, etc. indirectly endocrine system,
not just storage

Hunger is controlled by a network of biological feedback loops involving the stomach, liver,
pancreas, intestines, fat cells, and brain.

Ghrelin signals hunger

Insulin & CCK signal satiety

Leptin signals long-term energy sufficiency

Emotions and stress hormones can override biological balance, contributing to emotional
eating

Hunger Regulation in the Brain

Brain Region / Key Findings / Effect on
Main Function Example / Notes
Factor Mechanism Hunger

Receives
Central control signals from Contains specialized
Hypothalamus center for stomach, liver, ⚖️ Maintains glucoreceptors that monitor
(Overall) hunger and fat cells homeostasis blood glucose (Burdakov et
satiety (ghrelin, leptin, al., 2005)
glucose levels)

Destruction of If LH damaged but rat is

LH → rat stops force-fed, appetite partially
Lateral
Hypothalamus
“Hunger ON eating and may 🔺 Initiates returns — suggests other
switch” starve hunger regions also trigger hunger
(LH)
(Teitelbaum & (LH → Low Hunger →
Stellar, 1954) STARVES)

Ventromedial “Satiety / Destruction → 🔻 Suppresses Damage disturbs insulin

Hypothalamus Hunger OFF overeating, hunger when regulation, increases eating,
(VMH) switch” massive weight intact and shifts set point upward

Combination 81
 Brain Region / Key Findings / Effect on
Main Function Example / Notes
Factor Mechanism Hunger
gain (Valensi et (VMH → Very Much Hungry
al., 2003) → FAT

Injection

Neuropeptide Potent hunger

increases
hunger outside
🔺 Stimulates Indicates multiple brain
strong eating regions beyond LH regulate
Y (NPY) stimulant LH region
behavior hunger
(Leibowitz,
1991)

Brain adjusts
Set Point
Body’s
preferred
eating to ⚖️ Maintains VMH lesions → higher set
Mechanism maintain this steady weight point → obesity
weight range
range

Impairs
Decreases
neural activity
🔺 Increases Especially harmful if
High-Fat Diets hypothalamic hunger and preceded by low-protein
in VMH → poor
insulin function weight gain diets (Leite et al., 2016)
appetite control

Alters
Increases food
🔺 Makes food Chronic sleep loss linked to
Sleep hypothalamus– “look better,”
reward childhood obesity
Deprivation amygdala promotes
sensitivity (Lombardo et al., 2019)
circuits overeating

Ghrelin
No single “on/off” switch —
Brain Integrates
(hunger),
Leptin & CCK
⚖️ Balances hunger controlled by
Feedback multiple hunger hunger & complex feedback loop
(satiety),
Network signals fullness (King, 2006; Carreiro et al.,
Insulin (blood
2016)
sugar)

Summary:

Hunger regulation is multi-systemic — involving brain, hormones, and metabolic feedback

LH = initiates eating, VMH = signals fullness

Leptin, insulin, ghrelin, and sleep all influence the hypothalamus

Disruption by high-fat diets or sleep loss weakens regulation → overeating & obesity

Other Cues That Influence Eating: Culture and Consumerism

Main Cause /
Type of Eating Definition Effects / Outcomes Examples
Motivation

⚖️ Helps maintain healthy

body weight 💪 Linked to
Based on biological Eating when truly
Eating that responds
feedback from the hungry and stopping
to internal lower BMI and better
well-being 🤰 Associated
Intuitive Eating body (e.g., ghrelin, when full Choosing
physiological cues
leptin, fullness balanced meals
of hunger and satiety with less weight gain
signals) naturally
during pregnancy

Eating that is not Triggered by 🍔 Leads to overeating Eating popcorn after

motivated by external factors like and weight gain 😞 a full meal Feasting
Nonintuitive
physical hunger, but stress, boredom, Associated with during holidays or
Eating
by emotions, habits, celebration, or visual emotional distress and eating due to
or social cues food cues poor diet control sadness/stress

Emotional Eating Eating as a response Acts as a coping ⚠️ Linked to higher BMI, Eating ice cream after
(Subtype) to negative emotions mechanism rather overeating, and lower a bad day or stress-

Combination 82
 Main Cause /
Type of Eating Definition Effects / Outcomes Examples
Motivation
like stress, loneliness, than hunger intuitive eating (Moy et snacking
or anxiety regulation al., 2013)

Cultural / Social
Eating due to
customs, Motivated by social
🍰 Encourages Eating large festive
overeating beyond meals at Christmas,
Eating (Subtype) celebrations, or norms or rituals
energy needs weddings, birthdays
shared meals

Key Takeaways:

Intuitive eating = body-driven, healthy relationship with food

Nonintuitive eating = emotion or environment-driven, risk for overeating

Restrictive dieting often reduces intuitive eating and increases emotional eating

Promoting intuitive eating may help prevent obesity and disordered eating

The Obesity Epidemic

Defined by BMI:

Overweight = 25–29.9

Obese = 30+

Linked to diabetes, heart disease, certain cancers

Global issue:

U.S.: ~35% overweight, ~40% obese

Similar or higher rates in Europe, Middle East, and parts of Asia

Now recognized as a global health epidemic

Main Causes
Poor diet:

High-fat, high-sugar Western diets

Fast food, large portions, processed food

Lack of exercise: sedentary lifestyles

Non-intuitive eating:

Eating for emotional or situational reasons, not hunger

Food as celebration, comfort, or stress relief

Emotional links:

Emotional impulsiveness → higher BMI

Depression correlated with obesity (esp. with metabolic syndrome)

Biological & Physiological Factors

Circadian rhythms:

Timing of eating affects metabolism

High-calorie breakfast → more weight loss than same dinner

Combination 83
 “Evening types” find it harder to lose weight

Resting metabolic rate (RMR):

Low RMR → burn fewer calories → easier to gain weight

Individual variation in energy needs

Thrifty gene hypothesis:

Evolutionary idea: ancestors with efficient energy storage survived famine

May predispose modern humans to obesity in food-rich environments

Supported by some Pacific Islander studies (e.g., PLIN1, PPARGCIA genes)

Critics: limited genetic proof; unclear historical starvation evidence

Endocannabinoids:

Brain chemicals that help conserve energy and regulate appetite

Cultural diet shifts:

Switching from traditional to Western diet increases obesity risk

Example: ethnic Hawaiians improved health when returning to native diet

Why Is Losing Weight for Hard?

Why Dieting Often Fails
Biological reasons

When calorie intake drops, the body resists weight loss to prevent “starvation”

Leads to metabolic adaptation — resting metabolic rate (RMR) decreases

Body burns fewer calories, preserving fat reserves

Seen after dieting and even some surgeries (gastric bypass/sleeve, not banding)

Body tends to defend its set point weight → hard to maintain weight loss

Psychological reasons

Restriction increases hunger and cravings

Dieting often leads to bingeing when rules are broken (“I already ruined my diet”)

Study example:

Dieters who thought they drank a high-calorie shake ate more ice cream afterward → “what-
the-hell” effect

Emotional distress (or even happiness) increases chances of bingeing

Restrained eaters are most vulnerable to emotional or impulsive eating

Keys to Successful Weight Loss

1. Permanent eating behavior change

Focus on long-term habits, not temporary restriction

Develop intuitive eating — eat when hungry, stop when full

Practice mindful eating:

Combination 84
 Chew slowly

Notice bodily sensations

Pay attention to taste and satiety

Associated with:

Higher intuitive eating scores

Lower BMI and fewer unhealthy eating habits

2. Exercise

Essential for maintaining weight loss and metabolism

Exercise > diet alone:

Reduces appetite rebound

Keeps metabolism higher

Strength training prevents muscle loss during weight loss

Helps reset body’s set point to a lower level over time

Culture and Weight-Based Prejudice

Widespread stigma

Overweight people often face ridicule, social isolation, and discrimination

Occurs both online (social media) and offline (workplace, education, healthcare)

Hashtags like #FatMicroaggressions highlight weight bias experiences

Many still use such tags to perpetuate prejudice instead of challenge it

Public attitudes

Survey of ~2,800+ people (US, Canada, Iceland, Australia):

→ ⅔ supported laws banning weight-based discrimination (Puhl et al., 2015)

Settings where bias occurs

Workplace: Less willingness to support or hire overweight individuals

Education:

Overweight students earn lower grades despite equal ability/test scores

Weight bias seen in elementary school to university levels

Media: Overweight individuals shown less positively; reinforces stereotypes

Healthcare: Some professionals describe overweight patients as “lazy” or “stupid”

Parental bias

Parents may discriminate against their own children

Less likely to financially support (car, tuition, etc.) overweight kids

Reflects internalized societal stigma

Professional bias

Even psychologists and clinicians sometimes show negative bias

Younger and less-experienced practitioners more likely to do so

Combination 85
 Why People Hold Anti-Fat Bias

Personal insecurities

Fear of negative appearance evaluations (Bissell & Hays, 2011)

Stronger social comparison tendencies

Poorer body image and greater emphasis on appearance correlate with bias

Media influence

Stigmatizing portrayals → increase prejudice

Positive portrayals → reduce support for discriminatory policies

Suggests media plays a major role in normalizing or challenging bias

Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa, Anorexia Nervosa, and Binge

Eating Disorder
Bulimia Nervosa
Definition

Eating disorder with alternating cycles of binge eating and compensatory behaviors

Compensatory behaviors include:

Purging (self-induced vomiting)

Fasting

Excessive exercise

Laxative abuse

Binge episodes can reach up to 20,000 calories at once

Health & Social Consequences

Physical effects

Dehydration

Electrolyte imbalance → can cause serious cardiac issues

Erosion/holes in the esophagus due to repeated vomiting

Mortality risk

2.33× higher death rate than control group (Franko et al., 2013)

Social effects

Secretive → social isolation

Time spent bingeing/purging reduces social and academic functioning

Psychological & Emotional Factors

Low self-esteem and depression common

Often perfectionistic with negative body image

Frequently from troubled or dysfunctional family environments

Binge-purge cycle used as an emotional coping mechanism

Helps temporarily manage anxiety, stress, or loss of control

Combination 86
 Anxiety identified as one of the strongest triggers for bingeing (Rigaud et al., 2014)

Anorexia Nervosa
Definition

Eating disorder characterized by self-starvation, intense fear of gaining weight, and distorted
body image

Key diagnostic feature: significantly below normal weight

Can result in life-threateningly low weight (as low as 50 lbs)

5–10% mortality rate among individuals with the disorder

Prevalence & Demographics

0.4% of females affected within a 12-month period (APA, 2013)

Lifetime prevalence in females ≈ 1.42% (Udo & Grilo, 2018)

Ratio: 10 females : 1 male

Common in middle- to upper-class females in industrialized nations

Increasing in males, especially in:

Gay or questioning adolescents (Burns et al., 2015)

Those with gender-identity confusion or body-image pressure (Griffiths et al., 2013)

Cultural & Social Influences

Western beauty standards glorify extreme thinness

Media depictions reinforce unrealistic ideals (size 0–2 vs avg 10–12)

Greater internalization of American beauty norms → higher body dissatisfaction (Poloskov &
Tracey, 2013)

Cultural variation:

Thin ideal rare in cultures valuing fuller figures (e.g., Jamaica)

Historically, 1950s icons like Marilyn Monroe represented healthier body ideals

Not limited to White women — affects women across ethnicities, though Black women show
fewer appearance concerns (Schaefer et al., 2015)

Psychological & Personality Factors

Perfectionism

Low self-esteem

Depression and faulty thinking about food (e.g., “carbs are bad”)

High persistence and self-constraint

Often co-occurs with:

Personality disorders

Substance use disorders

Depressive disorders

Biological & Genetic Factors

Evidence of genetic predisposition (twin studies)

Combination 87
 Identical twins show higher concordance than fraternal twins (Holland et al., 1988)

Possible evolutionary explanation — genes that enabled survival during famine (Guisinger,
2003)

Brain differences observed in specific circuits (Jiang et al., 2019)

Family clustering (mothers & daughters often share disorder) may reflect both genes and
shared environment

Binge Eating Disorder

Definition

Characterized by recurrent binge eating episodes similar to bulimia nervosa

No regular compensatory behaviors (e.g., purging, fasting, excessive exercise)

Often results in overweight or obesity

Prevalence

12-month prevalence

1.6% of adult females

0.8% of adult males (APA, 2013)

Lifetime risk ≈ 1.25%–2.6% (Citrome, 2015; Udo & Grilo, 2018)

Most common eating disorder in the population

Psychological & Behavioral Traits

Higher impulsivity, especially with food-related decisions (Schag et al., 2015)

Motivational ambivalence toward food

Self-report: positive feelings about food

Nonverbal behavior: negative emotional response (Leehr et al., 2016)

May struggle with emotional regulation

Rumination (dwelling on distress) → predicts binge episodes

Healthy coping strategies → reduce likelihood of bingeing (Svaldi et al., 2019)

Sexual Motivation
Sexual Desire: A Mixture of Chemicals, Thoughts and Culture
Definition

Sexual desire = motivation and interest to engage in sexual activity

Leads to sexual arousal → heightened state of excitement and interest

Influenced by both biological and psychological/cultural factors

Biological Factors

Hypothalamus

Works with pituitary gland to regulate release of sex hormones

Monitors hormone levels and adjusts production accordingly

Combination 88
 Hormones

Estrogen

Regulates mating behavior in animals (estrus = period of fertility)

In humans, estrogen fluctuates but is not directly linked to libido

Women with removed ovaries may still maintain sexual desire

Testosterone

Found in both sexes

Plays a major role in regulating libido

Low testosterone → reduced sexual interest in both men and women

Oxytocin

Released during sexual activity

Promotes bonding and closeness with partner

Dopamine

Associated with pleasure and reward → enhances desire

Psychological & Sensory Influences

Visual Cues

Seeing attractive features, erotic images, or lingerie → increases arousal

Visual stimulation often stronger in men than women

Auditory & Olfactory Cues

Romantic sounds, partner’s voice, or music may heighten desire

Scents (perfume, sweat, pheromones) influence attraction

Women prefer scent of masculine-looking men during ovulation

Men find scent of ovulating women especially attractive

Touch

Sensitive erogenous zones (genitals, breasts, thighs, etc.) vary per person

Reactions to touch shaped by personal experience and cultural learning

Cultural & Learned Influences

Social norms and gender roles shape what is considered attractive

Example: In the U.S., cleanliness and perfume = sexually appealing

In other cultures, natural body scents may be preferred

The Sexual Response Cycle

Overview

First direct observation & measurement of human sexual activity

Participants were monitored with sensors → physiological data collected

Identified 4 phases common to both men and women:

1. Excitement

Combination 89
 2. Plateau

3. Orgasm

4. Resolution

1. Excitement Phase
Physiological changes

↑ Heart rate and blood pressure

↑ Blood flow to genital areas

Males: erection, thickened scrotum

Females: vaginal lubrication, inner vagina expands, clitoris swells

Nipples may become erect

2. Plateau Phase
Excitement peaks and stabilizes

Breathing becomes rapid, HR & BP continue to rise

Males

Full erection

Testes fully elevated

Pre-ejaculate fluid may appear (may contain sperm)

Females

Vagina fully expands

Uterus elevates

Clitoris retracts slightly

3. Orgasm Phase
Peak of sexual pleasure and physiological arousal

Rapid increases in heart rate, BP, and breathing

Pelvic and anal muscle contractions

Body-wide muscle spasms possible

Males

Two processes:

1. Orgasm (pleasurable contractions)

2. Ejaculation (release of seminal fluid)

Females

Similar subjective experience of orgasm

~80 brain regions activated during orgasm (Komisaruk & Whipple, 2011)

4. Resolution Phase
Body returns to resting state

Combination 90
 HR, BP, and breathing normalize

Genitals return to pre-aroused condition

Males

Experience a refractory period (cannot orgasm again immediately)

Duration increases with age (minutes → hours or even a day)

Females

No refractory period → can experience multiple orgasms

Greater variability in sexual response pattern

Variations in Sexuality: Generational, Age, Gender, and Sexual

Orientation Differences
Global findings

Study of 27,500 adults (ages 40–80, 29 countries)

80% of males and 65% of females had sex in the past year (Nicolosi et al., 2004)

Sexuality remains important throughout life

Factors supporting healthy sexuality in later life

Good physical health

Consistent sexual activity across lifespan

Emotional closeness with partner

Long-term relationship stability (Traeen et al., 2018)

Generational Trends (Lloyds Pharmacy, 2010)

Average number of sexual partners by age 24

2000s generation → 5.65 partners

1970s generation → 3.72 partners

1960s generation → 1.67 partners

Suggests increased sexual openness & earlier sexual activity

Important in light of HIV/AIDS and STI risks

American Generational Attitudes (ABC News, 2004)

Generations compared:

Millennials (born after 1980)

Gen X (1965–1980)

Combination 91
 Baby Boomers (1946–1964)

Silent Generation (before 1946)

Findings:

Recent generations → more open & accepting of sexuality

Silent Generation → most conservative attitudes

⚠️ Note: differences may reflect age or life stage, not just generational values
National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) Findings

Over 20,000 participants (ages 14–102) (Indiana University)

Masturbation

80.4% of men 70+ and 58.3% of women 70+ have engaged

Millennials (18–19): lowest levels (86.1% males, 66% females)

Millennials (25–29): highest levels (94.3% males, 84.6% females)

→ Reflects both late adolescent growth & generational openness

Sexual activity

Vaginal intercourse: increases to age 29, then declines gradually

Under 30 → less likely to kiss during sex (seen as “too intimate”)

Over 40 → least likely to use condoms

Older adults

42.9% of men 70+ and 21.6% of women 70+ had intercourse in the past year

Sexual Orientation
Definition

Sexual orientation → enduring pattern of attraction toward members of the same and/or other
sex

Influences choice of sexual partners and aspects of identity

Individual Differences

People vary in:

Level of sexual desire

Whom they are attracted to

Sexual orientation is not fixed — it can shift over time, especially among women (Dickson et al.,
2013; Kinnish et al., 2005)

Traditional Classifications

Heterosexual → attraction to opposite sex

Homosexual → attraction to same sex

Bisexual → attraction to both sexes

Kinsey’s Continuum of Sexual Orientation (1948)

Proposed that sexuality exists on a spectrum, not in fixed categories

Combination 92
 Ranges from exclusive heterosexuality → exclusive homosexuality

Most people fall somewhere between the extremes

Sexual Orientation and Sexual Behavior

Distinction

Sexual orientation ≠ sexual behavior

A person’s identity and attraction may differ from their sexual activity

Example:

A married man with a woman may identify as gay if he’s attracted to men

A woman may have same-sex encounters but still identify as heterosexual

Kinsey’s Groundbreaking Studies (1948, 1953)

Conducted large-scale surveys on human sexuality

Found that:

37% of men and 13% of women had at least one same-sex sexual experience

But not all who had same-sex experiences identified as gay or lesbian

Introduced the idea that sexual orientation is a continuum rather than fixed categories

~3% of the general population are exclusively homosexual

Challenges in Measuring Orientation

Stigma and fear of discrimination can affect honesty in surveys

Some individuals conceal their true orientation due to:

Fear of reprisal

Cultural/religious stigma

Internal conflict or shame

Variations: Attitudes Toward Gays and Lesbians Across the World

Changing Attitudes Toward Homosexuality

Increasing acceptance

Representation of LGBTQ+ characters has grown — at least 88 TV/online shows (2018–

2019) featured same-sex activity (Wikipedia, 2019)

Indicates growing comfort and visibility of homosexuality in media

Key milestones

1973 – American Psychiatric Association (APA) removed homosexuality from the list of
mental illnesses

Combination 93
 1980 – Officially removed from the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual)

2004 – American Psychological Association declared it unfair and discriminatory to deny

same-sex couples marriage rights

2019 – 27 countries legalized same-sex marriage (Pew Research Center, 2019)

Persistent Homophobia and Prejudice

Definition:

Homophobia — prejudicial attitudes or fear/dislike of homosexuals or homosexuality

Violence and discrimination

2017: 1,130 victims of hate crimes due to sexual orientation (FBI, 2017)

80–90% of LGBTQ+ youth report verbal abuse in schools (Mueller et al., 2015)

LGBTQ+ teens experience higher rates of dating violence (Dank et al., 2014)

Gay, lesbian, and bisexual adults report higher levels of domestic abuse, sexual assault, and
childhood abuse (Balsam et al., 2005; Sweet & Welles, 2012)

Legal protection

2019: 31 U.S. states + D.C. had hate crime laws protecting sexual orientation (Human Rights
Campaign, 2019)

Religion, Mental Health & Minority Stress

Religious condemnation

Some religions view homosexuality as immoral or sinful (Kashubeck-West et al., 2017)

Mental health

Some studies show higher rates of psychological distress among LGBTQ+ persons (Kuyper
& Fokkema, 2011)

Not all studies agree:

Only bisexual individuals show significantly higher distress in some urban studies (Nam
et al., 2019)

Minority stress theory:

Mental health struggles often stem from social stigma and prejudice, not orientation
itself

Especially affects those who are mostly heterosexual but struggle with internalized
stigma (Kuyper & Bos, 2016)

Relationship & Family Studies

Commitment & satisfaction:

Gay and heterosexual couples show equal levels of relationship satisfaction and
commitment (Roisman et al., 2008)

Parenting:

Children of gay or lesbian parents show no differences in adjustment or development

compared to heterosexual households (Patterson, 2006)

Cultural Acceptance Around the World

Cross-cultural study of 190 societies (Ford & Beach, 1951):

Combination 94
 ~Two-thirds accepted homosexuality as normal

Differences in acceptance likely linked to beliefs about the causes of sexual orientation
(Mucherah, Owino, & McCoy, 2016)

What Causes One’s Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation → attraction to same, other, or both sexes

Gender → socially defined traits, roles, and behaviors associated with being male or female

Orientation ≠ gender

A gay man can be masculine or feminine

A heterosexual woman can be masculine or feminine

Not all feminine men are gay, and not all masculine women are lesbian

Gender-Nonconforming Behavior in Childhood

Gender-nonconforming behavior:

Boys showing feminine interests / Girls showing masculine interests

Studies show some correlation between childhood gender-nonconforming behavior and later
homosexuality (Rieger et al., 2008)

But — correlation ≠ causation

About half of adult gay men preferred traditionally masculine activities in childhood (Bell et
al., 1981)

In less gender-stereotyped cultures, gay males are less likely to show feminine childhood
behavior (Ross, 1980)

Conclusion → early behavior may predict, but does not cause orientation

Genetic & Biological Influences

Twin studies

Higher concordance rates for homosexuality among identical twins than fraternal twins

Suggests moderate heritability, especially for males (Chaladze, 2016; Dawood et al., 2009)

Evidence also hints at genetic contribution for females

Fraternal Birth Order Effect

Gay men more likely to have more older brothers (Blanchard, 2008)

Supports the Maternal Immune Hypothesis →

With each male pregnancy, mother’s immune system may develop antibodies to male
hormones

Alters prenatal hormonal environment of later-born sons, influencing orientation

(Bogaert & Skorska, 2011)

Prenatal & neurological factors

Gay individuals are more likely to be left-handed, which develops before birth (Lippa, 2003;
Swift-Gallant et al., 2019)

Suggests prenatal influences play a role (Rahman, 2005)

Combination 95
 Theories and Expression of Emotion
Definition of Emotion

Emotion → a complex reaction to internal or external events involving multiple components

(Lazarus, 1991)

It includes:

Physiological reactions (changes in body state)

Behavioral reactions (actions taken)

Facial expressions (observable emotion)

Cognition (thoughts and interpretations)

Affective responses (subjective feelings or “what it feels like”)

Example: Seeing a Bear

Component Description

Physiological ↑ heart rate, ↑ respiration, dilated pupils, tense muscles

Behavioral Freeze, run, or yell

Facial expression Fear visible on face

Cognitive Thinking about what to do, recalling advice about bears

Affective “I’m scared!” or “I’m excited!”

Why Emotion Is Complex

Emotions involve body, mind, and behavior all at once

They include both automatic (biological) and conscious (cognitive) responses

That’s why psychologists find it hard to define precisely

Emotion vs Motivation

Emotion Motivation

Usually triggered by external stimuli (e.g., seeing a sad Usually triggered by internal needs (e.g., hunger,
movie) thirst)

Has a distinct feeling (affective) component — “I feel Often goal-driven, not always linked to conscious
afraid” feelings

Motivation can exist without emotion (e.g., hunger →

Can produce motivation (e.g., fear → motivates running)
eat)

Flexible triggers (many things can cause happiness) Specific triggers (e.g., lack of food → hunger)

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Main Idea:
Emotion is the physiological response — our body reacts first, and that bodily reaction is the
emotion.

Formula:

👉 Stimulus → Physiological Response → Emotion

Key Concept

Emotions are purely physiological events

Combination 96
 Each emotion = a unique pattern of body reactions

Strengths

First to link bodily feedback and emotional experience

Introduced the idea that our body informs our mind

Limitations

Doesn’t explain how different emotions can feel distinct even when they share similar
physiological patterns (e.g., fear vs. excitement both increase heart rate)

Overlooks the role of cognition and interpretation in emotions

Example (Bear in the Woods)

1. You see a bear → stimulus

2. Your heart rate increases, breathing quickens, muscles tense

3. You interpret these body reactions as fear

🗣️ You don’t run because you’re afraid —

You’re afraid because you’re running / your body is reacting

Cannon’s Criticisms of the James-Lange Theory

Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion (Walter Cannon & Philip Bard, 1927)

Main Idea:
Emotion and physiological arousal happen simultaneously, not sequentially.

The brain (especially the thalamus) triggers both the feeling and the bodily response at the
same time.

Formula:
👉 Stimulus → Brain activation (thalamus) → Emotion + Physiological response
Strengths

Recognizes the role of the brain in emotion (not just body reactions)

Explains why emotions can feel instantaneous

Supported by neurobiological evidence (thalamus involvement)

Limitations

Oversimplifies — assumes thalamus alone controls emotions

Doesn’t fully explain how cognitive interpretation affects emotions

Later research shows other brain areas (amygdala, cortex) also play key roles

Example (Bear in the Woods)

1. You see a bear → stimulus

2. The brain (thalamus) sends signals to both:

the body → heart races, muscles tense

the conscious mind → feeling of fear

3. You feel fear and physically react at the same time

Cannon’s Three Criticisms of James–Lange Theory

Combination 97
 1. Physiological similarity – different emotions share similar body responses (e.g., fear vs anger)

2. Timing issue – emotions can occur before bodily changes are noticed

3. Artificial arousal – inducing bodily changes (e.g., caffeine) doesn’t create real emotions

Modern Supoort for the James-Lange Theory

New Findings

Modern tools (e.g., skin temperature, heart rate, electrical skin conductivity) allowed
researchers to detect subtle physiological differences across emotions

Study results:

Participants who held facial expressions for emotions like fear, anger, happiness, disgust,
sadness, and surprise showed unique physiological patterns

For instance, all emotions increased heart rate and skin temperature, but the degree of
change differed

Watching emotional films (amusement vs. disgust) also produced distinct arousal patterns

Implications

Supports the core James–Lange idea that bodily reactions contribute to emotional experience

Suggests subtle physiological signatures may help us differentiate emotions

Limitations

Findings don’t address Cannon’s other two criticisms:

1. Timing: Physiological response can follow emotional awareness

2. Artificial arousal: Induced arousal (e.g., caffeine) doesn’t cause real emotions

Indicates that while body feedback matters, other factors (like facial feedback and cognition)
likely contribute to emotion

The Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Main idea:

The facial feedback hypothesis proposes that our facial expressions influence our emotional
experience — not just reflect it

Smiling can make you feel happier; frowning can make you feel more negative

Combination 98
 Supporting Evidence

Kraut (1982):

Participants rated odors more positively while smiling

Rated them less positively while frowning

Marzoli et al. (2013):

People who involuntarily frowned (due to sunlight) reported increased aggressiveness

Coles, Larsen, & Lench (2019):

Meta-analysis of 138 studies confirmed that facial muscle configuration affects mood

Possible Mechanism

Facial muscle movements alter blood flow and brain temperature

Frowning → increases brain temperature → may worsen mood

Smiling → decreases brain temperature → may improve mood

Lower brain temperature linked to positive affect (Zajonc, Murphy, & Inglehart, 1989)

Thermal imaging studies detect emotion through facial temperature patterns (Cruz-Albarran et
al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2019)

The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Core idea

Emotion = Physiological Arousal + Cognitive Interpretation

We first feel general bodily arousal, then interpret it based on the situation, which produces the
emotional experience

Example

You see a bear → heart rate increases

You interpret the situation: “I’m in danger!”

You label the arousal as fear

→ Emotion experienced = Fear

Key Study (Schachter & Singer, 1962)

Participants injected with epinephrine (causes arousal)

Combination 99
 Informed group: told the injection causes these symptoms → unaffected by confederate’s
behavior

Uninformed group: no explanation for arousal → looked to social cues

Angry confederate → participants felt angry

Happy confederate → participants felt happy

✅ Supports: emotion arises from arousal + context-based interpretation

Contributions

First major theory to highlight the role of cognition in emotion

Shows that situational context helps shape what emotion we feel

Limitations / Criticisms

Emotions can occur without conscious labeling or strong physiological arousal

People under beta-blockers (reduced arousal) still report normal emotions (Reisenzein, 1983)

Later research suggests arousal enhances emotion intensity but doesn’t always create it

Lazarus’s Cognitive-Mediational Theory of Emotion

Core idea

Cognition (appraisal) comes before emotion

The way we interpret or appraise a situation determines what emotion we feel

Example

You see a bear in the woods

Your appraisal (mental evaluation) determines your emotion:

“Bears are dangerous!” → Fear

“It looks friendly, like from a show!” → Calmness / curiosity

→ The emotion depends on your interpretation, not just the situation itself

Key Concept: Cognitive Appraisal

Primary appraisal: assess if the situation is a threat, challenge, or neutral

Secondary appraisal: assess if you can cope or manage it

Together → determine the type and intensity of your emotional response

Why People React Differently

Two people can experience the same event but feel different emotions

→ Because their appraisals differ

(e.g., bad grade = “teacher hates me” → anger; “I’ll improve next time” → motivation)

Applications

Emotion regulation: You can control emotions by reframing how you perceive events

→ Seeing stress as a challenge instead of a threat leads to calmer, more positive emotions

Variations: Gender Differences in Emotional Regulation

Reappraisal and Emotion Regulation

Combination 100
 Even when our initial appraisal causes negative emotions,

→ We can reappraise (reinterpret) the situation to reduce or eliminate those emotions

Example

Situation: A man bumps into a woman

Female’s initial appraisal: “He did it on purpose” → Anger or irritation

Female’s reappraisal: “He probably didn’t see me” → Anger fades, replaced with calm or
understanding

Male’s initial appraisal: “She’s overreacting” or “It wasn’t my fault” → Defensiveness or

annoyance

Male’s reappraisal: “She might have been startled” → Feels understanding or empathy instead
of irritation

→ Shows that both men and women can reduce negative emotions by reinterpreting the situation
—

but they may focus on different aspects when reappraising (women tend to reduce anger by seeing
intent as accidental, men by increasing empathy).

Emotion Regulation & the Brain (McRae et al., 2008)

Participants viewed upsetting images and tried to reappraise them (remind themselves the
pictures weren’t real)

Brain Region Function Findings

Prefrontal Cognitive control (thinking,

Both genders used it, but women showed more activity
cortex reasoning)

Amygdala Emotional response (fear, anger) Women showed more activation during reappraisal

Women showed greater activation, possibly to create

Ventral striatum Reward & positive emotions
positive emotions

Gender Differences

Emotional reactions: No difference — both men and women reacted equally strongly

Reappraisal process: Women showed more brain activity, suggesting they used more cognitive
effort

Effectiveness: Both genders were equally able to regulate emotions successfully

Key Takeaways

Reappraisal = key strategy for emotion regulation

Men and women are equally capable of managing emotions

Stereotype that women are “more emotional” or “less in control” = ❌ not supported by
evidence

Is Cognition Essential to Emotion?

Zajonc’s View: Emotion Without Cognition

Main Idea

Psychologist Robert Zajonc (1980) argued that emotions can occur without conscious
thought or appraisal

Combination 101
 Emotional reactions may be immediate and automatic, not always requiring cognition

Study Example

Participants (English speakers) were shown Japanese ideographs repeatedly

Later, they rated how much they liked each symbol

Participants preferred symbols they had seen more often, even though they didn’t
understand them

Key Concept — Mere Exposure Effect

The more we are exposed to something, the more we tend to like it

Emotional preference formed without understanding or reasoning

Implication

Suggests that some emotional responses are purely physiological or automatic

We can “feel” before we “think” — emotions can exist independent of cognition

✅ Takeaway: Zajonc’s theory challenges cognitive approaches (like Lazarus), showing that not all
emotions require conscious appraisal — sometimes, familiarity alone can trigger positive emotion

Communicating Emotions: Culture, Gender, and Facial Expressions

Paul Ekman’s Findings (1973)

Participants from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Japan, and the U.S. identified emotions from facial
expressions

Results:

People could generally recognize emotions across cultures

Happiness → easiest to identify (most universal)

Fear and anger → hardest to identify and often confused

Gender differences:

Women are faster at recognizing emotions

Accuracy depends on context — emotion type, gender, and age of the person shown

Beyond Faces — Vocal Emotion

People can also identify basic emotions from nonverbal sounds (laughs, screams)

Both Westerners and Namibians were accurate in recognizing emotions through vocal cues

Brain scans show distinct neural patterns linked to specific emotions

Cultural Display Rules

Each culture has rules for when and how emotions should be shown

U.S.: showing fear or sadness in business is inappropriate

Some Arab cultures: showing anger is necessary to maintain honor

People may even adjust their emotions cognitively to align with cultural expectations

e.g., an American businessperson reappraises sadness as inappropriate

Cultural Variations in “Basic” Emotions

Some emotions (e.g., happiness) appear universal, but others differ by culture

Combination 102
 Example: Hindus include peace, wonder, amusement, heroism as basic emotions

Raises the question: Are “basic emotions” truly universal?

Summary of Theories of Motivation

Theory Description / Main Idea Strengths Limitations Examples

Behavior is driven by Babies instinctively

Too many “instincts”
Instinct Theory innate biological Highlights biological suckle or cry;
proposed; cannot
(William James, instincts that evolved to basis of behavior humans show
distinguish learned
1890) aid survival (e.g., love, and link to evolution instinct to protect
vs innate behavior
curiosity, fight-or-flight) offspring

Cannot explain
Explains biological
Motivation comes from overindulgence
Drive Reduction motivation (e.g., Feeling hungry →
biological needs creating (e.g., overeating) or
Theory (Hull, hunger, thirst) well; eat; feeling cold →
drives that push us to non-biological
1943) introduces concept wear jacket
restore homeostasis motives like
of homeostasis
achievement

Explains why people Studying better

We are motivated to Doesn’t explain why
Arousal Theory seek excitement or when moderately
maintain an optimal level optimal arousal
(Yerkes & relaxation; supported stressed; thrill-
of arousal; performance differs between
Dodson, 1908) by Yerkes-Dodson seeking behaviors
best at moderate arousal individuals or tasks
law like skydiving

Motivation depends on
fulfilling 3 needs:
Self- Explains internal vs Hard to measure Studying because
competence, autonomy,
Determination external motivation; intrinsic vs extrinsic you enjoy learning
and relatedness.
Theory (Deci & applied in motivation precisely; (intrinsic) vs to get
Includes intrinsic (self-
Ryan, 1985, education, work, overlap between good grades
driven) and extrinsic
2008) and sports both (extrinsic)
(external reward)
motivation

Motivation is organized in
a hierarchy from basic Broad, intuitive Skipping lunch to
Maslow’s Not all people follow
needs (food, safety) to framework; links study (higher need
Hierarchy of hierarchy; cultural
higher needs (love, biological and overrides lower);
Needs (1943, and individual
esteem, self- psychological Mother Teresa →
1970) variation
actualization, motives transcendence
transcendence)

Summary of Theories of Emotion

Theory What it is Strengths Limitations Example

- First to link bodily - Body responses often

Emotion = result of
James-Lange changes with emotion too similar - Sometimes You see a bear →
physiological
Theory (William - Supported by we feel emotion before heart races → “I feel
arousal; we feel
James & Carl studies showing body reacts - Artificial fear because my
emotion because our
Lange, 1884) distinct physiological arousal (e.g. caffeine) heart is racing.”
body reacts
patterns for emotions doesn’t create emotion

Cannon-Bard Emotion and - Explains why - Doesn’t explain how You see a bear →
Theory (Walter physiological arousal emotions can happen physiological cues and brain triggers fear
Cannon & Philip occur without bodily thoughts combine - and bodily arousal at
Bard, 1927) simultaneously and feedback - Supported Can’t explain subtle the same time.
independently, by brain studies

Combination 103
 Theory What it is Strengths Limitations Example
triggered by brain differences between
(esp. hypothalamus) emotions

- Supported by
- Effects are small and
Facial expressions evidence that smiling Smiling while holding
Facial Feedback not always consistent -
influence emotions; can improve mood - a pen between teeth
Hypothesis Doesn’t explain
feedback from facial Explains how makes you feel
(McIntosh, 1996) emotion without
muscles affects mood expressions and mood happier.
expression
reinforce each other

Emotion = - Later research shows After a shot of

Two-Factor - Highlights role of
physiological arousal emotion can occur adrenaline, if
Theory cognition - Explains
+ cognitive labeling; without labeling - Weak someone near you is
(Schachter & how context shapes
we interpret arousal evidence that labeling angry, you’ll feel
Singer, 1962) emotion
using context always needed angry too.

Seeing a bear → you

- Emphasizes thinking - Hard to measure
Cognitive- Emotion depends on appraise it as
and reappraisal - appraisals directly -
Mediational cognitive appraisal dangerous → feel
Explains individual Some emotions occur
Theory (Richard of a situation before fear. Reappraising
differences in too quickly for
Lazarus, 1995) arousal or response (“It’s behind glass”)
emotional reactions conscious thought
reduces fear.

- Shows some
Emotion can occur
emotional reactions - Oversimplifies People prefer
Mere Exposure / without cognition;
are automatic and complex emotions - symbols or faces
Zajonc’s Theory repeated exposure
subconscious - Applies mainly to mild they’ve seen before,
(Robert Zajonc, leads to positive
Supported by studies emotions (like/dislike), even without
1980) emotion (mere
on preference through not complex ones remembering them.
exposure effect)
repetition

Locos Of Control (LOC)

Internal Vs External

Internal

I make my own fate, Im in charge

Tend to show higher achievement, better health, and stronger coping skills — but may also
blame themselves too much when things go wrong

External

Oh well its fate, Life happens to me

Feel less control and may experience more helplessness, but they can handle uncontrollable
events (like illness) with less guilt

Belief About Cause of

Type Typical Thinking Examples Effects on Behavior
Outcomes

Outcomes depend on “I can influence “I did well on the test More self-motivated,
Internal locus of
one’s own actions, what happens to because I studied persistent, responsible;
control
effort, or ability me.” hard.” better stress coping

Outcomes depend on More passive, anxious,

External locus of “Things just happen “I failed because the
luck, fate, or powerful less likely to take
control to me.” exam was unfair.”
others initiative or responsibility

Evaluating the World: Attitudes

Combination 104
 Attitude = A learned tendency to evaluate something in a certain way (our overall viewpoint or
emotional response towards an object, person, or situation)

Attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral and has 3 components

Cognitive - What you think about something (Beliefs / Thoughts)

Affective - Your emotional reaction (Feelings / Emotions)

Behavioural - How you act or what you’re likely to do (Actions / Intensions)

Example 1: Attitude Towards Exercise

Cognitive: “Exercise improves my health.”

Affective: “I enjoy how I feel after a workout.”

Behavioural: Goes to the gym regularly.

✅ Overall attitude: Positive — values fitness and acts on it.

Example 2: Attitude Towards Exams

Cognitive: “Exams are pointless.”

Affective: Feels anxious and stressed.

Behavioural: Procrastinates or avoids studying.

❌ Overall Negative attitude

Example 3: Attitude Towards Lecturer

Cognitive: “She’s knowledgeable.”

Affective: “I feel nervous when she speaks harshly.”

Behavioural: Avoids participating in her class.

⚖️ Mixed attitude: Recognizes ability but feels uncomfortable.

Acquiring Attitudes Through Learning
Our attitudes are shaped by learning processes — classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
observational learning

These processes influence what we believe, how we feel, and how we act

Classical Conditioning
Attitudes can form when a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits emotion
(US → UR)

Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes associated with that emotion (CS → CR)

Key Idea: Emotional associations can make us like or dislike something without conscious
reasoning

Strengths

Explains gut-level, emotional reactions

Commonly used in advertising and media

Limitations

Attitudes formed this way may be weak or easily changed

Works mainly for simple emotional associations

Combination 105
 Example: Child & Smily Face

Smiley face (US) → positive emotion (UR)

Child photo (NS) + smiley face (US) → positive emotion (UR)

Child photo (CS) → positive emotion (CR)

Example: School Bell & Excitement

Recess time (US) → feeling of excitement or relief (UR)

School bell (NS) + recess time (US) → excitement (UR)

School bell (CS) → excitement (CR)

Operant Conditioning
Attitudes are strengthened or weakened through rewards and punishments

Positive feedback reinforces the attitude, negative feedback discourages it

Key Idea: We adopt attitudes that are socially or personally rewarded

Strengths:

Explains why social approval shapes beliefs

Direct behavioral link between attitude and outcome

Limitations:

Attitude change depends on external reinforcement

May not last if rewards stop

Examples

♻️ Friends praise recycling → pro-environment attitude strengthens

🚭 Telling an offensive joke → friends disapprove → prejudiced attitude weakens
🚬 Nicotine pleasure → smoker maintains pro-smoking attitude despite risks
Observational Learning (Modelling)
We learn attitudes by watching others and imitating their behaviors or beliefs

Attitudes of parents, peers, and media figures shape our own

Key Idea: Social influence plays a large role in shaping opinions and biases

Strengths:

Combination 106
 Explains intergenerational and cultural transmission of attitudes

Works even without direct experience

Limitation:

Attitudes may reflect conformity rather than personal belief

Difficult to separate from other learning influences

Example

👩‍👧 Daughter adopts her mother’s views on women’s roles

🚭 Teen influenced by best friend who smokes develops positive view of smoking
🌍 Child raised around anti-immigrant talk grows up sharing similar attitudes
Theory How It Works Strengths Limitations Examples

Pairing emotion- Celebrity

Classical Explains automatic Attitudes may be
eliciting stimuli with endorsements, child-
Conditioning emotional reactions weak or situational
neutral ones smiley pairing

Reinforcement and Connects social Change may fade Praise for recycling,
Operant
punishment shape feedback to attitude without disapproval for
Conditioning
attitudes strength reinforcement offensive jokes

Modeling others’
Observational Explains cultural and May promote Adopting parents’ or
attitudes and
Learning family transmission conformity peers’ beliefs
behaviors

Attitude-Behavior Consistency
Sometimes our behavior contradicts our attitudes, especially under social pressure

Example — laughing at a joke you don’t find funny because everyone else is laughing

Example — engaging in risky or harmful behavior to fit in with peers

This inconsistency shows that attitudes don’t always predict behavior perfectly (LaPiere, 1934)

Practical Importance

Helps predict when people will act on their beliefs

Relevant for

- Health behaviors (e.g., safer sex practices)

- Political behavior (e.g., voting patterns)

- Consumer decisions (e.g., buying a product after seeing positive ads)

Factor Original Example New Example

Low ambivalence (clear Feeling completely positive about Someone who fully dislikes horror movies will
positive or negative spinach increases your chance of consistently avoid them when choosing what
feelings) eating it to watch

Both enjoying spinach and knowing it’s Liking running because it feels good and
Cognitive and affective
good for you increase the chances you knowing it improves your fitness increases
aspects agree
will eat it your consistency in running daily

If the first thing you think of when If the first thing that comes to mind about
Quick retrieval from
ordering dinner is your love of spinach, your gym is how friendly the trainers are,
memory
you are more likely to order it you’re more likely to keep going regularly

Combination 107
 Factor Original Example New Example

If you have loved spinach since Someone who has supported a political party
Stable attitude over time childhood, you’re more likely to since young is more likely to vote for it every
continue eating it election

Certainty about the If you are very sure about your love of Being certain that smoking is harmful makes
attitude spinach, you’re more likely to eat it you firmly reject offers to try it

If you learned to love spinach by If you personally volunteered at an animal

Direct experience with
actually eating it, you’re more likely to shelter and enjoyed it, you’re more likely to
the object
eat it again volunteer again

You had a bad day and are in a bad After a rough week, you still follow your
Negative mood enhances
mood but still eat spinach you’ve regular workout routine because it aligns with
consistency
always loved your belief that exercise relieves stress

Matching levels of You love spinach and believe in You strongly believe in sustainability and also
attitude and behavior promoting it as a healthy food, so you take daily actions like bringing your own cup
activation choose to grow spinach to cafés

You’re a spinach farmer who promotes A climate activist who believes in reducing
Personal importance or
spinach for everyone to keep your emissions drives an electric car and
vested interest
business thriving advocates for green policies

Cognitive Consistency and Attitude Change

Cognitive Consistency
Desire to maintain harmony among attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors

Inconsistency creates discomfort that motivates change

Example:

You see yourself as logical but eat at an unhealthy restaurant

You justify it by saying “It’s a one-time treat” to reduce inconsistency

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

When attitudes and behaviors conflict, we experience cognitive dissonance (unpleasant tension)

Combination 108
 Dissonance motivates us to restore consistency by changing

Behavior - Stop the inconsistent behaviour

A person who believes in healthy living but smokes feels uneasy about their habit

To reduce dissonance, they quit smoking to align with their belief in health

Attitude - Adjust belief to match behaviour

A student cheats on an exam even though they believe cheating is wrong

To reduce dissonance, they convince themselves that “cheating isn’t a big deal if everyone
does it”

Adding new beliefs - Justify the inconsistency

A person who eats fast food often but values fitness feels guilty

To reduce dissonance, they add a new belief like “I work out regularly, so it balances out”

Real-life Example: Succeed Body Image Programme (SBIP)

Participants criticize ultra-thin beauty standards

Creates dissonance for those who previously admired that ideal

To reduce discomfort, participants adopt healthier body image attitudes

Outcome:

Women less likely to agree that thinness is ideal

Reduced support for disordered eating attitudes

Positive & Negative Outcomes

Positive

Encourages attitude change toward healthier, more consistent beliefs

Promotes self-awareness and reduces hypocrisy

Negative

Can lead to rationalization of harmful behavior to reduce guilt

Example: Justifying cheating because “everyone else did it”

Persuasion and Attitude Change

Persuasion → process by which others attempt to change our attitudes

We encounter persuasion daily from friends, media, ads, and politicians

Only some persuasive attempts lead to actual attitude change

Two Routes to Persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)

Central Route

Careful and critical evaluation of message content

Focus on logic, evidence, and quality of arguments

Used when:

We are personally involved in the issue

We have time, motivation, and mental energy to think deeply

Combination 109
 Central route → produces stronger, longer-lasting attitude change & encourages critical
thinking and informed decisions

Example:

Reading a job ad carefully to assess job details and company culture

Choosing to support a policy after analyzing data and arguments

Peripheral Route

Persuasion based on superficial cues rather than content

Focus on things like attractiveness, likability, tone, or aesthetics

Used when:

We are not involved or mentally distracted/tired

Peripheral route → leads to temporary or shallow attitude change & makes people
vulnerable to manipulation through appearance or emotion

Example:

Liking a brand because the ad uses a famous celebrity

Clicking on a job ad because the website looks visually appealing

Factors Influencing Persuasion

Communicator variables

Credibility, likability, attractiveness, expertise of the speaker

Message variables

Clarity, emotional tone, and whether arguments appeal to logic or feelings

Audience variables

Age, intelligence, mood, involvement level, and prior attitudes

Communicator Variables
Attractiveness

Attractive communicators are more persuasive

People tend to associate beauty with trustworthiness and likability

Example:

Advertisers use famous actors or models to sell products

A fitness brand featuring a fit influencer increases persuasion

Credibility

Communicators perceived as knowledgeable or trustworthy are more persuasive

Credibility often overrides weak arguments if audience focuses on the source instead of the
content

Example:

A doctor in a commercial recommending vitamins increases trust

A news expert endorsing a policy makes it seem more reliable

Expertise

Combination 110
 People are more persuaded by those who appear to be experts in the topic

Expert communicators increase confidence and acceptance of the message

Example:

A financial advisor promoting an investment plan

A chef recommending a cooking brand

Perceived Intent

People are less persuaded when they sense the communicator is trying too hard to convince
them

Exception → if the communicator is attractive, persuasion still works

Example:

Subtle product placements (e.g., actor casually using a phone) feel more natural and
persuasive

Processing Route Effect

Peripheral route → appearance and trust of communicator have greater impact

Central route → argument quality matters more than communicator appeal

Message Variables
Argument Quality

Logical, well-reasoned arguments are most persuasive on the central route

Audience carefully evaluates evidence and reasoning

Example:

A campaign using data and statistics to prove the benefits of renewable energy

A student convinced by scientific research supporting mental health therapy effectiveness

Peripheral Cues

When processing on the peripheral route, persuasion depends on superficial factors

Includes things like ad design, visuals, tone, or website attractiveness

Example:

People more likely to trust an aesthetic, easy-to-navigate website

A flashy, colorful ad can attract attention even without strong arguments

Indirect Effects of Peripheral Cues

Attractive presentation can increase engagement or attention

Poor design can reduce interest even if the arguments are strong

Example:

A well-designed site makes users more interested in reading about climate issues

A messy webpage makes users ignore even credible health info

Two-Sided Arguments

Presenting both pros and cons builds trust and credibility

More persuasive when communicator addresses and refutes objections

Combination 111
 Example:

A company admits their product is expensive but explains it lasts longer and saves money
long term

A speaker acknowledges concerns about renewable energy costs but shows long-term
savings

Audience Variables
Intelligence

Intelligence influences how deeply one analyzes persuasive messages

Both high and low intelligence can lead to greater or lesser persuasion depending on context

Example:

A highly intelligent person might resist a weak argument but be persuaded by strong
evidence

A person with lower intelligence may accept simple, emotionally appealing ads

Age

Younger individuals are often more open to attitude change

Older individuals may have more stable attitudes

Example:

Teens may change opinions about fashion trends quickly

Older adults may stick to long-held political views

Self-Esteem

Moderate self-esteem individuals are most likely to be persuaded

Very high → resistant to change

Very low → disengaged or self-doubting

Example:

A confident person might dismiss ads easily

Someone uncertain may be swayed by reassurance or praise

Self-Monitoring

Refers to how much one adjusts behavior to meet social expectations

High self-monitors → influenced by social approval and image cues

Low self-monitors → influenced by values and internal beliefs

Example:

A high self-monitor may buy trendy clothes to fit in

A low self-monitor buys based on comfort or personal values

Self-Concept Clarity

How clearly one understands themselves and their beliefs

Low clarity → more susceptible to persuasion

High clarity → resistant to attitude change

Combination 112
 Example:

Someone unsure about their identity might try new beliefs easily

A person who knows their values won’t change opinions quickly

Emotional Intelligence

Ability to understand and manage emotions

Higher EI → better regulation of emotional persuasion attempts

Example:

Someone with high EI can spot manipulative emotional ads

Low EI individuals may be easily moved by sentimental stories

Mood

Positive mood can increase persuasion when message matches emotion

Negative mood may trigger more critical thinking

Example:

A cheerful ad is more effective when the viewer is already happy

A serious message works better when the viewer feels thoughtful or sad

Forming Impressions of Others

Impression Formation

Process of understanding and making judgments about others

Helps us form ideas about what kind of person someone is

Purpose

Allows us to predict others’ behavior in different situations

Helps guide our own social behavior

Reduces uncertainty and awkwardness in interactions

Examples

Meeting a new classmate → you quickly decide if they seem friendly or quiet

A job interview → interviewer forms impressions from tone, appearance, and confidence

The Attribution Theory

Process of assigning causes to people’s behavior (Heider, 1958)

Helps us understand why someone behaves a certain way

Purpose

Allows us to infer traits or intentions of others

Guides how we respond or interact with them

Two Main Types of Attribution

Trait Attribution (Internal)

Combination 113
 Cause is due to personal traits, abilities, or characteristics

Example:

Person yells at a café → assume they are naturally aggressive or rude

Student fails exam → assume they are lazy or unmotivated

Situational Attribution (External)

Cause is due to environmental or situational factors

Example:

Person yells → assume employee spilled hot coffee on them

Student fails exam → assume exam was unfair or they were sick

Heuristics and Biases in Attribution

Humans are cognitive misers → we prefer to save mental effort when processing information (Fiske
& Taylor, 2013)

Instead of analyzing all details, we rely on shortcuts (heuristics) to make quick judgments → can
lead to biases or errors

Quick judgments are often inaccurate or unfair

Leads to systematic attribution errors when interpreting others’ behavior

Fundemental Attribution Error

Tendency to overestimate personal traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining
others’ behavior

Example

Someone cuts you off in traffic → assume they are rude or selfish, rather than in a hurry due to
emergency

You see a classmate arrive late to lecture → assume they are lazy or disorganized rather than
considering situational factors like traffic, family issues, or a late bus

Why do we engage in this behaviour

Focus on traits over environment

We prefer to understand the person, not the situation (Jones, 1979)

Easier to assume behavior = personality

Lack of awareness of situational factors

We often don’t know what’s happening behind the scenes

Example

People judged an email writer with bad grammar as careless, but when told the writer
was from another culture, judgments became less negative (Vignovic & Thompson, 2010)

Perceptual focus

We pay more attention to the person we see than to the context

Stronger under stress (Kubota et al., 2014)

Cultural influence

Combination 114
 Individualistic cultures (US, Western Europe) → more likely to commit FAE

Collectivistic cultures (Japan, India) → less likely, because they emphasize context and
group behavior (Triandis, 1994)

How do we reduce this behaviour

Education

Learning social psychology helps reduce this bias (Stalder, 2012)

Mindfulness

Being present and nonjudgmental reduces FAE (Hopthrow et al., 2017)

Awareness

Recognizing our own biases improves fairness in judging others

Actor/Observer Bias
Tendency to make situational attributions for our own behavior but trait attributions for others’
behavior

When we are the actor, we explain our actions by the situation

When we are the observer, we explain others’ actions by their personality

Why it happens?

Different perspectives

As actors → focus on environment and external causes

As observers → focus on the person and internal causes

Example

You yell at a barista and think “I’m just stressed today”

But when someone else yells, you think “They’re a rude person”

Knowledge difference

We know our own thoughts, moods, and context

But we have limited insight into others’ internal states

So we fill in the blanks by assuming personality causes their actions

Perceptual focus

As actors, our attention faces outward toward the environment

As observers, our attention faces inward toward the person

Example 1

You fail an exam → blame bad sleep or unclear questions

Classmate fails → assume they are lazy or unprepared

Example 2

You get angry and shout → blame stress or a bad day

Someone else shouts → label them as aggressive or mean

Self-Serving Bias

Combination 115
 Tendency to make trait attributions for success and situational attributions for failure

Helps us protect self-esteem and maintain a positive self-image

Why it happens

Desire for self-esteem

We want to feel competent and capable

Taking credit for success reinforces self-worth

Blaming failures on external factors helps us avoid guilt or shame

Universal tendency

Seen across ages, genders, and cultures (Mezulis et al., 2004)

Even in collectivistic cultures like China (Hu et al., 2016)

Example

Get an A → “I’m smart and worked hard”

Fail exam → “The test was unfair”

Example 1: Sports

Your team wins a match → say “we trained harder and have better skills”

Your team loses → blame “bad weather,” “biased referee,” or “luck wasn’t on our side”

Example 2: Relationship

Argument ends peacefully → “I handled it maturely”

Argument escalates → “they were being unreasonable”

Less self-serving bias in depression

People with major depressive disorder show reduced bias

Linked to abnormal prefrontal cortex activity (Cui et al., 2020)

Suggests self-serving bias may be a normal protective process

Downsides

Social consequences

Refusing to take responsibility can make others dislike or mistrust us

Linked to narcissism

Excessive self-admiration and entitlement

Leads to poor relationships and devaluing others (Selle et al., 2019)

Prejudice
Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination
Stereotype (Cognitive)
Stereotype = cognitive belief about a group

Generalized schemas about groups of people stored in long-term memory

Combination 116
 Help us make quick judgments and set expectations

Example: assuming professors are serious or children are playful

Prejudice (Affective)
Prejudice = stereotype + negative emotion (affective)

Happens when we apply generalizations to all group members without considering individuality

Involves negative feelings or attitudes toward a group

Results in dislike or hostility regardless of individual traits

Example: assuming all people of low socioeconomic status are lazy or inferior / disliking someone
simply because they belong to a certain race or religion

Discrimination (Behaviour)
Behavioral expression of prejudice

Acting unfairly or unequally toward someone due to group membership

Example: not hiring a woman as a forklift operator because of gender

Aversive Racism
Definition

A subtle, modern form of prejudice

People outwardly support equality and fairness but still harbor negative feelings toward
minority groups

These emotions may cause avoidance or unequal treatment

Key Findings

White Americans may unconsciously discriminate against Black individuals or Latino immigrants
even while endorsing fairness

Mock-trial study: White jurors more likely to convict undocumented Latino immigrants than
White or Canadian immigrants (Minero & Espinoza, 2016)

Emergency study: White helpers slower to help Black victims in severe emergencies, but equal
in minor ones (Kunstman & Plant, 2008)

Why It Happens

Stress or discomfort can reveal hidden prejudice

Negative emotions (not always conscious) can influence decisions and behavior

Concept Component Description Example

Stereotype Cognitive Generalized belief about a group “All professors are strict”

Prejudice Affective Negative feeling toward a group Disliking someone based on race

Discrimination Behavioral Unequal treatment due to prejudice Rejecting job applicant due to gender

Aversive Hidden negative emotion despite belief Avoiding contact with minorities
Modern bias
Racism in equality under stress

Stereotype Threat: Prejudice Can Be a Self-Fufilling Prophecy

Fear that one will be judged or treated based on stereotypes about their group (Steele, 1997)

Combination 117
 Leads to anxiety and impaired performance, especially in marginalized groups

Examples

Gender example (Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev, 2000)

Women perform worse on math tests when outnumbered by men

No performance drop on verbal tasks (no negative stereotype)

Academic example (Steele & Aronson, 1995)

African American students perform worse on exams when race is made salient

Stereotype (“Black students perform worse academically”) creates performance anxiety

Disability example (Desombre et al., 2018)

Students with disabilities show weaker academic performance when aware of stereotypes
about ability

Workplace context

Female managers may feel anxious speaking in all-male meetings if they fear confirming the
stereotype that “women are too emotional to lead”

This anxiety can lead to hesitations or overly cautious communication, reinforcing the bias

How It Works

When a stereotype about a group’s weakness is activated, members of that group may:

Feel pressure to disprove the stereotype

Experience increased arousal and anxiety

Perform worse, unintentionally confirming the stereotype → Becomes a self-fulfilling

prophecy

Why It Happens

Physiological arousal increases when people fear confirming a stereotype

Impairs performance, especially on difficult tasks or tasks being learned

Fits the Yerkes–Dodson law → Too much arousal = poorer performance

Long-Term Effects

May cause disidentification → distancing from the domain causing threat

Example 1:

e.g., some African Americans may devalue education to protect self-esteem

Creates conflict between self-protection and academic goals

Example 2: Career Paths

Men interested in nursing or teaching may avoid those fields to avoid confirming “men are
weak or unmasculine” stereotypes

Leads to gender imbalance across careers

Example 3: Cultural Identity

Students from immigrant backgrounds may suppress their native language or cultural
expressions in school to avoid judgment

Over time, they distance from cultural identity to fit in

Combination 118
 Reducing Stereotype Threat

Self-affirmation programs (Borman, Choi, & Hall, 2020)

Latino & African American students who practiced self-affirmation showed:

Higher academic performance

Better on-time graduation rates

Supportive, inclusive environments reduce stereotype activation

Ultimate goal → eliminate prejudice that causes stereotype threat

Learning to be Prejudiced
Prejudice can be learned like other attitudes

Through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning (Duckitt,

1992)

Often passed down across generations and within cultures

Prejudice Within Families

Children can adopt parents’ prejudices, especially when:

Parents are supportive and emotionally close (Degner & Dalege, 2013)

Egalitarian parents (those who value fairness)

Set non-prejudiced standards

Expect tolerance → children internalize similar values

More consistent match between parent and child attitudes

Prejudiced parents

Children may learn early bias but later unlearn it

Peer rejection of prejudice acts as negative reinforcement → decreases bias

Cultural Transmission

Tolerance and inclusion can spread from school to home

Adolescents’ egalitarian attitudes can influence parents’ views (Miklikowska, 2017)

Teaching acceptance in schools may gradually reduce prejudice in society

Classical Conditioning
Neutral group becomes associated with negative emotions

Example: News & Ethnic Group

Crime scene (US) → fear or anxiety (UR)

Ethnic group image (NS) + crime scene (US) → fear or anxiety (UR)

Ethnic group image (CS) → fear or suspicion (CR)

Operant Conditiong
Prejudice is rewarded or punished by social reactions from others

Example:

Combination 119
 A teenager makes a sexist joke at school and friends laugh and agree

The laughter acts as positive reinforcement → increases likelihood of repeating prejudice

If the teacher reprimands or classmates stay silent → the behavior weakens

Observational Learning
Prejudice is imitated from authority figures, family, or media role models

Example:

A child hears their parent say “people from that neighborhood are lazy”

The child later avoids classmates from that area without direct reason

The bias was learned by observation, not by personal experience

Intergroup Dynamics and Prejudice

We all belong to multiple social groups: Family, School, Clubs, Religion, Country, Culture

These groups help define who we are and shape our sense of self and connection to others

Our social roles within these groups influence our behavior and values

We tend to identify with our own groups → leads to ingroup preference

Feel pride, loyalty, and belonging

View members of our group more favorably than outsiders

In-Group Bias: Us Versus Them

Tendency to favor people within our own group over outsiders

We like family, classmates, countrymen more than strangers

Even minimal group membership can create preference

Example

Employees in one department believing their team works “harder” than other departments

Students in one house (e.g., Red House) cheering loudly for themselves and ignoring other
houses during Sports Day

Why does this happen?

Part of our self-esteem comes from belonging to valued groups

Seeing our group as more successful or moral enhances pride

We compare positively to other groups to maintain a good self-image

Combination 120
 Examples

A person who identifies with an environmental club feels proud when their group wins a
sustainability award

Fans of a local indie band feel superior to fans of mainstream pop music because they view
their taste as “authentic”

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Perception that out-group members are “all alike”

We ignore differences among individuals and rely on group stereotypes

Examples

Believing that “all business majors are money-driven” after meeting a few

Thinking that “all tourists are rude” after one bad experience at a restaurant

Consequences

In-group bias → favoritism and exclusion of others

Out-group homogeneity → overgeneralization and stereotyping

Leads to misunderstandings, prejudice, and discrimination

Example

A hiring manager unconsciously gives preference to applicants from their alma mater while
assuming graduates from other schools are less qualified

Realistic-Conflict Theory (Levine & Campbell, 1972)

Prejudice arises when groups compete for limited resources

Competition → tension → hostility → development of prejudice

Out-groups often become scapegoats for in-group frustrations

Blaming others can temporarily restore a sense of control during hardship

Examples

A local worker blaming foreign immigrants for “stealing jobs” during an economic downturn

Citizens resenting refugees when housing or food prices rise, even if refugees aren’t the cause

Laid-off engineer blames Asian tech workers for job loss but not farm migrants, since they don’t
compete directly

Scapegoat Theory (Allport, 1954)

When life feels unfair or stressful, we redirect frustration toward vulnerable out-groups

Provides emotional relief and a false sense of explanation

Common during times of economic strain or crisis

Example

During recessions, minority groups are blamed for unemployment or social decline

During the COVID-19 pandemic, some people blamed certain ethnic groups for spreading
the virus, even without evidence

Key Takeaways

Combination 121
 Even meaningless group divisions can produce prejudice if competition exists

Conflicts over resources, power, or recognition strengthen in-group bias

When competition stopped and shared goals were introduced (e.g., fixing camp water supply),
hostility decreased → showing cooperation reduces prejudice

Modern-Day Parallels

Rival political parties blaming each other for economic or social issues

Neighbourhoods competing for government funding, leading to resentment

Sports fans turning violent when teams compete for championships

Reducing Prejudice in the Real World

Contact Hypothesis (Allport, 1954)
Idea that direct contact between different groups reduces prejudice

However, mere contact is often not enough

People tend to self-segregate when groups are mixed

Without meaningful interaction, existing prejudices stay the same

Example

Two racial groups live in the same neighbourhood but rarely talk → prejudice remains unchanged

Students from different countries in a school cafeteria sit only with people from their own
nationality

Cooperative Contact (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006)

Working together on a shared goal helps reduce bias

Encourages equal-status interaction and breaks “us vs them” boundaries

Repeated cooperation can reduce both explicit and implicit prejudice

Example

Volunteers from different religions collaborate on a flood relief project → begin to see each other
as teammates instead of rivals

Superordinate Goals (Sherif et al., 1961)

Shared goals that can only be achieved through intergroup cooperation

Reduce hostility by creating a common identity

Robber’s Cave Example

Eagles and Rattlers worked together to fix broken water pipes and push-start a stalled food
truck

Cooperation led to friendships, reduced hostility, and merging into one group identity

Modern Examples

Rival political parties uniting to pass disaster-relief legislation after a national crisis

Competing companies forming a climate alliance to reduce carbon emissions

Key Conditions for Reducing Prejudice

Combination 122
 ✔ Groups depend on each other
✔ They share a common superordinate goal
✔ Equal status and participation in the task
✔ Interaction is positive, friendly, and informal
✔ Contact is sustained over time
✔ Social norms support respect and cooperation
The Nature of Attraction
Proximity and Mere Exposure Effect
Proximity and exposure increase chances of attraction but don’t guarantee it

Other factors like similarity, shared interests, and personality also play key roles

Mere Exposure Effect (Zajonc, 1968)

The more often we see a person or object → the more we tend to like it

Repeated exposure creates familiarity, which increases comfort and attraction

Applies to faces, voices, symbols, and places

Examples

You start liking a classmate you see daily, even without much interaction

A song on the radio feels better the more often you hear it

Proximity Effect (Festinger et al., 1950)

Physical closeness increases the chances of interaction and liking

People who live, study, or work near each other are more likely to form friendships or relationships

Proximity → exposure → liking

Examples

Neighbours in adjacent apartments become close friends more often than people from different
floors

Coworkers in the same office bond faster than employees in separate branches

Similarity & Attraction

We are generally attracted to people similar to us rather than opposites

Applies to both romantic partners and friends

Similarity brings comfort, predictability, and validation of our own beliefs

Also influences friendship choices and media preferences

We like fictional characters similar to ourselves (Krause & Ricker, 2020)

Areas of Similarity That Predict Attraction → Age, Socio-economic status, Education, Intelligence,
Religion, Race, Attitude, Values, Physical attractiveness

Two people who share similar views on work ethic and religion are more likely to connect deeply

Combination 123
 Couples with comparable education and income levels report higher relationship satisfaction

Role of Self-Esteem

Liking similar people helps reinforce our self-concept

Valuing similar others = indirectly valuing ourselves (Heine et al., 2009)

Even negative traits (e.g., being disagreeable) can bond people when shared (Wilson et al., 2016)

Cognitive Dissonance and Dissimilarity

Being attracted to someone dissimilar creates cognitive dissonance

e.g., attraction to someone with opposite spiritual beliefs causes internal conflict

To reduce discomfort, we may lessen attraction or adjust our attitude

Easier to feel harmony with people who share our core views

Reinforcement Theory Link

Attraction to similar others is reinforcing

Shared attitudes → positive feelings → reward

Dissimilarity → disagreement → discomfort

The Importance of Physical Attractiveness

Physical attractiveness plays a major role in first impressions and romantic attraction

We often judge attractiveness as a cue to health, reliability, and good genetics

However, we tend to choose partners who are about as attractive as ourselves — the matching
hypothesis

🚹🚺 Gender Differences
Men

Place more emphasis on physical attractiveness

Holds true for both heterosexual and homosexual men

Women

Place greater emphasis on psychological or social traits

Example: more importance on a partner’s status or stability (Alterovitz & Mendelsohn, 2009)

Attractiveness matters, but it’s not the top priority

The Matching Hypothesis

We form relationships with people who are similarly attractive to ourselves

Seen in both dating and marriage

Also applies to friendships — same-sex friends tend to be about equally attractive (McKillip & Reidel,
1983)

Reason: Matching ensures comfort, mutual acceptance, and realistic expectations

Example

A person who rates themselves as average in attractiveness is more likely to date someone of
similar attractiveness rather than a model-level partner

Combination 124
 In dating apps, users tend to match most often with people rated similarly attractive by others

😇 The Halo Effect

The tendency to assume that people with one positive quality (e.g., physical attractiveness) also
possess other unrelated positive traits

Attractive people are assumed to have positive traits

We perceive them as kinder, smarter, friendlier, more sociable

Example: Participants believed attractive dating-profile users were less likely to carry STIs
(Krishnamaturi et al., 2020)

The halo effect can lead to biased judgments

Example

Viewers believe a charismatic news anchor is also honest and intelligent

In hospitals, attractive doctors or nurses are rated as more professional and trustworthy by
patients even when qualifications are identical

A company interviewer assumes an attractive applicant will be more competent and sociable

👶 Innate Preference for Attractiveness

Babies as young as 2 months prefer looking at attractive faces (Langlois et al., 1987)

Suggests that attraction to beauty may be biologically hardwired

Features that predict attractiveness:

Symmetry → signals genetic health

Averageness → indicates normal development

Sex-typical traits (masculinity/femininity) → signal fertility and health

🌿 Evolutionary Perspective
Preference for attractive faces may have evolved because it helps us identify healthy, fertile
partners

Attractiveness = cue for good genes and reproductive success

The “Chemistry” of Sex Drive, Love, and Romance

Romantic attraction involves biological, emotional, and cognitive systems working together

Neuroimaging shows multiple brain areas activate during feelings of love (Acevedo et al., 2011)

Psychologists identify three emotional systems in romantic relationships

The idea of having chemistry with someone has scientific basis

Different chemicals in the brain combine to create desire, passion, and attachment

Romantic love = biological drive + emotional connection + cognitive focus on one person

Not all attraction is romantic or sexual

Humans also form close bonds for comfort, belonging, and cooperation in social groups

1. Sex Drive
Desire for sexual gratification

Combination 125
 Governed by hormones

Estrogens

Androgens (e.g., testosterone)

Purpose: motivates physical intimacy and reproduction

Example

Sudden physical attraction toward someone due to hormonal arousal

2. Romantic Attraction
Desire focused on one specific person

Driven by neurotransmitter changes

↑ Dopamine → pleasure and reward

↑ Norepinephrine → excitement and alertness

↓ Serotonin → obsessive thinking, emotional intensity

Creates the feeling of being “in love” or infatuated

Example

Feeling euphoric and unable to stop thinking about someone after a few dates

3. Attachment (Companionate Love)

Desire to stay close and emotionally bonded with a partner

Linked to long-term stability and trust

Governed by

Oxytocin → bonding and affection (“cuddle hormone”)

Vasopressin → loyalty and commitment

Neuropeptides → soothing and calming effects

Example

Long-term partners who feel calm and secure simply being near each other

Group Influence
Social Forces Within Groups: Norms and Cohesivness
Groups are shaped by shared expectations, rules, and attitudes

These expectations are called group norms and guide how members think, act, and interact

Group Norms
Definition: Rules or expectations (written or unwritten) that define acceptable behavior within a
group

Purpose: Maintain order, predictability, and cooperation among members

Examples of norms

Family norms → respect elders, eat together

Combination 126
 Workplace norms → arrive on time, dress professionally

Cultural norms → greet with handshake, bow, or hug

During COVID-19

Norms included social distancing, mask-wearing, and handwashing

Following norms kept societies functioning and reduced health risks

Breaking Norms
People who violate norms risk ridicule, persuasion, or ostracism

Consequences include

Being laughed at or criticized

Pressure to conform

Exclusion or rejection from the group

Example

A student who ignores class participation rules may be left out of group projects

Group Cohesiveness
Definition: The degree to which members value their membership and want to stay in the group

High cohesiveness → members are close-knit, loyal, and motivated to maintain harmony

The stronger the cohesiveness, the greater the pressure to conform to group norms

Example

A sports team with strong unity pressures all members to train hard and follow team rituals

A tightly bonded friend group discourages anyone from acting “too different” to avoid conflict

Why It Matters

Cohesiveness maintains group stability and cooperation

Promotes conformity to shared values and behaviors

Helps members feel secure and connected, reinforcing identity and belonging

Conformity Within a Group

Example:

A student agrees with the wrong group answer in class discussion to avoid standing out

In workplace meetings, employees agree with the manager’s opinion even when they privately
disagree

Social media trends push users to follow popular opinions or aesthetics despite personal
preference

Factors Increasing Conformity

We lack confidence in our own judgment

Group cohesiveness is high (we value belonging and harmony)

Responses are made public, not anonymous

Combination 127
 At least 3 unanimous members support the wrong answer → Only a small group is needed to
create strong conformity pressure

Conformity itself is a cultural norm (individuals feel pressure to “fit in”)

We have low need for individuality or self-expression

Solomon Asch’s Conformity Study (1951–1955)

Asch studied how group pressure influences people to conform, even when the group is clearly
wrong

Demonstrated the power of social norms in shaping behavior and judgment

Findings

74% conformed at least once

26% never conformed

95% resisted at least once

Most people conform sometimes, but rarely all the time

Shows that social pressure can override clear evidence from our own senses

Normative Vs Informational Conformity

Asch found people conform for different reasons → Some conform to fit in, others because they
believe the group is right

1. Normative Conformity
Definition: Changing behavior to fit group norms without changing personal beliefs

Goal: To be liked, accepted, or avoid rejection

Motive: Social approval

No real attitude change — behavior changes, not belief

Example

Laughing at a joke you don’t find funny because everyone else is laughing

Dressing a certain way to match your friend group

Agreeing with a group project idea you dislike to avoid conflict

Cultural Connection

Stronger in collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan, South Korea)

Weaker in individualistic cultures (e.g., USA)

But differences fade in online environments, where social pressure feels less direct

2. Informational Conformity
Definition: Conforming because you believe others are correct

Goal: To be accurate and make the right choice

Leads to real attitude or belief change

Common when people feel uncertain or insecure about their knowledge

Example

Combination 128
 In a meeting, you change your opinion after hearing experts confidently explain their reasoning

During a quiz, you copy others’ answers thinking they must be right

In a foreign country, you copy locals’ behavior to learn correct customs

Type Core Motivation What Changes When It Happens Example

Desire to be liked, In cohesive groups, Laughing at a joke you

Normative Behavior only (no
accepted, or avoid social settings where don’t find funny just to
Conformity real belief change)
rejection approval matters fit in with friends

When uncertain or Agreeing with others’

Beliefs and
Informational Desire to be right or lacking knowledge; quiz answers because
attitudes
Conformity accurate others seem more you believe they’re
genuinely change
credible correct

Loss of personal In large, anonymous, Cheering aggressively

Self-restraint and
identity and self- high-arousal groups or vandalizing property
Deindividuation individuality
awareness in a (e.g. crowds, mobs, in a protest crowd when
decrease
group online) you normally wouldn’t

Deindividuation
Loss of self-awareness → behavior guided by external group norms rather than internal values

Ordinary people can commit extreme acts under certain social and environmental conditions

When self-identity fades and external norms dominate → moral restraint breaks down

The experiment - Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)

remains a classic demonstration of deindividuation and situational power

Example: Political Protest or Mob Violence

Peaceful protests sometimes escalate into looting or aggression

Individuals lose self-awareness and follow the crowd’s emotional energy

Example: people smashing store windows during riots after high tension events

Feature Description Example in Study

Loss of personal People act as part of a group, not as

Guards follow group aggression norms
identity individuals

Uniforms, sunglasses, numbers mask Guards and prisoners harder to recognize as

Anonymity
identity individuals

External norms
Behavior guided by setting’s new “rules” Abuse seen as acceptable within “prison”
dominate

Is Working in a Group Better Than Working Alone?

Social Facilitation
The presence of others can enhance or impair performance depending on the task

First observed by Norman Triplett — cyclists rode faster when competing or riding with others

Situation Effect on Performance Example

Simple or well- Improved performance due to increased Running faster during a race when people
practiced tasks arousal and motivation are watching

Combination 129
 Situation Effect on Performance Example

Complex or unfamiliar Worse performance due to anxiety or Forgetting lines during a public speech even
tasks distraction after memorizing them

Explanation

Presence of others → increases physiological arousal

Arousal improves dominant responses (habits or well-learned actions)

But hinders new or complex responses that require focus and control

Real-Life Examples

🏋️‍♂️ A weightlifter performs better when the gym crowd cheers

🎹 A beginner pianist makes more mistakes during a recital than during solo practice
🧪 Students who know material well may do better in study groups, while those who don’t may
get more anxious

Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone

Why It Happens

Diffusion of responsibility → people feel less personally accountable

Equal rewards → when everyone gets the same outcome, effort feels less meaningful

Assumption others will compensate → “someone else will handle it”

Low task visibility → individual performance not tracked or recognized

Example Scenarios

🏫 Group project: one student contributes minimally, relying on others to complete the work
🏢 Team meeting: employees speak less or let others lead because no one’s input is individually
graded

🏐 Sports team: a player coasts during practice because the team will still perform fine
How to Reduce Social Loafing

Assign individual roles & accountability within group tasks

Offer rewards for both group and personal contributions

Encourage mindfulness and moral responsibility → selfless, ethical behavior reduces loafing
(Mihelič & Čuliberg, 2019)

Keep group size small → easier to monitor contribution

Groupthink
When a group fixates on one decision and assumes it must be correct

Fails to critically evaluate alternatives → leads to poor or disastrous outcomes

Effects

Suppresses critical thinking and creativity

Produces illusion of unanimity (“everyone agrees”)

Creates pressure to conform and avoid conflict

Combination 130
 Can lead to catastrophic decisions

Why does groupthink happens

Factor Description Example

Group cuts itself off from outside input → Company executives ignore customer
Group isolation
only considers internal ideas feedback and only listen to each other

High group Members value belonging → avoid Team members stay silent about flaws in a
cohesiveness disagreeing to “keep the peace” marketing plan to avoid conflict

Dictatorial CEO rejects criticism; employees agree to

Leader dominates → discourages dissent
leadership avoid tension

Stress / Time Limited time or high tension → rush to Crisis team chooses a fast, risky solution
pressure easiest solution during an emergency

Example: School Group Project

One student suggests a bad idea, but friends agree to avoid argument

The group ignores better suggestions to “keep things smooth”

→ Final project gets a low grade because they didn’t evaluate other options

Example: Corporate Decision-Making

A tech company’s executives decide to launch a new product too early

Marketing team sees flaws but stays silent because the CEO seems confident

Everyone “goes along” to avoid being the only dissenter

→ The product fails, and the company loses millions

How to Prevent Groupthink

Encourage open debate and dissenting opinions

Appoint a “devil’s advocate” to challenge assumptions

Invite outside opinions and experts

Create a safe space where disagreement is accepted

Avoid rushed decision-making under stress

Compliance and Obedience

Both involve responding to requests from others, but differ in who makes the request and why we
comply

Key Difference

Authority = obedience, peer = compliance

Aspect Compliance Obedience

Source of From a peer or equal (e.g., friend, salesperson, From an authority figure (e.g., police officer,
request telemarketer) boss, teacher)

Nature of
Seen as a choice Seen as an order or demand
request

Motivation Desire to be liked or polite Desire to follow rules or avoid punishment

Pressure level Social pressure Authority pressure

Combination 131
 Aspect Compliance Obedience

Example Donating when asked by a telemarketer Donating when told by a police officer

Examples

🛍 Compliance:
Agreeing to try a product sample because a friendly promoter smiles and asks nicely

Signing a petition because your classmate insists it’s for a good cause

🚔 Obedience:
Following an officer’s request to pull over

Obeying a supervisor’s command to finish a task even if you disagree

Compliance Techniques: Getting People to Say “Yes”

Foot-in-the-Door Compliance
A compliance strategy where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a
larger request later

How It Works

Step 1 : Get the person to agree to a small, easy request

Step 2 : Later make a bigger request on the same topic

Step 3 : The person is more likely to comply again to stay consistent with their previous action

Key Explanation

Based on Consistency Principle

Once we comply once, we see ourselves as “helpful” or “cooperative”

Saying no later would feel inconsistent → causes cognitive dissonance

To avoid dissonance, we keep saying yes

Real-Life Examples

🛍 A salesperson asks you to try a free sample → later asks you to buy the full product
🧾 A friend asks you to help edit a paragraph → later asks you to proofread the entire report
🧑‍💻 A charity asks you to sign a petition → later asks for a small donation
Why It Works

Desire to appear consistent and reliable

Builds a relationship of compliance

Changes self-perception → “I’m the type of person who helps”

Door-in-the-Face Compliance
A compliance strategy where a person first makes a large, unreasonable request that is almost
certainly refused

Then follows up with a smaller, more reasonable request (the real goal)

People are more likely to agree to the second request

How It Works

Combination 132
 Step 1 : Make a big request → person refuses

Step 2 : Make a smaller request → person feels more comfortable agreeing

Step 3 : Compliance increases due to contrast, reciprocity, and guilt reduction

Why It Works

Perceptual Contrast

The smaller request feels reasonable compared to the first extreme one

Reciprocity Norm

The requester “concedes” → we feel obligated to reciprocate by agreeing

“They gave in a little, so I should too”

Emotional Relief / Guilt Reduction

Saying no creates discomfort or guilt

Saying yes to the smaller request helps restore self-image as kind and cooperative

Real-Life Examples

🧑‍🏫 A student asks you to join a 6-month club commitment → you say no → then they ask you to
attend one event → you agree

🛍 A salesperson offers a $500 product bundle → you refuse → they offer a $50 version → you
buy it

💰 A charity asks for a $100 donation → you decline → they ask for $10 → you donate
Low-Balling
Getting someone to agree to an initial deal, then changing the terms to favor the salesperson

How It Works

Step 1 : Person agrees to a reasonable offer

Step 2 : The deal changes — hidden costs or extra fees appear

Step 3 : Because they’ve already said yes, people feel committed and still go through with it

Why It Works

🧩 Commitment & Consistency → We don’t like to back out once we’ve agreed
💬 Perceptual Contrast → The increase seems small compared to the original amount
😌 Desire to stay true to our word and avoid feeling dishonest
Example

A car dealer offers a car at $16,750 → you agree

Later adds extra fees raising it to $17,435 → you still buy it because you already committed

Similar tactics used in phone plans, flight bookings, or subscription upgrades

That’s-Not-All
The persuader improves the offer before you can say no — adding a “bonus” to make it harder to
refuse

How It Works

Step 1 : You’re presented with an offer

Combination 133
 Step 2 : Before you respond, they “sweeten” the deal with extras

Step 3 : The added benefit makes you feel obligated to reciprocate by saying yes

Why It Works

🔁 Reciprocity Norm → “They did something nice, so I should say yes”

🎭 Pressure to comply before the offer “expires”
🧠 Creates a sense of reward even if the deal isn’t actually better
Example

A car salesperson says: “It’s $17,435… but that’s not all — I’ll throw in free floor mats and 3 car
washes!”

TV infomercials: “But wait, that’s not all! Order now and get a second one FREE!”

Psychological Classic Study / Example (Real-

Technique Description How It Works
Principle Evidence Life)

Saying yes to the Freedman &

A charity asks
Start with a small first request Fraser (1966):
Consistency & you to sign a
Foot-in-the- request, then changes self- Signed safe-
Cognitive petition → later
Door follow with a image → makes driving petition →
Dissonance asks for a
larger one you more likely to later agreed to
donation
agree again display billboard

Cialdini et al.
Start with a large The smaller A friend asks for
(1975): Students
request request feels Reciprocity & $100 → you say
Door-in-the- refused 2-year
(refused), then reasonable Perceptual no → then asks
Face volunteering →
follow with a compared to the Contrast for $10 → you
50% agreed to 2-
smaller one big one agree
hour zoo trip

Cialdini et al.
Get agreement
Once people (1978): Agreed to A car listed at
first, then Commitment &
commit, they feel early experiment $16,750 later
Low-Balling increase the cost Perceptual
pressure to stay time → still adds fees → you
or change the Contrast
consistent showed up after still buy it
terms
time changed

Before you can Burger (1986):

refuse, the Added incentive People bought “$20 for a shirt—
persuader adds a triggers Reciprocity & cupcakes more but wait, that’s
That’s-Not-All
bonus or reciprocity and Time Pressure often when told not all! Get a free
improves the creates urgency “that’s not all—2 tote bag too!”
deal for 1!”

Obedience: Doing What We Are Told to Do

Destructive Obedience
Following orders that cause harm

Milgram’s Obedience Experiment (1963)

Purpose → To test how far people will go in obeying authority, even when it conflicts with their
morals

Burger’s (2009) Partial Replication of Milgram — “The 150-Volt Solution”

Combination 134
 Obedience remains surprisingly high even in modern society

Slight trend toward greater assertiveness and resistance (especially among men)

Reflects ethical progress in psychological research — participants protected from harm

Highlights that authority influence persists, but modern values (individualism,

assertiveness) may weaken it

Example

Soldiers following unlawful commands in war

Employees carrying out unethical orders from superiors

Medical staff following dangerous instructions without questioning

Factors that Influence Obedience

1. Presence of Authority Figure

Explanation

Official appearance (lab coat, confident tone) creates legitimacy

Authority’s presence relieves personal responsibility (“just following orders”)

Fear of consequences or disapproval encourages compliance

Example

Participants obeyed more when experimenter stood physically close

When instructions were given over the phone, obedience dropped to 27.5%

Modern Parallel

People obey uniformed officers or bosses more readily than peers

2. Timing and Pressure

Explanation

Orders were given immediately after participants arrived

Little time to reflect → impulsive obedience

Under time pressure, we rely on authority rather than critical thought

Example

Similar to sales tactics that rush decisions (“offer ends today!”)

3. Incremental Requests (Foot-in-the-Door Effect)

Explanation

Gradual increase in shock levels (15 V → 450 V) made each step seem small

Each act of obedience increased commitment and self-justification

Analogy

Like sliding down a slippery slope — once you start, hard to stop

Modern Example

Employees following unethical orders one step at a time (“just adjust the numbers slightly”)

Combination 135
 4. Psychological Distance
Explanation

The farther we feel from the victim or outcome, the easier it is to obey

Distance reduces emotional impact and moral awareness

Example

When teacher couldn’t see learner → high obedience

When teacher had to hold learner’s hand on shock plate → obedience fell to 30%

Modern Example

Drone warfare: physical distance from target can make moral responsibility feel reduced

5. Personal Responsibility
Explanation

People who emphasize moral accountability and empathy are less obedient

Expressing concern for others weakens blind obedience

Evidence

In Burger’s (2009) study, disobedient participants voiced personal responsibility early on

Example

Whistleblowers who refuse unethical orders out of conscience

Aggresion
Aggression → an action intended to cause harm to another person who does not wish to be
harmed

Instrumental Aggression

Goal-oriented → used as a means to an end

Harm is secondary to achieving another purpose

Example

A child hits a playmate to grab their toy

A robber threatens violence to get money

Hostile Aggression

Motivated purely by anger or desire to cause pain

Harm is the main goal

Example

A bully punches someone to see them cry

A driver yells and rams another car out of rage

Biological Theories of Aggresion

Gender Differences

Across many species (including humans), males are more aggressive than females

Combination 136
 (Sysoeva et al., 2010)

In 2018 → males made up 87.8% of all murder and manslaughter arrests (FBI, 2020b)

Testosterone Hypothesis
Males have higher testosterone, leading researchers to suspect a link with aggression

Evidence is mixed and inconsistent

Animal Studies

Some show positive correlations → higher testosterone = more aggression

(Müller et al., 2014; Wagner et al., 1980)

Others find no link (Eaton & Resko, 1974)

Human Studies

Some report a correlation between testosterone and aggression

(Dabbs & Morris, 1990; Sánchez-Martín et al., 2011; Van Goozen et al., 1994)

Others fail to replicate it

(Coccaro et al., 2007; Turanovic et al., 2017)

Meta-analysis (Geniole et al., 2020):

Only weak association for males

No link for females

Correlation ≠ Causation

Even when testosterone and aggression correlate → cannot prove testosterone causes
aggression

Testosterone may be indirectly related through other traits:

Increased muscularity / strength → greater physical ability to act aggressively

Study (Tremblay et al., 1998):

In adolescent boys, aggression correlated with size, not testosterone levels

A Possible Role for Serotonin

Serotonin → a neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood, impulse control, and aggression

Low serotonin levels linked to poor impulse control and higher aggression

Key Research Findings

Marazzitti et al. (1993)

Compared serotonin levels in:

Survivors of suicide attempts

Institutionalized individuals for chronic aggression

Normal control group

🧬 Findings:
Both suicide survivors & aggressive patients → lower serotonin

Suggests deficiency in serotonin may impair behavioral control

Combination 137
 Crockett et al. (2010)

Participants given antidepressants that increase serotonin

Played a monetary game → had to decide whether to harm others financially

🧠 Result:
Participants became less willing to harm others

Increased serotonin → higher empathy, lower aggression

Low serotonin may → Difficulty controlling aggressive impulses (toward self or others) as
seen in suicidal and institutionalized aggressive individuals

Complex Findings

Effects may vary by sex and context

Terranova et al. (2016):

SSRIs ↓ aggression in male hamsters but ↑ in females

Lagerberg et al. (2020):

In Sweden, small % of SSRI users under 34 showed increased violent crime risk

But → 97% of users showed no violent behavior

⚠️ No causal link proven — may involve individual and situational factors

Childhood Abuse and Aggresion
Key Research

Dorothy Otnow Lewis (1992)

Interviewed 100+ murderers to examine their childhood histories

Found that majority experienced extreme abuse in early life

Many also suffered severe head injuries

→ Hypothesis: childhood abuse → brain injury → increased aggression

Neurobiological Findings

Brain imaging studies (EEG, MRI, fMRI) show structural abnormalities linked to early trauma
(Teicher, 2002)

Affected areas include:

Amygdala → emotion & fear regulation

Hippocampus → memory & stress response

Corpus callosum → coordination between brain hemispheres

Frontal lobe → impulse control, judgment, planning

Temporal lobe → emotion processing

Cerebellum → motor control, emotional regulation

Frontal–Limbic Connection

Trzepacz et al. (2013):

Found link between damage to the frontal lobe (near limbic system) and
agitation/aggression

Combination 138
 Observed in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease

→ Suggests loss of inhibitory control over aggressive impulses

Childhood Abuse as a Dual Risk

1. Physical damage → brain injury impairs control centers

2. Behavioral modeling → children learn aggression by observing violent role models (parents,
media characters)

Learning Theories of Aggression

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (Bobo Doll Study)

Albert Bandura (1963) demonstrated that aggression can be learned through observation

Children who watched an adult aggressively attack a Bobo doll

→ later imitated the same aggressive behaviors when left alone with the doll

✅ Key idea: Aggression is not innate, but acquired through modeling

Influence of Media Violence

70% of prime-time TV contains violent content (Weaver et al., 2012)

Even commercials show aggression (Cheong & Combs, 2016)

Exposure to violent media → increases:

Aggressive thoughts & behaviors

Desensitization to violence

Aggressive dreams (Van den Bulck et al., 2016)

Childhood Maltreatment & Hostile Thinking

Zhu, Chen, & Xia (2020):

Maltreated children more likely to develop:

Hostile attribution bias → perceive others’ actions as intentional attacks

Rumination → replay anger-provoking events mentally

Leads to chronic anger and reactive aggression

Once provoked, hostile individuals → Assume malicious intent → Ruminate → intensify anger →
act aggressively

Cognitive Neoassociation Theory

Violent events link aggressive cues with emotions like anger, fear, humiliation

These associations become stored in memory

When one cue is later activated, it can trigger the whole network

Example

Watching scenes of people using guns to retaliate → “Gun” becomes linked with anger and
revenge → Later, seeing a gun may automatically prime aggressive thoughts

Research: simply showing participants pictures of weapons increased aggressive thoughts

(Anderson, Benjamin, & Bartholow, 1998)

Example: Media Violence

Combination 139
 A person often watches revenge-themed shows where the hero uses violence to solve
problems

Over time, they may associate “revenge” with “justice” and “violence”

When later insulted or humiliated, these linked ideas activate →

“anger → revenge → violence” pathway

→ increasing the chance of aggressive retaliation

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
Frustration → Aggression

When our goals are blocked or efforts are hindered,

→ we experience frustration, which activates an impulse to harm the source of that frustration

The aggression may be direct (toward the source) or displaced (toward a safer target)

Mechanism

Blocked goal or stressor → triggers emotional arousal (anger)

If unable to resolve or control frustration → aggressive urges emerge

Motives to harm often surface spontaneously, even without conscious intent

Example 1: Parental Stress

A father faces high work stress + financial pressure

His 3-year-old child refuses to eat → triggers frustration

The father reacts aggressively or uses physical punishment (Lee et al., 2011)

Parents under chronic stress or poverty and with poor coping skills are at greater risk for
abusive behavior (Garbarino, 1997; Guterman et al., 2013)

🧩 Frustration builds tension → aggression becomes a release mechanism

Example 2: Road Rage

A driver gets stuck in a massive traffic jam on the way to an important meeting

When another driver cuts in, they shout or honk angrily

The blocked goal (arriving on time) causes frustration → aggressive response

Example 3: Displaced Aggression

A worker gets scolded by their boss at work

Unable to retaliate (power difference) → goes home and argues with family instead

Aggression is redirected to a safer target (displacement)

Key Insights

Frustration doesn’t always cause aggression,

but it increases the likelihood — especially when:

Situation feels unfair or uncontrollable

Person has poor coping or emotion regulation

There are triggers or cues (like anger, stress, or weapons)

Combination 140
 Prosocial & Altruistic Behaviour
Humans are not only aggressive or selfish — we also show compassion and kindness

Prosocial behavior = actions intended to help or benefit others

Includes acts like:

Volunteering

Donating money or time

Offering emotional support

Sharing resources

Motivations may include:

Empathy (understanding others’ feelings)

Social norms (it’s the “right” thing to do)

Reciprocity (help others → they may help you)

Mood enhancement (helping makes us feel good)

Altruism / Helping Behaviour = helping others with no expectation of personal gain

The purest form of helping — done without expecting reward or recognition

Motivated purely by concern for others’ welfare

Can even involve self-sacrifice or personal cost

🧩 Example:
A stranger jumping into a river to save a drowning person

Donating anonymously to victims of a disaster

Medical workers treating patients during an outbreak despite risks

The Murder of Kitty Genovese

🔍 5 Steps to Helping (Latané & Darley, 1969)
Step Description Why People Might Fail Here Example (Kitty Genovese)

1️⃣ Notice the event See or hear something

unusual
Distracted or unaware
People may have heard noises
but didn’t look out

2️⃣ Interpret as Realize help is needed

Unclear situation; think it’s not Thought it was a couple arguing
emergency serious or drunk person

3️⃣ Accept Feel personally “Someone else will do it” → Assumed others would call the
responsibility responsible diffusion of responsibility police

4️⃣ Know how to help Decide what action to

take
Unsure how to respond or afraid
Didn’t know what to do besides
call

5️⃣ Act and help Take action to assist Fear, danger, social pressure
Hesitated due to fear of
involvement

The Bystander Effect

As the number of bystanders increases,
→ the likelihood of any single person helping decreases

Combination 141
 Helping is a multistep process, and failure can occur at any stage

1️⃣ Diffusion of Responsibility

Each bystander assumes someone else will help

As group size increases, personal sense of responsibility decreases

Example:

In Kitty Genovese’s case, 38 witnesses each felt “someone else will call the police”

🧩 Real-life tip:
To get help — single out one person (“You in the blue shirt, call 995!”)

Assigns personal responsibility and reduces diffusion

2️⃣ Pluralistic Ignorance

We look to others for cues on how to react

If no one else acts, we assume “it’s not serious” or “no help needed”

Each bystander misreads others’ inaction as a signal that everything is fine

Example:

People saw others staying calm during Kitty’s attack → assumed it wasn’t an emergency

🧩 Group inaction leads everyone to believe “no one thinks help is needed.”
Choosing to Help
Even though Kitty Genovese’s case showed failure to help,
countless examples show the human capacity for kindness

Helping can take heroic forms (saving lives) or simple, everyday acts (supporting others)

Everyday Altruism

Helping an elderly neighbor up the stairs

Donating to charity or blood drives

Volunteering at shelters

Checking on a friend’s mental health

Choosing kindness even when inconvenient

Altruism During the COVID-19 Pandemic

People engaged in prosocial behavior like:

Self-isolating

Wearing masks

Following safety rules to protect others

These behaviors weren’t just self-protective — many were driven by concern for others

→ Example: Chinese university students high in altruism felt more distress during COVID-19,
because they worried about others’ safety but couldn’t help directly

Psychological Insight

Combination 142
 Helping isn’t blocked by apathy but by:

Misunderstanding (“Is this really an emergency?”)

Confusion (not sure what to do)

Helplessness (feeling powerless)

Fear (of danger or social judgment)

Awareness of these barriers helps us overcome hesitation and act altruistically

What is a Mental Health Disorder?

A mental health disorder is a dysfunction in thinking (cognition), emotion, or behavior that impairs
daily functioning and is not culturally expected

1️⃣ Not Typical or Culturally Expected

Behavior, thoughts, or emotions are unusual or deviate from what most people do

Example:

Eating far less than others → anorexia

Believing you’re from another planet → atypical thought pattern

Cultural context matters:

What’s “normal” varies by location, time period, and culture

Example:

Homosexuality was listed as a disorder in the U.S. until 1973

Removed from China’s classification only in 2001

⚠️ Judging dysfunction by social norms alone is unreliable because norms shift and differ globally
2️⃣ Distress
Disorder causes emotional or physical suffering to the person or others

People usually seek help when distress becomes unbearable

Examples:

Severe anxiety, panic, rage, or suicidal behavior

Chronic lying or aggression that causes distress to loved ones

3️⃣ Dysfunction
Behavior interferes with daily functioning or responsibilities

Person struggles to:

Hold a job

Attend school

Maintain relationships

Greater dysfunction → greater likelihood behavior qualifies as a disorder

Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders

Combination 143
 How common are mental health disorders?
19% of US adults had a mental health disorder in the past year (2017 – SAMHSA)

~50% of US adults will meet criteria for a mental health disorder at some point in their lifetime

Actual rates may be higher

Many people do not seek help

Access to services is unequal

👩‍🦰👨‍🦱 Gender Differences

Females more likely than males to experience:

Any mental health disorder

Females 22.3%

Males 15.1%

Serious mental health disorders

Females 5.7%

Males 3.3%

Types of disorders differ by gender

Differences may reflect:

Clinician bias

Greater help-seeking among females

22% of US teenagers likely to experience a disorder with severe impairment

Suicide is the 10th leading cause of death in the US

COVID-19 & Mental Health

Pandemic increased risk for:

PTSD symptoms in infected patients

Depression & anxiety in healthcare workers

Sleep disturbances

Worsening symptoms in those with pre-existing conditions

APA poll (March 2020):

Nearly 50% anxious about getting COVID

62% anxious about loved ones getting COVID

Additional worries:

Finances

Running out of supplies

Economy

Social distancing and isolation → increases in loneliness, anxiety, depressed mood

Combination 144
 Explaining Mental Health Disorders:
Perspectives Revisited
Psychopathology: Scientific study of mental health disorders

Biological Theories: The Medical Model

Mental health disorders are caused by physical or biological factors

Similar to physical illnesses → can be diagnosed, treated, and sometimes cured

Genetics

Inherited risk from family members

Certain disorders run in families

Neurotransmitter imbalance

Too much or too little serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine etc

Hormonal imbalance

Thyroid hormones, cortisol, reproductive hormones

Brain structure or function abnormalities

Damaged brain regions

Underdeveloped or overactive neural circuits

Other bodily dysfunctions

Inflammation

Metabolic issues

Strengths

Clear biological explanations

Effective treatments for many disorders

Reduces stigma by framing disorders as medical conditions

Limitations

May overlook psychological, social, and environmental factors

Not all disorders can be traced to a single biological cause

Medication may reduce symptoms but not fix underlying issues

Example: Depression

Biological explanation

Low serotonin levels → trouble regulating mood

Low norepinephrine → low energy, fatigue

Genetic predisposition → higher risk if close relatives have depression

Overactive amygdala → stronger negative emotional reactions

Psychological Theories: Internal and External Influences

1️⃣ Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic Perspective

Combination 145
 Core idea

Mental disorders come from unconscious conflicts, childhood experiences, and unresolved
emotional issues.

Examples

Example 1: Anxiety Disorder

A person has constant anxiety but doesn’t know why.

Psychoanalytic explanation:

→ They have unresolved childhood conflict, e.g., overprotective parents = unconscious fear
of failure.
→ Repressed feelings create anxiety.

Example 2: Depression

Person feels worthless.

Explanation:

→ Anger toward a parent was repressed → now turned inward as self-blame.

Example 3: OCD-like behavior

Person must check the door 20 times.

Explanation:
→ Represents an unconscious attempt to gain control because childhood felt unpredictable.

2️⃣ Social Learning Perspective

Core idea

Disorders are learned through:

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Observational learning

Examples

Example 1: Phobia (Classical Conditioning)

Child is bitten by a dog (US → fear UR).

Now all dogs (CS) produce fear (CR).

Result: Dog phobia.

Example 2: Panic attacks reinforced (Operant Conditioning)

Person avoids the MRT because it reduces anxiety → negative reinforcement.

The avoidance behavior grows stronger → leads to panic disorder.

Example 3: Aggression (Observational Learning)

Child sees father shout & hit others when stressed.

Child learns this is “how to handle anger.”

Later displays aggression in school.

Combination 146
 3️⃣ Cognitive Perspective
Core idea

Mental disorders come from maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, and interpretations of events.

Example

Example 1: Depression

Thought: “I failed one test = I’m useless.”

Cognitive distortion → leads to hopelessness → depression develops.

Example 2: Anxiety

Thought: “If I make one mistake in presentation, everyone will laugh at me.”

Catastrophic thinking increases anxiety.

Example 3: Eating disorder

Thought: “If I’m not thin, no one will love me.”

Unrealistic beliefs → extreme dieting/over-exercising.

4️⃣ Humanistic Perspective

Core idea

Disorders occur when:

A person loses sense of self

Experiences a gap between real self and ideal self

Cannot achieve self-actualisation

Lacks unconditional positive regard

Examples

Example 1: Depression

Person lives their life only to please others.

They ignore their true passions → feel empty → depression forms.

Example 2: Anxiety

Constant fear of judgment because childhood involved conditional love (“Be perfect or I
won't love you”).

Leads to chronic worry and self-doubt.

Example 3: Identity disturbance

Person does what society expects, not what they want.

Loss of authenticity → emotional distress and confusion.

Sociocultural Theories: The Individual Varies in Context

Mental health disorders are influenced by:

Social roles

Cultural expectations

Poverty / inequality

Combination 147
 Discrimination

Family/peer pressure

Environmental stressors

Biology and psychology matter, but they are shaped by context.

Example

Example 1: Depression caused by socioeconomic stress

A single mother works 2 jobs, struggles to pay rent, and has no social support.

Chronic stress + financial insecurity → increases risk of depression.

Explanation: Poverty and lack of support networks contribute to mental health disorders.

Example 2: Anxiety linked to cultural pressure

A teenager in a culture that strongly values academic success feels overwhelming pressure
to get perfect grades.

Fear of disappointing family leads to chronic anxiety.

Explanation: Cultural expectations and role demands shape mental health.

Example 3: PTSD from growing up in a violent neighbourhood

A child raised in a community with frequent gang violence hears shootings often.

Later shows hypervigilance and trauma symptoms.

Explanation: Environmental stressors increase risk for mental disorders.

A Biopsychosocial Model
No single theory (biological, psychological, or sociocultural) can fully explain mental health
disorders.

Most disorders result from a combination of the three → like pieces of a puzzle.

Example

Example 1: Major Depressive Disorder

Biological factors (bio)

Low serotonin or dopamine

Family history of depression

Genetic vulnerability

Hormonal changes (e.g., postpartum)

Psychological factors (psycho)

Negative thinking patterns

Learned helplessness

Low self-esteem

Rumination (repeating negative thoughts)

Sociocultural factors (social)

Women are diagnosed more often

Poverty, unemployment, discrimination

Combination 148
 Lack of family/community support

Stressful social roles (e.g., caregiver burden)

👉 Putting all 3 together:

A person may have a genetic vulnerability (bio), start thinking negatively due to constant failures
(psycho), and live in a stressful environment with little support (social).
The combination → depression.

Example 2: Anxiety Disorder

Biological

Overactive amygdala

Runs in the family

Neurochemical imbalance

Psychological

Catastrophic thinking (“something terrible will happen”)

Classical conditioning (panic attack linked to certain places)

Avoidance behavior

Sociocultural

High-pressure school or work culture

Social expectations (e.g., fear of judgment in collectivistic societies)

Stressful life events (pandemic, economic pressure)

👉 Result: Anxiety disorder emerges when all three interact.

Main Idea / Cause of
Perspective Key Concepts Simple Example
Disorder

Low serotonin → depression.

Disorders arise from Genetics, neurotransmitter
Biological Overactive amygdala → anxiety.
physical or biological imbalance, hormones,
(Medical Model) Family history of bipolar disorder →
problems. brain structure issues.
higher risk.

Id–ego–superego conflict, Person develops panic attacks

Disorders come from
Psychoanalytic / repression, unresolved because unresolved childhood fear
unconscious conflicts and
Psychodynamic childhood trauma, was repressed and now surfaces
childhood experiences.
unhealthy attachment. under stress.

Child learns fear of dogs after being

Disorders are learned
Classical conditioning, bitten (classical conditioning). Teen
Social Learning through environment,
operant conditioning, develops aggression from watching
(Behavioral) reinforcement, or
observational learning. violent parents or TV (observational
observation.
learning).

Negative self-talk, irrational Person with depression believes “I

Disorders result from
Cognitive beliefs, catastrophic am worthless” → maintains
distorted or maladaptive
Perspective thinking, faulty depression. Anxiety arises from
thinking.
interpretations. “Everything will go wrong.”

Disorders occur when Lack of unconditional

Person feels unaccepted by parents
Humanistic people lose touch with positive regard,
→ develops low self-esteem →
Perspective true self or fail to meet incongruence between real
anxiety and withdrawal.
needs for growth. vs ideal self.

Combination 149
 Main Idea / Cause of
Perspective Key Concepts Simple Example
Disorder

Disorders must be Social roles, gender Woman develops depression due to

Sociocultural understood in the context expectations, poverty, gender discrimination & caregiver
Perspective of culture, society, and discrimination, cultural stress. Refugee develops anxiety
environment. norms. due to trauma + resettlement stress.

Disorders come from the

Depression = genetics (bio) +
Biopsychosocial interaction of biological + Integrative approach
negative thinking (psycho) + chronic
Model psychological + social combining all levels.
stress/poverty (social).
factors.

DSM Model for Classifying Abnormal Behaviour

DSM = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Structure of DSM
DSM-5 has 20 major categories of disorders

These include anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, trauma disorders, eating disorders,
personality disorders, etc.

Each disorder has specific criteria you must meet to be diagnosed.

DSM-5 is atheoretical

Atheoretical = The DSM does NOT explain the causes of disorders.

It only describes: Symptoms, Duration and Impairment

It does not say:

“Caused by childhood trauma” (psychoanalytic explanation)

“Caused by serotonin imbalance” (biological explanation)

“Caused by negative thoughts” (cognitive explanation)

Why atheoretical?

👉 Because mental disorders have complex biopsychosocial causes (bio + psycho + social), and
the DSM does not want to commit to one explanation.

Combination 150
Combination 151
 How Good is the DSM Model?
1. Reliability = Consistency
A classification system is reliable if:

Two clinicians give the same diagnosis when seeing the same symptoms

A person gets similar diagnoses across time (assuming symptoms haven’t changed)

Example:

Combination 152
 Two psychologists assess someone with low mood, loss of appetite, and hopelessness → both diagnose
MDD → high reliability.

Has the DSM improved reliability?

Many DSM categories → improved reliability with revisions

But DSM-5 showed mixed results, especially for personality disorders

Why?

DSM-5 barely changed personality disorder criteria → and these categories already had poor reliability,
so criticisms remain.

2. Validity = Accuracy
A system is valid if:

It diagnoses the disorder accurately

The label matches the real condition

Example:

Someone with fear of social situations → labelled social anxiety disorder, not “shyness.”

→ That’s validity.

DSM validity improved, but still limited.

3. Problems & Criticisms of the DSM (Important!)

(a) Diagnoses can be subjective

Even with DSM criteria, clinicians still interpret symptoms differently.

Example:
“Flat affect” → one clinician may think it’s MDD, another may think schizophrenia.

→ leads to inconsistent diagnosis.

(b) Symptoms overlap (Comorbidity)

A person often meets criteria for multiple disorders because symptoms appear in many categories.

Example:
Fatigue + concentration problems =

Depression

Anxiety

PTSD

ADHD

→ One person may get 2–3 diagnoses.

(c) Culture, gender, and racial bias

Clinicians can unconsciously misinterpret behavior.

Examples:

Black men overdiagnosed with schizophrenia

Women overdiagnosed with depression/anxiety

Combination 153
 Cultural expressions (like hearing ancestors) misdiagnosed as psychosis

(d) Labeling can be harmful

A diagnosis can:

Change how others treat the person

Change how the person sees themselves

Become a self-fulfilling prophecy

Example:

Rosenhan’s experiment → once labeled “schizophrenic,” normal behavior was still treated as abnormal.

Stigma → discrimination → avoidance of treatment.

Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive & Trauma-Related

Disorders
Components of Excessive Anxiety
Excessive anxiety has 4 components that interact to create intense, overwhelming fear that
disrupts daily functioning.

(Unlike normal anxiety, the reactions are irrational, extreme, persistent, and impair functioning.)

1. Physical Component (“Body Panic Signals”)

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system → fight-or-flight response.

Why it happens:

Body detects a threat ➝ releases adrenaline ➝ prepares you to fight or run even if no real
danger exists.

Excessive / Abnormal
Normal Symptoms Example (Normal) Example (Abnormal)
Symptoms

Mild increase in heart Feeling slightly nervous before Walking into a supermarket and
Heart pounding violently
rate giving class presentation heart races intensely

Sweaty palms before an oral Sweating and shaking Hands tremble so much they
Light sweating
exam uncontrollably cannot hold the basket

Temporary stomach “Butterflies” before meeting Feels like vomiting when

Nausea or stomach pain
discomfort new people entering a public place

Shoulders feel tight after Chest tightness and Feels like they are suffocating
Mild muscle tension
studying difficulty breathing and must leave immediately

Feeling keyed up but Feeling faint or about to Thinks they will lose control or
Slight restlessness
manageable collapse pass out

2. Cognitive Component (“Thought Patterns”)

People imagine worst-case scenarios or exaggerate danger.

Excessive / Abnormal
Normal Thoughts Example (Normal) Example (Abnormal)
Thoughts

“I hope I don’t forget my lines “If I say one wrong thing, everyone
Mild worry Catastrophizing
in the oral exam” will hate me”

Combination 154
 Excessive / Abnormal
Normal Thoughts Example (Normal) Example (Abnormal)
Thoughts

“I might collapse in front of

Realistic concern “I should prepare so I do well” Fear of losing control
everyone”

Momentary Replaying a conversation once Rewrites a simple text message 30

Persistent rumination
overthinking or twice times before sending

“This presentation will ruin my

Slight self-doubt “What if I sound nervous” Exaggerating danger
entire future”

Heightened Being more alert before Paranoia or extreme Certain strangers are secretly
awareness crossing the road wariness judging or watching them

3. Emotional Component (“Feelings”)

The thoughts trigger intense negative emotions.

Excessive / Abnormal
Normal Emotions Example (Normal) Example (Abnormal)
Emotions

Feeling jittery before Wakes up panicking at 3am the night

Mild nervousness Intense dread or terror
an exam before an exam

Temporary Snapping a little when Bursts into tears because the stress
Overwhelming panic
irritability stressed feels unbearable

Tension before a Feels like something terrible is

Short-lived stress Strong sense of helplessness
competition guaranteed to happen

Feeling Slight unease in new Feels trapped in a classroom and must

Sense of being trapped
uncomfortable situations step outside

Persistent fear that does not Continues feeling scared even when
Momentary worry Worrying about results
match the situation reassured they are prepared

4. Behavioral Component (“Actions”)

How a person responds to reduce anxiety.

Excessive / Abnormal
Normal Behaviors Example (Normal) Example (Abnormal)
Behaviors

Delaying sending a message Avoids buses or trains for

Brief avoidance Long-term avoidance
for a few minutes months

Asking for reassurance “Can you check if my slides Dependence on safety Needs someone to accompany
occasionally are okay” behaviors them everywhere

Unable to speak at all during a

Freezing for a moment Pauses before speaking Full shutdown or freeze
meeting

Stepping out to take a Leaving supermarkets every

Exiting briefly Escaping repeatedly
breather time because of panic

Coping through mild Extreme avoidance of Stops going to school or work

Fidgeting or tapping fingers
habits daily activities due to fear

Types of Excessive Anxiety Disorder

1. Anxiety Disorders
Characterized by excessive fear and anxiety

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Panic Disorder

Combination 155
 Agoraphobia

Specific Phobia

Social Anxiety Disorder

2. Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Characterized by repetitive, intrusive thoughts and compulsive behaviors

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Hoarding Disorder

3. Trauma-Related Disorders

Linked to traumatic or life-threatening events

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

A disorder where a person feels anxious all the time in almost all situations

Characterized by excessive anxiety, chronic worrying, and difficulty controlling the worry

Symptoms of GAD

Excessive, uncontrollable worry

Easily fatigued

Restlessness

Irritability

Difficulty concentrating

Sleep disturbances

Worrying about major issues

Eg: job performance, children’s health, financial decisions

Worrying about minor issues

Eg: being late, choosing the right clothes, deciding what to cook

Example: Worry about Health

Normal → Feeling concerned when noticing a mild headache

GAD

Small headache → immediate thoughts of serious illness

Googles symptoms repeatedly

Checks in the mirror or checks pulse multiple times

Cannot stop thinking about it even when tests show nothing wrong

Example: Worry about Family and Relationship

Normal → Feeling a bit stressed about a loved one being late

GAD

Child or partner is 10 minutes late → person imagines accidents

Calls multiple times

Combination 156
 Cannot focus on any task

Feels restless, heart pounding

Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia

Panic Disorder
A condition where a person experiences repeated, unexpected panic attacks

A panic attack = sudden, intense surge of fear or discomfort

Symptoms peak within minutes

Becomes a disorder when:

Panic attacks happen repeatedly

Person fears future attacks

Worry causes avoidance and disrupts functioning

Common Symptoms During a Panic Attack

Heart pounding violently

Ringing in the ears

Tingling or numb skin

Difficulty breathing or choking sensation

Feeling faint or dizzy

Shaking or sweating

Feeling detached or unreal

Fear of “going crazy,” dying, or losing control

Typical Features

Panic attacks may be frequent or occasional

Often occur without any clear trigger

Many think they are experiencing:

Heart attack

Stroke

Seizure

Many visit the emergency room during first attacks

Develops most often in late adolescence or early adulthood

Women are 2–4× more likely than men to develop it

Example: Going to a party

Normal

Going to a party → may feel shy or nervous for a few minutes

Panic Disorder

Walks into a party → suddenly overwhelmed by intense panic

Heart races, breathing becomes tight

Combination 157
 Hands go numb, feels like fainting

Escapes the room immediately

Afterwards → constant fear it will happen again at any social event

Agoraphobia
Fear of being in places where escape is difficult or help may not be available if panic occurs

Often develops after repeated panic attacks

Person begins avoiding places associated with panic

Repeated avoidance → can become housebound

Example:

Normal

Someone who once fainted at a mall might avoid malls for a short while

Agoraphobia

After experiencing panic at a supermarket:

Avoids supermarket entirely

Avoids MRT stations, buses, crowded places

Only feels safe at home

Needs someone to accompany them everywhere

Specific Phobia and Social Anxiety Disorder

Specific Phobia
A disorder where a person has a persistent, irrational fear of a specific object or situation

Fear is excessive, out of proportion, and leads to avoidance

Common phobic targets:

Animals (dogs, insects, snakes)

Natural environments (heights, storms, water)

Blood-injection-injury (needles, medical procedures)

Situational (flying, elevators, enclosed spaces)

Other (choking, loud sounds)

Example: Fear of Dogs

Normal

Feels cautious around a large barking dog

Steps aside but continues walking normally

Specific Phobia

Sees a small friendly dog across the street → sudden panic

Heart races, feels like fainting

Immediately crosses the road or turns around

Combination 158
 Avoids parks, friends’ houses with dogs, outdoor events

Example: Fear of Heights

Normal

Feels uncomfortable near a high balcony edge

Specific Phobia

Even looking at a tall building picture causes anxiety

Cannot take elevators to higher levels

Avoids malls, tall offices, rooftops, cable cars

Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

Intense, irrational fear of being negatively evaluated by others

Fear centers on:

Embarrassment

Rejection

Humiliation

Looking “stupid”

Leads to avoidance of social situations

Person knows the fear is irrational but cannot control the anxiety

Common Situations that Trigger Social Anxiety

Public speaking

Eating or drinking in front of others

Meeting new people

Using public toilets

Talking to authority figures

Being observed

Example: Public Speaking

Normal

Feels nervous before presenting

Voice shakes slightly, but completes presentation

Social Anxiety Disorder

Days before presentation → struggles to sleep

Intense fear of being judged

Nausea, trembling, sweating

Might skip class, drop the module, or avoid presentations entirely

Example: Social Gathering

Normal

Feels shy meeting new people

Combination 159
 Warms up after some time

Social Anxiety Disorder

Terrified of being watched or judged

Avoids parties, group discussions, class participation

Replays conversations afterward and criticizes themselves

Everyday functioning is impaired

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and Hoarding Disorder

Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

A disorder involving recurrent obsessions, compulsions, or both

Person feels unable to control these thoughts and behaviours

Obsessions create intense anxiety

Compulsions are performed to reduce anxiety, but relief is temporary

Not doing the ritual increases anxiety

Severe cases → behaviours become time-consuming, distressing, and interfere with functioning

Obessions → Recurrent, Intrusive thoughts or images

Common themes:

Dirt or contamination

Fear of harming self or others

Sexual or taboo thoughts

Repeated doubts

Eg: “Did I lock the door?” “Did I turn off the stove?”

Example

Normal

Driving to work → sudden thought “Did I leave the stove on?”

Thinks for a moment → remembers clearly it was switched off → continues day

OCD

Has this thought every time they leave home

Cannot dismiss it

Mind replays catastrophic scenarios (house burning down)

Anxiety stays extremely high until they check the stove

Compulsions → Repetitive behaviours performed to reduce obsession-related anxiety

Common compulsions:

Excessive cleaning / handwashing

Repeated checking

Counting

Arranging items symmetrically or in a specific order

Combination 160
 Example

Normal

Checks door once before bed to feel secure

OCD

Checks door 10–20 times

Cannot sleep until the ritual “feels right”

If interrupted → restarts entire sequence

Behaviour takes up large parts of the day

Hoarding Disorder
Persistent difficulty discarding items — regardless of value

Strong distress when trying to throw things away

Clutter grows until:

Rooms become unusable

Safety hazards appear (fire risk, pests, blocked spaces)

Person often denies severity and continues accumulating possessions

Equally common in males and females

Example

Normal

Keeps a few sentimental items from childhood

Hoarding Disorder

Keeps old newspapers, boxes, broken furniture, expired food

Living room and bedroom no longer functional

Severe distress when family suggests throwing items

Believes “I might need this one day”

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Excessive anxiety that develops after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event

Trauma involves serious threat to life or physical harm

Can occur months or even years after the event

Person reexperiences the trauma, avoids reminders, and becomes constantly tense or alert

Who Is at Higher Risk?

Women

Higher PTSD rates

More likely to be victims of sexual/physical assault

Biological differences in amygdala response

More likely to feel low control during trauma

Soldiers / Veterans

Combination 161
 High exposure to combat

Higher PTSD rates (≈13.5% among U.S. veterans)

More likely if high in catastrophic thinking or exposed to multiple combat stressors

Common Causes of Trauma

Violent assaults

Rape

Physical or sexual abuse

Natural or man-made disasters

Earthquake, hurricane, terrorist attack, disease outbreak

Military combat

Sudden unexpected death of a loved one

Witnessing a violent crime or serious accident

Core Symptoms of PTSD

1. Reexperiencing the Trauma

Distressing memories

Nightmares

Flashbacks

Intense emotional or physical reactions when reminded of the trauma

Example:

Normal Reaction → Feeling startled when hearing loud fireworks

PTSD → Hearing a car backfire triggers a full flashback to a combat scene, feeling as if the
trauma is happening again

2. Avoidance

Avoids places, people, conversations, activities, or thoughts related to the trauma

Example:

Normal Reaction → Avoiding a road where an accident happened for a few days

PTSD → Avoids entire highways, refuses to drive, avoids talking about the event, avoids anything
that reminds them of it

3. Emotional Numbing / Detachment

Feeling disconnected from self or others

Loss of interest in normal activities

Appearing distant, withdrawn, or “emotionally shut down”

Example:

Normal Reaction → Feeling numb for a short period after a loss

PTSD → Months of feeling no emotion, unable to enjoy anything, struggles to connect with family
or friends

4. Hyperarousal / Hypervigilance

Combination 162
 Always on guard

Easily startled

Irritable or angry

Difficulty concentrating

Sleep problems

Example:

Normal Reaction → Being jumpy after one scary incident

PTSD → Constant scanning of the environment, cannot sit with back facing a door, wakes
frequently from nightmares

5. Additional Symptoms

Anxiety

Depression

Physical symptoms (headaches, dizziness, chest pain)

Intense guilt (“survivor’s guilt”)

Major difficulty functioning at work, school, or in relationships

Research Explaining Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive & Trauma-

Related Disorders
Biology: Neurotransmitters, Genetics and the Brain

1. Neurotransmitter Dysregulation
Problems in the regulation of key neurotransmitters contribute to excessive anxiety

Main neurotransmitters involved:

Combination 163
 Norepinephrine
Overactivation may lead to heightened physical arousal

Linked to panic symptoms and adrenaline-like responses

Serotonin
Implicated across most anxiety disorders, PTSD, and OCD

Abnormal serotonin functioning affects mood, worry, and emotional regulation

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

Normally calms the brain

Low GABA activity → increased anxiety and inability to “shut off” worry

Summary:
Many anxiety-related disorders involve too much excitatory activity (norepinephrine, low GABA) and
poor emotional regulation (serotonin imbalance)

2. Genetic Factors
No single “anxiety gene,” but genetic vulnerability exists

Children of anxious parents have higher risk of developing anxiety

Relatives (siblings, aunts, uncles) of an individual with an anxiety disorder also show higher risk

High heritability especially found in:

Panic disorder

OCD

Temperament
Infants with fearful temperament are more likely to develop anxiety later in life

Not all fearful infants become anxious → environment also plays a major role

3. Brain Structures Involved

Amygdala (fear center)

Coordinates fear response and emotional memories

People with GAD and PTSD often show:

Overactive amygdala

Heightened fear responses

Strong memory connections to traumatic cues

Cingulate Cortex
Part of the limbic system

Regulates emotional responses and error detection

Abnormal activity linked to:

Panic disorder

Combination 164
 OCD

Social anxiety disorder

Prefrontal Cortex – Striatum Pathways

Important for:

Breaking habits

Cognitive flexibility

Decision-making

Planning behavior

Dysfunction in these circuits is strongly linked to OCD, explaining why:

People feel “stuck”

Compulsions are repeated

They struggle to inhibit intrusive thoughts

Psychological Factors: Learning and Cognition

1. Classical Conditioning (Learning Fear Through Pairing)

How this explains disorders

Specific phobias can form when a harmless object gets paired with something frightening

Panic disorder

First panic attack occurs in a shopping mall

Mall smells, lights, music (NS) become paired with panic sensations

Later → mall (CS) triggers panic again

Fear generalizes → similar places (supermarket, cinema) also trigger panic

2. Observational Learning (Learning Fear From Others)

Fear can develop without direct experience

Simply watching or hearing about others’ fear is enough

Example

A child watches a parent scream at a cockroach

Cockroach becomes associated with danger even though the child was never harmed

Application

Fearing bears after watching news or online attack videos

Explains phobias developed from stories, not real encounters

3. Operant Conditioning (Negative Reinforcement Maintains Anxiety)

Avoiding something reduces anxiety → relief strengthens the avoidance behavior

This makes the fear stronger over time

Example in OCD

Obsession: “My hands are dirty and contaminated”

Combination 165
 Compulsion: excessive handwashing

Washing reduces anxiety → negative reinforcement

Next time obsession comes → washing becomes more frequent

Example in Panic Disorder

Person avoids jogging because racing heart reminds them of panic

Avoidance reduces fear temporarily → avoidance increases over time

4. Cognitive Factors (How Thoughts Increase Anxiety)

People with high anxiety tend to have certain thinking patterns:

A. Perceiving things as uncontrollable or dangerous

Believe they cannot cope with uncertainty

Interpret harmless events as threatening

Example in GAD

Ambiguous situation: partner doesn’t reply for 10 minutes

Typical person → “maybe busy”

GAD person → “something bad happened”, “accident”, “they are hurt”

B. Attention Bias Toward Threats

Pay more attention to danger cues

Scan the environment for risk

Makes everyday situations feel unsafe

C. Catastrophic Thinking (Panic Disorder)

Misinterpret normal bodily sensations

Small change in heart rate → interpreted as “I’m having a heart attack”

This increases fear → panic cycle begins

Example

Slight dizziness → “I will faint in public”

Tingling fingers → “something is seriously wrong”

D. Negative Interpretation of Ambiguity (GAD)

Assume the worst outcome

Worry becomes automatic

Example

Driving on the highway → worry about accidents

Meeting a friend → worry they secretly dislike you

E. Cognitive Shattering After Trauma (PTSD)

Trauma breaks core beliefs such as

“The world is safe”

“Bad things happen only to bad people”

Combination 166
 “I am in control”

After trauma

World feels unpredictable

Person feels helpless and constantly on guard

Leads to re-experiencing, hypervigilance, avoidance

Sociocultural Variations: Stress, Gender and Culture

1. Social & Environmental Instability

Anxiety increases when people live in environments that feel unsafe or unpredictable.

Examples of High-Risk Situations

War zones

Civil unrest, political instability

Rapid social change

Eg: economic collapse, sudden cultural shifts

Global crises such as COVID-19 pandemic

Why it increases anxiety

Constant uncertainty → activates fear systems

People feel less in control

Exposure to daily stressors becomes overwhelming

2. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

People who experienced trauma early in life have a higher risk of developing anxiety later.

Common ACEs Linked to Anxiety

Physical, emotional, or sexual abuse

Domestic violence

Neglect

Growing up with a mentally ill, violent, or substance-using parent

Being bullied or socially rejected

Early loss of a caregiver

Example

A child exposed to repeated violence may grow up constantly scanning for danger → develops
chronic anxiety as an adult.

3. Previous Traumatic or Stressful Life Experiences

Past trauma increases vulnerability to excessive anxiety.

Examples

Surviving a natural disaster

Serious accidents

Combination 167
 Sudden death of a loved one

Violent crime

Medical trauma or hospitalization

These experiences may over-activate the brain’s threat system (amygdala), making everyday stress
feel dangerous.

4. Social Support Availability

Strong support = protective

Weak support = increases anxiety risk

Protective Social Support

Family members who listen

Reliable friends

Community networks

Emotional validation

High-Risk Situations

Social isolation

Family rejection

Relying on unhealthy coping e.g., alcohol, avoidance

Example

Someone with supportive family after a traumatic event may recover faster, while someone alone
may develop chronic anxiety or PTSD.

Dissociative and Somatic Symptom and

Related Disorders

Dissociative Disorders: Loss of Self or Awareness

To dissociate = to break apart or detach from awareness.

A person becomes less aware of:

Some part of themselves

Their surroundings

What is happening around them

Normal Everyday Dissociation (Common & Not a Disorder)

These happen to everyone occasionally:

Combination 168
 Driving without remembering parts of the journey

Daydreaming in class but appearing to listen

Zoning out during a conversation but nodding along

“Autopilot mode” while doing chores

These are mild, harmless, and not considered a disorder.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

A disorder where an individual has two or more separate identities within the same person.

These identities are called “alters.”

Each alter has a different function

One alter handles romantic situations

One is responsible for school or work

One may carry painful memories

One may protect the person from trauma

Each alter has different perceptions, thoughts, mannerisms, speech patterns, behaviour, age,
gender and backgrounds

Host = Main personality seeking treatment

The host may or may not know the other alters exist

Common Symptoms

Blackouts / amnesia episodes

Finding objects at home they don’t remember buying

Money missing from accounts

People saying “you said/did this” but they cannot recall it

Self-harm, including burning or cutting

History of suicide attempts

Often previously misdiagnosed as:

Major depression

PTSD

Substance-use disorder

Borderline personality disorder

Schizophrenia (especially when reporting “voices”)

Trauma Background

Nearly all people with DID report:

Severe, repeated childhood physical or sexual abuse

Abuse often committed by trusted caregivers or loved ones

DID is believed to form as a defensive coping mechanism, allowing the child to:

“Separate” from traumatic memories

Combination 169
 Create alters to handle overwhelming pain

Protect the host identity from emotional damage

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

Somatic means related to the body

Involve physical complaints with no identifiable medical cause

Physical symptoms are real to the person, even though tests show no medical explanation

Psychological distress is believed to underlie the physical symptoms

Example

A person may have persistent hip pain despite normal medical tests

Emily’s case: anxiety caused a spastic colon, a somatic symptom triggered by emotional distress

Illness Anxiety Disorder (IAD)

Core Features

Person is convinced they have a serious illness despite medical reassurance

Concern is not about one symptom but fear of a major disease

Often undergoes numerous medical tests seeking confirmation

When told symptoms might be psychological, they may switch doctors instead of accepting
mental health treatment

Some individuals believe they are seriously ill but avoid medical care entirely

Associated Patterns

Often a family history of anxiety or depression

Considered by some researchers as an intense form of health anxiety

Shares features with panic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Example:

Misinterpretation of Body Sensations

Has a headache → thinks it’s a brain tumour

Feels heart beating fast → thinks it’s a heart attack starting

Mild stomach discomfort → thinks it’s stomach cancer

Sees a small rash → thinks it’s a rare autoimmune disease

Emotional Reactions

He panics → cannot focus on work or school

Feels overwhelmed → cannot calm down even after reassurance

Behaviours

Googles symptoms → cannot stop reading worst-case scenarios

Checks pulse or body repeatedly → cannot relax because slight changes feel dangerous

Visits many doctors → cannot accept “You’re healthy,” switches doctors to double-check

Avoids exercise → cannot do physical activities due to fear of triggering illness

Combination 170
 Scans body constantly → cannot stop monitoring for new symptoms

Outcome

Anxiety continues despite normal medical results

Temporary relief after tests but worry returns quickly

Health fears interfere with daily functioning

Depressive and Bipolar Disorders

Involve a significant change in a person’s emotional state or mood

Changes may include:

Feeling persistently depressed → depressive disorders

Feeling extremely elated for an extended period → bipolar disorders

High comorbidity with other mental health disorders

Normal Sadness vs Depressive Disorders

Most people experience sadness for only a few days

Depressive disorders involve persistent sadness that lasts much longer

Mood disturbance significantly interferes with daily functioning

Normal sadness is usually linked to environmental events (loss, breakup, disappointment)

Depressive disorders may occur:

Without any external trigger

Or continue long after a person would usually adjust to the event

Impact on life

Can seriously affect personal relationships

Can impair ability to work or attend school

Depressive Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder: persistent sadness, feelings of worthlessness, loss of interest in
activities, and changes in bodily functions (sleep, appetite) lasting at least 2 weeks

Diagnostic Requirements

Must experience either:

Depressed mood

Loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities (anhedonia)

Plus at least 4 additional symptoms

Duration: minimum 2 weeks

Symptoms must:

Interfere with daily functioning

Combination 171
 Not be caused by a medical condition or substance use

Symptoms of Major Depression

Physical & Behavioral Symptoms

Change in sleep patterns (insomnia or hypersomnia)

Change in appetite (increased or decreased; weight gain or loss)

Change in motor behavior (slowed movement or agitation)

Fatigue or loss of energy

Cognitive Symptoms

Difficulty concentrating or making decisions

Exaggerated feelings of worthlessness or guilt

Thoughts of suicide

Course of the Disorder

May occur as a single episode or multiple episodes over years

Severe cases may require hospitalization, especially if:

There are frequent suicide attempts

There are delusions (false beliefs)

There are hallucinations (false perceptions)

Persistent Depressive Disorder

A less severe but more chronic form of major depressive disorder

Person appears sad or downcast for a long time

Onset → Usually begins in childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood

Symptoms are typically not severe enough to require hospitalization → But chronic low mood can
still impair daily functioning

Many individuals with PDD eventually experience a major depressive episode

Diagnostic Requirements

Depressed mood

Plus at least 2 additional depressive symptoms

Duration: minimum 2 years

Symptoms must cause distress or functional impairment

Persistent Depressive Double Depression

Feature Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
Disorder (PDD) (MDD + PDD)

Chronic mild depression

Severity Severe Mild–moderate
+ severe episode

Long-term PDD +
Duration Required
At least 2 weeks At least 2 years superimposed MDD
for Diagnosis
episode

Sudden intense depressive Continuous low mood (never Chronic low mood +
Mood Pattern
episode fully returns to normal) acute severe crash

Combination 172
 Persistent Depressive Double Depression
Feature Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
Disorder (PDD) (MDD + PDD)

Significant sadness or loss of Symptoms of PDD +

Depressed mood + at least 2
Key Symptoms pleasure + at least 4 more symptoms of MDD
additional symptoms
symptoms during episode

Physical Appetite changes, sleep changes, Increased severity

Similar to MDD but milder
Symptoms fatigue, changes in motor activity during MDD episode

Low self-esteem, All PDD symptoms +

Cognitive Worthlessness, guilt, suicidal
hopelessness, poor more intense cognitive
Symptoms thoughts
concentration symptoms

Moderate — functioning
Functional High — interferes with daily Very high during MDD
affected but person may still
Impairment functioning episode
manage day-to-day life

May be needed in severe cases

May be needed only
Hospitalization (suicide risk, Usually NOT needed
during MDD episode
delusions/hallucinations)

Can occur as single or recurring Chronic baseline +

Course Chronic and long-lasting
episodes sudden severe episodes

Common among people

Prevalence ~7% of adults yearly ~1.7% of adults yearly
with PDD

Bipolar-Related Disorders
Bipolar Disorder
Diagnosis

Symptoms of mania (or mania + depression) must impair functioning

Mood Shifts

Depressive state (similar to MDD symptoms, ≈ 2 weeks)

Sadness

Low self-worth

Changes in sleep and appetite

Lack of energy and motivation

Manic state (euphoric, energetic, impulsive, ≥ 1 week)

Persistently elevated or euphoric mood

Increased activity and energy

Decreased need for sleep

More talkative than usual

Highly distractible

Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity

Excessive goal-directed activity but few tasks completed

Possible delusions or hallucinations

Impulsive, risky behavior

Combination 173
 Cyclothymic Disorder
Less severe but more chronic version of bipolar disorder

Alternates between:

Mild mania (hypomanic-like symptoms)

Moderate depression

Duration: at least 2 years

Functioning

Generally functions well during mild mania

More impairment during depressive phases

Research Explaining Depressive and Bipolar Disorders

Biological Factors: Genes, Neurotransmitters, Stress Hormones and Brain
Structures

1. Genetic Factors
Family and twin studies show strong genetic influence, especially in bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder

First-degree relatives (parent, sibling, child) have much higher risk

Identical twins show higher concordance than fraternal twins

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

Genetic influence is weaker but still present

Stronger in women and when depression begins early in life

Specific chromosome regions linked to mood disorders have been identified

2. Neurotransmitter Factors

Depression
Linked to low or malfunctioning levels of:

Serotonin

Norepinephrine

Evidence: Antidepressants target these neurotransmitters and help reduce symptoms

Bipolar Disorder / Mania

Abnormalities found in:

Norepinephrine

Dopamine

Glutamate

Unstable circadian rhythms may disturb neurotransmitter systems and contribute to manic episodes

3. Stress Hormones (HPA Axis)

Combination 174
 Hormones regulate sleep, appetite, sex drive, and pleasure — all linked to depression

Chronic activation of the stress system (HPA axis) can:

Inhibit mood-related neurotransmitters

Increase the risk for depression

Excess stress hormones linked to:

Shrinkage of certain brain areas involved in mood

Especially in long-term depression

4. Brain Structures

Key regions involved in depression

Prefrontal Cortex

Responsible for planning, attention, working memory, goal-setting

Abnormal functioning → difficulties with motivation, focus, and decision-making

Limbic System (Amygdala + Hippocampus)

Regulates emotion, memory, motivation

Abnormal activity associated with depressive symptoms

Brain connectivity issues

Poor communication between cortex and limbic system may worsen mood regulation

Subgenual Cingulate (Brodmann’s Area 25)

Strongly linked to depression

Overactivity → negative emotions overwhelm thinking

Successful antidepressant treatment reduces activity in this area

Deep-brain stimulation (electrodes) for treatment-resistant depression has shown moderate success

5. Interaction of Biological Factors

Depression and bipolar disorder arise from complex interactions among:

Genes

Neural activity

Neurotransmitters

Hormones

Brain structure and connectivity

Future research aims to clarify how these systems interact

Psychological Factors: Early Adverse Life Events,

Learned Helplessness, and Negative Thinking

1. Early Adverse Life Events

Linked to Freud’s idea: depression comes from unresolved childhood issues (abandonment,
rejection, loss)

Combination 175
 Early experiences that increase vulnerability:

Insecure attachment

Abuse or maltreatment

Separation from parents

Losses during childhood

These experiences may contribute to:

Negative self-beliefs (self-blame, self-hatred)

Long-term emotional vulnerability

Early trauma may also affect:

Brain chemistry

Immune system functioning

→ increasing risk of depression later in life

2. Learned Helplessness
Belief that you cannot control what happens, so you stop trying

Origin: Seligman’s dog experiments

Dogs exposed to uncontrollable shock later did not try to escape, even when escape was
possible

In humans:

Depressed individuals may not take action to solve problems

They believe outcomes are uncontrollable → leads to passivity

Creates a cycle of:

Hopelessness

Reduced motivation

Worsening depression

Example: Failing Multiple Exams

A student studies hard for the first two exams

→ still fails both

For the third exam, even though she could study and improve

→ she doesn’t try, because she believes “It won’t matter, I will fail anyway”

When friends offer to help her study

→ she refuses because she believes nothing she does can change the outcome

She stops putting in effort for schoolwork, CCA, or revision

→ This is learned helplessness:

“Why try? Nothing I do makes a difference.”

3. Negative Thinking (Cognitive Factors)

A. Ruminative Coping Style

Combination 176
 Depressed people focus excessively on:

Their feelings

Why they are depressed

What is wrong in their life

They think repeatedly but do not take action

Rumination:

Worsens depression

Makes episodes last longer

Increases vulnerability to future depression

Example:

After failing a quiz, she keeps thinking:

“Why am I like this?”

“What if I fail the whole module?”

“Why can’t I do anything right?”

She spends hours replaying the failure in her mind

She doesn’t do any revision to improve

She isolates herself and continues thinking about the same thoughts over and over

→ She keeps thinking, but does nothing.

This makes the depression worse.

B. Cognitive Distortions (Aaron Beck’s Theory)

Depressed people engage in automatic negative thinking errors

Common distortions:

Rejecting positive experiences

Focusing more on negative events

Interpreting neutral/ambiguous situations negatively

They recall more negative memories than positive ones

Example:

She gets one wrong answer and automatically thinks:

“I’m a failure.”

“I’m useless.”

“I mess up everything.”

When she gets praise from a teacher:

“They’re just being nice. It’s not real.”

When something goes well:

She dismisses it: “It doesn’t count.”

→ She filters out the positive and magnifies the negative.

Combination 177
 C. Negative Attributions
Depressed individuals explain events in negative ways:

Internal (“It’s my fault”)

Stable (“I will always be like this”)

Global (“This affects everything”)

Examples:

Fail an exam → “I’m stupid; I’ll always fail”

Breakup → “I’m unlovable; no one will want me”

These patterns intensify and maintain depressive mood

Example: Failing a Test

Internal:

“It’s my fault. I’m stupid.”

Stable:
“I’ll always be stupid.”

Global:
“Because I failed one exam, my whole life is going to be a failure.”

Or after a breakup:

“I wasn’t good enough”

“People will always leave me”

“I’m unlovable in every area of my life”

→ These explanations turn one event into a permanent identity.

Concept Key Behaviour Simple Example

Doesn’t try because believes nothing can

Learned helplessness “Why study? I’ll fail no matter what.”
change

Stares at textbook thinking “Why am I like

Rumination (3A) Overthinks but takes no action
this?” for hours

Cognitive distortions
Automatic negative errors Rejects all praise, magnifies small mistakes
(3B)

Negative attributions “I failed once → I’m stupid forever → My life is

Blames self in internal, stable, global way
(3C) ruined”

Sociocultural Variations: Social Status, Stress, and Gender

1. Social Status
Depression is more common among people with lower social status

Higher rates found in individuals from:

Economically disadvantaged backgrounds

Lower-income households

Unstable or high-stress living environments

Combination 178
 2. Neighborhood Environment
Living in adverse or unsafe neighborhoods increases risk of depression

Factors may include:

Community violence

Poor housing conditions

Limited access to resources

Chronic stress from environmental instability

3. Major Stressful Life Events

Strong link between stressful life events and onset of depression

Especially true for people who already have a genetic vulnerability

Examples of stressful events:

Job loss

Relationship breakdown

Serious illness

Death of a loved one

Genetic predisposition × major life stress = higher depression risk

4. Gender Differences
Worldwide, women are consistently more likely to be diagnosed with depression

Gender gap appears across:

Many different countries

Many ethnic groups

Both adolescents and adults

Reasons may include:

Social roles

Increased exposure to stress

Hormonal factors

Higher likelihood of rumination

Greater willingness to report symptoms

Gender and Depression

1. Biological Factors (Unique Vulnerabilities in Women)

Genetic Influence
Genetic risk for depression is stronger in women than in men

Women may inherit vulnerability more easily

Ovarian Hormones: Estrogen & Progesterone

Combination 179
 Do not directly “cause” depression

But they interact with key mood-related neurotransmitters:

Serotonin

Dopamine

Exact mechanisms still unclear

Hormonal fluctuations may increase sensitivity to stress or mood changes

Stress Hormones
Women may show greater stress-hormone reactivity, which increases depression risk

HPA-axis differences may contribute to higher female vulnerability

2. Psychological Factors (Cognitive & Emotional Differences)

Ruminative Coping Style

Women more likely to:

Overthink feelings

Focus on emotional distress

Repeatedly analyze problems

Co-rumination with friends (talking excessively about problems)

Offers support but also increases depressive symptoms

Men more likely to distract themselves, withdraw, or use substances

“Women think, men drink.”

Interpersonal Orientation
Women tie self-worth more strongly to relationships

More likely to:

Silence their own needs to maintain harmony

Put others before themselves

This relational style increases vulnerability to depression when relationships become strained

3. Sociocultural Factors Affecting Women

Social Disadvantages
Women face higher exposure to:

Lower income

Less power and control in society

Lower satisfaction in work/family roles

Higher risk of:

Discrimination

Sexual assault

Combination 180
 Abuse

Poverty

Impact
These stressors contribute to feelings of:

Helplessness

Uncontrollability

Both strongly linked to depressive disorders

Traditional Gender Roles

Women encouraged to be:

Passive

Dependent

Less assertive

These roles may reduce confidence and increase depression risk

4. Depression in Men

Prevalence
About 15% of U.S. men experience major depressive disorder in their lifetime

BUT depression in men often looks different

Men’s Typical Expression of Depression

Less likely to show sadness or cry

More likely to:

Hide feelings (“be strong”)

Show irritation or anger

Lash out at others

Withdraw socially

Abuse alcohol or drugs

Barriers to Help-Seeking
Masculine gender-role expectations:

“Don’t show weakness”

“Be in control”

These norms discourage men from:

Admitting distress

Seeking therapy

Schizopherenia

Combination 181
 Chronic, severe, and disabling mental disorder

Affects ~1% of the global population

Involves the disintegration of one’s personality

Schizophrenia ≠ DID

DID = multiple intact identities that alternate

Schizophrenia = one identity breaks down or becomes fragmented

What “Disintegration of Identity” Means

Identity = a connected set of:

Cognitive processes (thinking)

Emotional experiences (feelings)

Perceptual processes (sensing the world)

Motor behaviors (movement and action)

In schizophrenia, these elements become disconnected

Thoughts don’t align with emotions

Perceptions may not match reality

Behavior becomes unpredictable or disorganized

Connection With Reality

As identity fragments, the person’s connection with reality weakens

This leads to:

Impaired functioning

Difficulty living independently

Distorted thinking and perception

Individual Variations: Onset, Gender, Ethnicity,

Social Class, and Prognosis
1. Onset & Course
Symptoms usually appear in adolescence or young adulthood

Onset can be gradual or sudden

Affects men and women equally, but earlier in men

Typical Age of Onset

Men: late teens to early 20s

Women: 20s to early 30s

2. Gender Differences
Why Women Develop Schizophrenia Later

Estrogen may have a protective effect, reducing abnormal brain development

Women’s stronger social networks and social competence can delay onset

Combination 182
 Severity Differences

Because of earlier onset, men tend to be more chronically impaired

3. Ethnic & Cultural Patterns

Diagnosed more often in:

African Americans

Latino/Hispanic Americans

Asian Americans

BUT: These differences may be due to racial bias, misdiagnosis, and cultural insensitivity

Quality of care differs: Blacks and Latinos receive lower-quality treatment than Whites

4. Socioeconomic Factors
Higher prevalence in lower socioeconomic groups

Poverty, disadvantage, and stress may increase vulnerability

5. Functional Impairment
Many individuals struggle with:

Careers

Education

Relationships

Causes of impaired functioning:

Public stigma

Lack of understanding

Media portrayals linking schizophrenia to violence

6. Violence Misconceptions
Most people with schizophrenia are not violent

Many are withdrawn, socially isolated, and prefer to be left alone

When violence occurs, it is strongly linked to:

Being male

Substance abuse

Refusing treatment

Long illness duration

Being single

These are risk factors also found in the general population, not unique to schizophrenia

7. Prognosis
No cure, but symptoms often decrease with age

Recovery depends heavily on:

Social support

Combination 183
 Economic stability

Medication adherence

Avoiding substance abuse

Many continue to experience significant difficulties throughout adulthood

Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Diagnostic Requirements

A person must show:

Two or more symptoms nearly every day for 1 month

Continuous disturbance for at least 6 months

At least one of these must be:

Delusions

Hallucinations

Disorganized speech

Symptoms cannot be due to:

Substance use

Medical conditions

Must cause significant impairment in daily functioning

Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Positive symptoms = excesses or distortion of normal functioning → Most obvious signs of
psychosis (loss of contact with reality)

1. Delusions
False beliefs strongly held despite clear evidence they are not true

Types of Delusions
Persecutory delusions

Belief that others are watching, following, or planning to harm you

Example: “The FBI is monitoring me”

Grandiose delusions

Belief you are famous, powerful, or special

Example: “I am the president of France”

Delusions of reference

Belief that neutral events are directed at you

Example: “The TV newscaster is sending me secret messages”

Delusions of thought control

Belief that one’s thoughts are controlled or inserted by others

Example: “Someone is putting thoughts into my head”

Combination 184
 2. Hallucinations
Sensory experiences without external stimulation

Most common: Auditory hallucinations

Hearing voices or sounds others cannot hear

Voices may give commands or be frightening

Visual hallucinations

Seeing things that are not present

Less common:

Tactile (feeling things on skin)

Olfactory (smelling things)

Gustatory (tasting things)

3. Disorganized Speech (Formal Thought Disorder)

Communication breakdown due to disrupted thinking

Loose associations

Ideas jump from one to another with little connection

Word salad

Words thrown together without logical structure

Speech may be lengthy but unclear or impossible to follow

4. Disorganized or Catatonic Behavior

Disorganized Behavior
Odd or repetitive movements

Examples:

Head banging

Finger flapping

Repeated tracing of patterns

Childlike silliness

Inappropriate sexual behavior (e.g., public masturbation)

Poor hygiene or daily functioning difficulties

Catatonia
Catatonic stupor

Motionless, rigid for hours

Resists attempts to move

Catatonic excitement

Sudden agitation

Shouting, swearing, pacing, rapid movement

Combination 185
 Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Negative symptoms = loss or reduction of normal functions

Represent restrictions in emotional expression, speech, and motivation

Seen in ~25% of people with schizophrenia

1. Blunted Affect
Reduced emotional expression

Person shows little or no emotion

Face appears immobile or expressionless

Voice is flat, lacks tone or inflection

Does not react emotionally even during emotional conversations

Appears passive and disconnected from surroundings

Example: A family member tells a person with schizophrenia that their pet has died.

Most people would react with sadness, shock, or tears

Person with blunted affect:

Face stays blank

Voice flat: “Oh… okay.”

No change in tone, no visible emotion

Appears emotionally disconnected from the situation

Everyday sign:

Told a funny joke → they don’t smile or laugh

Told good news (e.g., “You won an award!”) → expression stays neutral

2. Alogia (Poverty of Speech)

Reduced speech quantity and quality

Brief, empty replies

Little meaningful content

Speech may be slow, limited, or lacking detail

Difficult to engage in conversation

Example: A doctor asks, “How have you been feeling this week?”

Person with alogia:

Gives short, minimal replies

“Okay.”

“Fine.”

“I don’t know.”

Does not add details even when encouraged

Speech content is very limited or empty

Everyday sign:

Combination 186
 When asked, “What did you do today?” they respond:

“Nothing.”

“Just… stuff.”

No elaboration, no conversation flow

3. Avolition
Loss of motivation or ability to follow through

Difficulty starting or completing tasks

Appears apathetic, inactive

Sits for long periods without movement or interest

No drive to engage in work, hobbies, or daily activities

Example: They planned to shower, eat, and clean their room

Person with avolition:

Sits on the bed for hours without starting anything

Feels no motivation to move

Leaves tasks unfinished

Stops engaging in hobbies (e.g., stops drawing, gaming, or exercising)

Everyday sign:

Won’t start simple tasks like brushing teeth or making food

Has trouble following through with daily routines

Appears apathetic and inactive

Research Explaining Schizophrenia:

Genetics, the Brain, and the Environment
A Strong Genetic Factor

1. High Heritability
Schizophrenia shows strong genetic influence

Family, twin, and adoption studies consistently support high heritability

General population risk = ~1%

2. Family & Twin Studies

The more genetically related you are to a person with schizophrenia, the higher your risk

Risk by Genetic Similarity

Identical twins (100% genes shared):

If one twin has schizophrenia → 48% chance the other will too

Fraternal twins (50% genes shared):

Risk drops to 17%

First-degree relatives (parents, siblings, children):

Combination 187
 Higher risk than general population

Interpretation

Strong genetic component

But not purely genetic → If genes were the only factor, identical twin concordance would be
closer to 100%

3. Adoption Studies
Adopted children with biological parents who have schizophrenia:

10× more likely to develop schizophrenia

In contrast, adopted children whose biological parents do not have schizophrenia show much lower
risk

Conclusion:

Risk is carried through genes, not environment alone

4. Multiple Genes, Not One

No single “schizophrenia gene”

Many chromosomal regions likely interact to increase vulnerability

Genetic vulnerabilities may lead to:

Brain structural abnormalities

Dysfunction in neural circuits

Differences in gene expression

Current understanding:

Schizophrenia results from complex genetic pathways, not a single mutation

The Brain: Neurotransmitters and Structural Abnormalities

1. Neurotransmitter Abnormalities

A. Dopamine Hypothesis (Classic View)

Early theory: schizophrenia caused by excess dopamine activity

Evidence:

Phenothiazines (antipsychotic drugs) reduce dopamine → reduce positive symptoms

Limitations:

Many people do not respond to phenothiazines

Dopamine’s role is more complex than “too much dopamine”

B. Newer Dopamine Research

Clozapine, a newer antipsychotic, blocks different dopamine receptors

Suggests dopamine is involved in schizophrenia, but:

Different receptor subtypes

Different brain pathways

Combination 188
 More nuanced dysfunction

2. Glutamate Hypothesis
Glutamate also plays a major role in schizophrenia

Evidence:

Drugs like PCP and ketamine, which block glutamate, can cause:

Cognitive impairments

Negative symptoms

Symptoms similar to schizophrenia in healthy people

Current research:

Interaction between glutamate dysfunction + dopamine dysfunction

These systems may influence each other

3. Brain Structure Abnormalities

A. Enlarged Ventricles
Most consistent structural abnormality in schizophrenia

Ventricles = fluid-filled spaces in the brain

Enlarged ventricles → reduced brain volume

May contribute to cognitive and functional deficits

B. Frontal Lobe Dysfunction

Frontal lobe controls:

Language

Emotions

Social behavior

Abnormalities may help explain:

Disorganized speech

Blunted affect

Impulse or behavior problems

C. Temporal Lobe Dysfunction

Temporal lobe important for:

Memory

Auditory processing

Dysfunction may contribute to:

Auditory hallucinations

Memory problems

Disconnection from reality

Combination 189
 Prenatal and Developmental Factors

1. Prenatal & Birth-Related Risk Factors

Research links several pregnancy and birth complications to schizophrenia:

Birth complications

Maternal diabetes

Low birth weight

Prenatal maternal stress (e.g., trauma, anxiety during pregnancy)

Exposure to prenatal viruses (flu, infections)

These factors may disrupt normal brain development before the baby is born.

2. Gene × Environment Interaction

The main theory:
A genetic predisposition interacts with negative prenatal conditions
Meaning—

A fetus with genetic vulnerability +

Poor prenatal environment (e.g., viruses, malnutrition, stress)

= higher chance of abnormal brain development

This interaction may alter:

Neurotransmitter systems (dopamine, glutamate)

Brain structure (ventricles, frontal/temporal lobes)

3. Synaptic Pruning Hypothesis (Adolescence)

A major theory explaining why symptoms appear in teenage years:

Normal brain development

During adolescence, the brain naturally performs synaptic pruning

→ Removes unnecessary neural connections to improve efficiency

In schizophrenia

The brain trims away too many synapses

→ “Over-pruning”

→ Leads to cognitive + emotional dysfunction

→ Symptoms begin to appear (hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking)

Why Symptoms Show Up in Teen Years

Adolescence = major brain maturation phase

If someone has:

Strong genetic predisposition

Severe prenatal complications

Then the over-pruning during adolescence triggers the disorder

Combination 190
 Even people with mild genetic vulnerability may develop schizophrenia if their environment
“pushes” the risk

The Role of Family and Environment

Two major factors strongly affect the onset, severity, and course of schizophrenia:

Family support / family communication

Stressful living conditions

These factors do not cause schizophrenia, but they shape vulnerability and relapse risk

1. Family Communication & Interactions

Predicts Onset (High-Risk Individuals)

For people genetically vulnerable, the quality of family interactions can predict whether
schizophrenia develops

High-risk individuals are more likely to show symptoms when family communication is poor

Predicts Relapse / Future Episodes

Family behaviors that increase vulnerability:

Criticism

Harshness

Hostility

Poor communication

These environments increase stress → make psychotic episodes more likely

2. Stressful Living Conditions

Low-Income / Chronic Stress

Living in poverty or unstable environments increases stress levels

Chronic stress can worsen symptoms and trigger relapses

Stress does not directly cause schizophrenia but interacts with biological vulnerability

Personality Disorders
Personality disorders involve long-standing, inflexible patterns of:

Emotions

Thoughts

Behaviors

These patterns cause:

Persistent distress to the person or others

Impaired functioning in work, relationships, or daily life

Personality quirks (e.g., neatness, mild suspicion) do not qualify unless they cause serious disruption

Key Features

Patterns are chronic and stable, usually begin in adolescence or early adulthood

Combination 191
 Individuals often do not see their behavior as problematic

Because of this:

They rarely seek treatment on their own

They usually enter therapy because of external pressure (family, legal, or crisis-related)

Comorbidity

People with personality disorders often also have other mental health disorders

Anxiety disorders

Mood disorders (e.g., depression)

Substance-related issues

They typically seek treatment for these other disorders, not their personality traits

Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)

Key Features
ASPD = long-standing pattern of impulsive, manipulative, and harmful behavior toward others.

Impulsive, acts without thinking

Disregards the rights of others

No remorse or guilt after harming others

Lacks responsibility; blames others

Deceptive; lies frequently

Manipulative, uses others for personal gain

Trouble maintaining social, work, or family relationships

Important:
“Antisocial” here does not mean shy or introverted — it means anti-society, harmful to others.

Combination 192
 Early Signs
Patterns typically appear in childhood or adolescence

Behaviors may include:

Aggression

Fighting

Theft

Truancy

Cruelty to animals

Serious rule-breaking

Criminal Behaviour vs ASPD

Many with ASPD end up in prisons — BUT:

Not all criminals have ASPD

Not all people with ASPD are criminals

Key difference:

Criminals may feel guilt or remorse

People with ASPD do NOT feel guilt, even when they severely harm others

Some with ASPD function successfully in business, politics, entertainment, or as con artists

Biological Factors

A. Genetics
Family, twin, and adoption studies: strong genetic influence

First-degree relatives have higher risk

B. Neurotransmitters
Low serotonin levels linked to impulsivity and aggression

C. Brain Areas
Deficits in regions controlling:

Impulse control

Decision-making

Attention

Linked to abnormalities in frontal lobe functioning

D. Hormones
Higher testosterone levels associated with aggression

E. Nervous System Arousal

Low arousal = need for intense stimulation → risk-taking, thrill-seeking

Psychological & Social Factors

Combination 193
 Conflict-filled, chaotic, or abusive childhoods

Parents may be:

Neglectful

Hostile or harsh

Inconsistent with discipline

Low warmth

Child learns to expect mistreatment, becomes:

Mistrustful

Aggressive

Detached

Borderline Personality Disorder

Core Feature: Instability
BPD is defined by instability in:

Mood

Interpersonal relationships

Self-image

Behavior

This instability disrupts:

Work / career

Friendships

Romantic relationships

Sense of identity

Emotional Instability
Intense episodes of anger, anxiety, or depression

Mood swings can last hours to days

Emotions shift rapidly and strongly

Unstable Self-Image
Insecure and self-loathing at some times

Exaggerated or inflated sense of self at other times

Poorly developed identity → frequent changes in:

Goals

Values

Friendships

Jobs

Relationship Instability

Combination 194
 Relationships follow a recognizable pattern:

1. Idealization

They admire, cling to, and idolize someone new

See the person as perfect or special

2. Trigger or conflict occurs

Even small disagreements feel like rejection

3. Devaluation & anger

Anger, panic, mistrust

“You don’t care about me,” “You’re leaving me”

4. Abandonment fear

Extreme fear of being left alone

Attempts to avoid real or imagined abandonment

5. Cycle repeats with new relationships

Internal Experience
People with BPD often report:

Feeling empty inside

Feeling unworthy, “bad,” or broken

Intense insecurity

Fear of rejection

Difficulty controlling impulses

Self-Harm & Suicide Risk

Self-injury is common (cutting, burning, hitting themselves)

Suicide attempts occur, especially during extreme emotional distress

Often triggered by abandonment fears or interpersonal conflict

Causes (Biopsychosocial Model)

Biological Factors
Low serotonin levels → impulsivity and aggression

Emotion regulation difficulties → linked to abnormal brain functioning

Prefrontal cortex and limbic system differences

Environmental Factors
High rates of adverse childhood experiences, especially:

Physical abuse

Emotional abuse

Neglect

Sexual abuse (significantly high percentage)

Combination 195
 Poor attachment to caregivers

Unstable family environments

Psychological Factors
Identity disturbance due to poor early attachment

Difficulty expressing or regulating emotions

Intense sensitivity to rejection

The Psychoanalytic Approach: Sigmund Freud & Neo-

Freudians
Freud’s Levels of Awareness
1. Freud’s Iceberg Model
Personality is like an iceberg

Small visible part = conscious mind

Large hidden part = preconscious + unconscious

Most of what influences our behavior is below the surface (unconscious)

Most personality dynamics—fears, unresolved conflicts, desires—operate outside awareness

To understand behavior, we must examine these unconscious forces

Combination 196
 Conscious Level (Tip of the Iceberg)
Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions you are currently aware of

Examples:

“I need to study for next week’s test”

“I want to download this song”

Very limited capacity → only a few thoughts can be held at a time

Preconscious Level (Just Below the Surface)

Easily accessible memories, thoughts, and information

Not currently in awareness, but can quickly become conscious

Example:

Your birthday

What you ate for lunch

Your friend’s phone number

Acts as a “holding space” for information that can be pulled into awareness when needed

Unconscious Level (Deepest, Largest Level)

Contains hidden thoughts, impulses, desires, and memories

Not accessible to awareness

Combination 197
 BUT still influence behavior, emotions, and personality

Examples (Freudian interpretation):

A child blocking parents from hugging

→ reflects an unconscious desire for exclusive closeness with a parent

A woman panics around dogs

→ Unconscious memory: she was bitten as a child but she doesn't consciously remember it

A person always pushes partners away

→ Unconscious belief: “I’m not lovable,” formed from early rejection

→ Behaviour: ruins relationships without knowing why

Freud’s Structure of Personality

Personality = energy system made of 3 interacting structures:

Id (instincts → “I want it now”)

Ego (reality → “What is possible?”)

Superego (morality → “Is this right or wrong?”)

These operate at different levels of consciousness (mostly unconscious)

Personality problems arise when one system overpowers the others

Id
Present from birth

Completely unconscious

Operates on pleasure principle

→ seeks pleasure & avoids pain

Driven by sexual & aggressive instincts

Examples

A hungry baby crying loudly for milk

Wanting to punch someone who insulted you

Impulsive urges: binge eating, grabbing something you want

Sexual desires that pop up suddenly

Saying something rude “without thinking”

Ego
Develops as child interacts with reality

Operates on reality principle

→ delays gratification

Negotiates between id’s desires and real-world rules

Mostly conscious + preconscious, but some unconscious elements

Examples

Combination 198
 Instead of crying for food, a 4-year-old asks politely and waits

You want to quit school (id), but ego says, “Not realistic, think long-term”

You feel angry (id) but choose to walk away instead of fighting

You want to buy something expensive, but ego says, “Budget first”

Superego
Develops later from parents, society, moral teachings

Represents morality + conscience

Judges behaviour as right/wrong

Creates guilt, shame, and pride

Examples

Feeling guilty for lying, even if no one knows

Deciding not to cheat because “it’s wrong”

Feeling ashamed of being angry at someone you love

Stopping yourself from stealing because your values say it’s unacceptable

How Id, Ego and Superego Conflict

Example: You want to eat a whole cake

Id: “Eat it all NOW! It tastes good!”

Superego: “That’s greedy and unhealthy.”

Ego: “Okay, you can have a slice after dinner.”

Example: You want to quit your job immediately

Id: “Just quit! I hate this!”

Superego: “Quitting is irresponsible!”

Ego: “Let’s look for a new job first before resigning.”

Example: You like someone who is already taken

Id: “Flirt with them! I want them!”

Superego: “That’s morally wrong.”

Ego: “Distance yourself and redirect your attention.”

Freudian Slips (Id Breaking Through)

Accidentally saying something that reveals a hidden desire

Example:

Meant to say: “Nice to meet you.”

Slip: “Nice to need you.”

Ego quickly “corrects” it

Freud: The slip revealed the id’s unconscious impulse

Defense Mechanisms (Ego Coping Strategy)

Combination 199
 Ego uses these to manage anxiety from id–superego conflict

Example from the text: Sublimation

→ channeling unacceptable impulses into something productive

Example:

Angry at your partner → instead you pour energy into work or exercise

Freud’s Psychosexual Stage of Development

Freud believed personality develops through five stages from birth to adolescence

Each stage focuses on pleasure from a specific erogenous zone

“Psychosexual” = psychological meaning of sexual/pleasure-driven urges in development

Freud believed all children experience unconscious conflicts during development

The way they resolve these conflicts → creates the adult personality

Differences in upbringing → lead to individual differences in personality

A. Conflict

Each stage involves an internal struggle between:

The child’s desire for pleasure

Parental rules, restrictions, or expectations

How these conflicts are resolved → shapes personality

B. Environmental Influence

Parenting style (strict, permissive, inconsistent, warm, harsh) affects:

How children cope

Whether they become fixated

Long-term personality traits

C. Fixation

If conflicts are not resolved, part of the personality becomes “stuck” at that stage

This produces adult personality characteristics related to the unresolved issue

Combination 200
 Oral Stage
Age range: Birth → ~18 months

Erogenous zone: Mouth (primary source of pleasure)

Pleasure activities:

Sucking

Licking

Biting

Chewing

Infants explore the world and gain comfort through oral stimulation

Feeding experiences (breastfeeding, bottle-feeding, weaning) shape early trust

How parents respond to the baby's needs influences:

Security

Attachment

Early personality patterns

If Fixation Occurs (Fixation = unresolved conflict)

May lead to oral-focused behaviors in adulthood:

Overeating

Nail-biting

Smoking

Chewing pens

Boasting

Anal Stage
Age range: ~18 months → 3 years

Erogenous zone: Anus + rectum

Source of pleasure:

Producing feces

Withholding feces

“Control” over bodily functions

Freud saw defecation as a creative act for the toddler

→ They may feel proud of what they produce

Central Conflict: Toilet Training

Personality development during this stage is shaped by how parents respond to:

Accidents

Messiness

Withholding behavior

Toilet-training expectations

Combination 201
 Children experience:

Desire to control their bodily output (id satisfaction)

vs.

Parental rules, expectations, and discipline (external reality)

How this conflict is handled influences the child’s developing ego.

Why this stage matters?

Toilet training becomes the child’s first experience with:

Control vs. obedience

Independence vs. parental demands

Expressing autonomy

If parents are:

Too strict (Anal-retentive) → may lead to anxiety or perfectionistic traits (overly neat, stingy,
orderly) “Why u so anal?”

Too permissive (Anal-expulsive)→ may lead to messy or disorganized tendencies

(excessively sloppy, generous, carefree)

Phallic Stage
Age range: 3 → 6 years

Erogenous zone: Genitals

Source of pleasure:

Self-stimulation

Awareness of genital sensations

Oedipus & Electra Complexes

1. Oedipus Complex (boys)

Boy develops unconscious sexual attraction to his mother

Sees father as a rival for her affection

Experiences hostile, jealous feelings toward the father

2. Electra Complex (girls)

Girl develops unconscious sexual attraction to her father

Feels jealousy and rivalry toward her mother

Real-Life Behaviours

Interrupt parents hugging or sitting together

Try to get the exclusive attention of the opposite-sex parent

Become jealous when parents spend time alone

How is this solved:

Boy begins to imitate father’s behaviour → copying how he eats, talks, or dresses

Girl begins to imitate mother → copying how she brushes her hair or behaves

This identification:

Combination 202
 Reduces rivalry

Ends the conflict

Helps the child internalize parents’ values and moral rules

Outcome: Development of the Superego

After resolving the complex, psychic energy is redirected

Child incorporates:

Moral standards

Values

This strengthens and develops the superego (the moral part of personality)

If Fixation Occurs (Fixation = unresolved conflict)

Example 1: “Jealous partner” pattern

An adult becomes irrationally jealous if their partner talks to others

→ mirrors unresolved childhood jealousy toward the same-sex parent.

Example 2: “Daddy issues” or “Mommy issues”

Seeking father-like or mother-like partners

Over-attachment or intense neediness

→ reflects unresolved attraction to the opposite-sex parent.

Example 3: Narcissistic traits

Believes they deserve special attention or admiration

→ tied to unresolved desire to be the centre of the parent’s world.

Latency Stage
Age range: 6 → puberty

Erogenous zone: None specific (sexual energy is dormant)

Main characteristic:

Sexual impulses are repressed / pushed into the background

Psychic energy shifts away from sexuality

Focus turns toward school, learning, friendships, and social skills

Children develop:

Competence

Confidence

Academic abilities

Same-sex friendships

Teamwork and cooperation

Why is this stage important

Provides time for ego and superego to strengthen without sexual conflict

Helps children learn:

Combination 203
 Social rules

Gender roles

Moral reasoning

Emotional control

Foundations for mature relationships later in life

If Fixation Occurs

Possible outcomes:

Immature social behavior

Difficulty forming close friendships

Social withdrawal or over-shyness

Lack of confidence in group settings

Genital Stage
Begins: At puberty

Erogenous zone: Genitals

Sexual impulses return (reactivated after latency period)

Adolescents must revisit earlier sexual urges that first appeared in the phallic stage

The adolescent redirects those early desires toward → A romantic partner outside the family

Freud’s View of Adult Relationship (1900s theory)

Heterosexual relationships

Form when adolescents transfer love to an other-sex partner

Freud believed people unconsciously choose partners who resemble the opposite-sex parent
(Girl seek partners similar to their father)

Homosexual relationships

If a child unconsciously had attraction to the same-sex parent

during the phallic stage, → they may later transfer that desire to a
same-sex partner

Outcome of Successful Genital Stage Resolution

Ability to form:

Mature intimate relationships

Strong friendships

Healthy sexual expression

Ability to balance:

Love

Work

Social responsibility

If Fixations Occur

Combination 204
 Difficulty forming mature adult relationships

Immature or inconsistent romantic behavior

Trouble balancing intimacy and independence

Choosing partners who recreate unresolved childhood conflicts

Variations in Personality and Fixations

Fixation = getting “stuck” at a psychosexual stage

Happens when a child receives:

Too much gratification (over-indulgence)

Too little gratification (frustration/deprivation)

Because of this imbalance, the child:

Does not fully resolve the stage’s conflict

Carries those unresolved needs into adulthood

To develop a healthy personality, the child needs optimal gratification, meaning:

Not too much (child becomes reluctant to move on)

Not too little (child remains frustrated and keeps seeking satisfaction)

If the balance is wrong → fixation happens.

Effects of Fixation

Personality becomes immature or underdeveloped

Part of the adult personality remains focused on the concerns of that stage

Adult behaviors reflect those unresolved childhood needs

If Fixation
Occurs (Too
Main Conflict / Adult Personality
Stage Age Range Erogenous Zone Much or Too
Task Outcomes
Little
Gratification)

• Overeating •
Nail-biting •
Weaning from Smoking •
Over-indulgence
Mouth (sucking, breast/bottle; Alcoholism •
Oral 0 – 18 months or deprivation
biting, chewing) comfort vs Excessive
during feeding
independence talking/boasting •
Biting
pens/pencils

Anal-retentive:
overly neat,
Toilet training; Too strict →
Anus stingy,
18 months – 3 independence frustration; Too
Anal (expelling/withholding perfectionistic
years vs parental lenient → over-
feces) Anal-expulsive:
control indulgence
messy, careless,
overly generous

Phallic 3 – 6 years Genitals Oedipus/Electra Conflict not • Jealousy in

complex; resolved → relationships •
identifying with fixation in desire Sexual confusion
or identity • Narcissism •

Combination 205
 If Fixation
Occurs (Too
Main Conflict / Adult Personality
Stage Age Range Erogenous Zone Much or Too
Task Outcomes
Little
Gratification)
same-sex Flirtatious or
parent overly seductive
behavior •
Problems with
authority (same-
sex rivalry)

• Social
Developing Rare to have
withdrawal or
No specific zone social & fixation, but may
6 years – shyness • Poor
Latency (sexual urges academic skills; occur with
puberty peer relationships
dormant) forming unresolved
• Immature social
friendships earlier conflicts
skills

• Difficulty
forming mature
Redirect earlier relationships •
desires to Unresolved Choosing
Puberty → Genitals (mature
Genital romantic phallic issues partners similar to
adulthood sexual expression)
partners outside resurface parent • Problems
family balancing
intimacy &
independence

Neo-Freidian Theories: Carl Jung → Collective Unconscious

Core idea is about wholeness: a healthy, developed personality comes from balancing and
integrating all these different parts of yourself. You don’t ignore any side—you accept and
understand your persona, your shadow, and both your anima and animus. This way, you become a
more complete and whole individual.

He agreed that personality involves both conscious and unconscious processes

BUT he expanded the unconscious into two levels

Personal Unconscious
Your own forgotten or repressed memories.

Similar to Freud’s unconscious

Contains:

Forgotten memories

Repressed experiences

Personal, individual material

Example

You suddenly feel nervous around dogs but don’t know why.
→ When you were little, you were bitten (you forgot the memory).

→ The fear stays in your personal unconscious and still affects you.

Collective Unconscious

Combination 206
 The universal “human memory bank” shared by everyone.

Inherited from early human history

Contains primitive images, memories, patterns

Shapes how we respond to the world (instinctive reactions)

Example

Almost all humans fear the dark, snakes, or deep water.

These fears exist even if you’ve never had a bad experience with them.

→ Because humans inherited ancient survival memories.

Archetypes (Core Feature of Jung’s Theory)

Archetypes = universal, symbolic patterns in the collective unconscious
→ predispositions to think, feel, or behave in certain ways

1. Anima (female aspect)

Feminine side of a man’s personality

Represents sensitivity, intuition, gentleness

Example

In men, anima appears as:

Sensitivity

Creativity

Intuition

Gentleness

Emotional expression

A guy cries at a sad movie → anima

A male artist expressing emotional art → anima

A man who is empathetic and nurturing → anima

2. Animus (male aspect)

Masculine side of a woman’s personality

Represents logic, assertiveness, strength

Example

In women, animus appears as:

Assertiveness

Logic

Strength

Independence

A woman confidently leading a meeting → animus

A girl who is decisive, rational, or ambitious → animus

Combination 207
 A woman who stands up for herself → animus

3. Persona
The “mask” we show the world

Social role or identity (e.g., teacher, rebel, helper, martyr)

How we want others to perceive us

Example:

At school: you act polite, hardworking, responsible.

At home: you’re silly, lazy, or messy.

On Instagram: you look confident, stylish, aesthetic.

➡️ That “social mask” = your persona.

4. Shadow
The dark, hidden, or undesirable side of the personality

Qualities we deny or suppress

Includes impulses, weaknesses, fears, or socially unacceptable traits

Example

You say you’re “not jealous,” but deep down you get jealous easily.

You appear kind, but secretly judge people.

You act confident but hide insecurity.

You get angry but pretend you’re chill.

➡️ The shadow is the part you don’t want others (or yourself) to see.
Jungian Concept Meaning Real-Life Example (Alex)

The “mask” you show the Alex acts confident, cool, and funny
Persona world; how you want others to around his friends, even when he’s not
see you feeling that way inside

Hidden, denied, or negative Alex secretly feels insecure and jealous

Shadow traits; the side you don’t want but hides it; he gets irritated easily but
others to see pretends he’s always calm

Alex creates emotional artwork and cries

Sensitivity, emotion, intuition,
Anima (feminine side in men) at sad movies; he is more sensitive than he
gentleness inside a man
shows

Animus (masculine side in women)

Logic, strength, decisiveness
(Not part of Alex’s example but —
inside a woman
included for contrast)

Forgotten or repressed personal Alex hates hospitals but doesn’t know

Personal Unconscious memories that still influence why; later learns he saw something
behavior traumatic as a child that he forgot

Universal instincts and inherited Alex naturally fears the dark even though
Collective Unconscious
memories shared by all humans he never had a bad experience with it

Basic personality attitudes:

Alex feels tired after too much socializing
Introversion / Extraversion inward-focused vs outward-
→ shows introversion tendencies
focused

Combination 208
 Neo-Freidian Theories: Alfred Adler → Inferiority Complex
Core Idea: We are motivated by feelings of inferiority
Children are small, weak, and dependent, so they naturally feel inferior.

These feelings push them to grow, improve, and master their environment.

This striving leads to personality development.

Example (Normal Inferiority → Healthy Growth):

A child feels small compared to older siblings.

They try harder in school or sports.

They grow into a hardworking, persistent adult.

Example (Deep Inferiority → Inferiority Complex):

A child always feels “not good enough.”

They may grow into an adult who:

avoids challenges,

gives up easily,

feels insecure around others.

Overcompensation
When people feel strongly inferior, they may try to “over-correct.”

Example of Overcompensation:

Feeling weak in childhood → becoming obsessed with power as an adult.

Feeling stupid growing up → becoming overly competitive academically.

Birth Order (Psychological)

Adler believed your position in the family influences your personality because each child enters a
different family environment.

⚠️ Important: Research shows no strong evidence for birth-order effects, but Adler’s ideas are still
widely discussed.

only child → may feel like the oldest child bc felt need to take charge

Firstborn

Gets full attention, then must “share” when siblings arrive.

May become:

responsible,

protective,

leadership-oriented.

Example:

Oldest child helps care for younger siblings → grows up responsible and organized.

Middle Child

Feels squeezed between older and younger siblings.

Combination 209
 May become:

competitive,

adaptable,

good negotiator.

Example:
Middle child always compares themselves to an older, more capable sibling → becomes hardworking
and competitive.

Youngest

Receives the most attention.

May be:

spoiled,

charming,

dependent,

creative.

Example:
Youngest child always gets help from others → grows up dependent or attention-seeking.

Concept Meaning How It Shapes Personality Example

Feelings of Natural childhood feeling Motivates growth or leads to Child feels small → works hard
Inferiority of weakness inferiority complex in school

Striving for Desire to overcome Child feels weak → trains hard

Leads to mastery, confidence
Superiority inferiority → becomes strong

Deep, unresolved Adult thinks “I’m useless,”

Inferiority Complex Avoids challenges, insecurity
inferiority avoids jobs or school

Over-correcting feelings Can lead to extremes (power, Feeling weak → becomes

Overcompensation
of inferiority status) controlling adult

Family position influences Different personalities may Firstborn = responsible;

Birth Order
environment develop youngest = dependent

Neo-Freidian Theories: Karen Horney → Basic Anxiety and Culture

Personality is shaped mainly by early relationships and the family environment, not sexual instincts
(unlike Freud).

When children grow up in environments that feel unsafe, unloved, or unpredictable, they develop
basic anxiety — a deep feeling of helplessness and insecurity.

Personality = how children learn to survive emotionally

Basic Anxiety
"The world feels scary, and I feel small and alone.”

Caused by:

Cold or rejecting parents

Overly controlling parents

Neglect or inconsistency

Combination 210
 Conflict-filled homes

Lack of warmth or affection

How Children Cope with Basic Anxiety

1. Moving Towards People (Seeking Love and Approval)

“If I can get people to love me, I’ll be safe.”

Child Example:

A child who keeps trying to please parents to avoid punishment or rejection.

Adult Example:

Overly clingy in relationships

Afraid to be alone

People-pleasing personality

Needs constant reassurance

2. Moving Against People (Seeking Power and Control)

“If I’m strong and powerful, no one can hurt me.”

Child Example:

A child who becomes aggressive or domineering to protect themselves.

Adult Example:

Competitive to the extreme

Controlling or bossy

Uses intimidation or manipulation

Feels safest when in charge

3. Moving Away From People (Seeking Detachment)

“If I detach, no one can hurt or reject me.”

Child Example:

A child who withdraws emotionally because family feels unpredictable.

Adult Example:

Prefers isolation

Avoids emotional closeness

Appears independent but actually fearful

Shuts down during conflict

Contributions and Criticisms

of the Psychoanalytic Approach
Strengths
Emphasized the unconscious, which modern research supports

Highlighted importance of childhood experiences

Combination 211
 Introduced defense mechanisms

Influenced psychotherapy, personality theory, and culture

Weaknesses
Overemphasized sex and aggression

Theories cannot be tested scientifically

Methods relied on biased case studies

Gender-biased; culturally limited

Overestimated childhood and parental influence

Aspect Freud’s Contributions Criticisms of Freud

One of the most influential thinkers of the 20th Influence sometimes exaggerated; many
Impact on
century; his ideas shaped therapy, personality modern psychologists view his theory as
Psychology
theory, and popular culture outdated

Many dream interpretations are subjective

Dream Theory Stimulated research on dreams and sleep
and not scientifically testable

Developed the foundational concept;

Defense Hard to measure scientifically; concepts are
expanded by Anna Freud; still used today in
Mechanisms vague and difficult to test experimentally
psychology & counselling

Highlighted the role of unconscious BUT his version of the “unconscious” (sexual,
Unconscious Mind processes, which modern cognitive aggressive drives) is not supported by
neuroscience supports (implicit cognition) scientific evidence

First to emphasize how early childhood BUT he overstated its influence; childhood
Importance of Early
affects adult behavior — a major shift at the does not rigidly determine personality like he
Childhood
time suggested

Sexual focus considered excessive and

Developmental Provided the first stage-based theory of
unrealistic; psychosexual stages cannot be
Theory personality (psychosexual stages)
scientifically tested

Brought attention to human sexuality at a time Overemphasized sexual and aggressive

View on Sexuality
when it was taboo drives; too deterministic

His ideas reflect Western individualistic

Influenced arts, literature, film, and clinical
Cultural Impact culture and may not apply to collectivist
therapy
cultures

Case studies were biased; conclusions not

Popularized case studies; deep analysis of
Research Methods generalizable; patients’ accounts not verified;
individuals
lacked scientific objectivity

Provided broad conceptual frameworks that Theories are difficult or impossible to test or
Testability
inspired future theories falsify; scientific support is limited

Theory seen as male-centered and sexist;

Highlighted women’s development through
Gender Bias reflects early 1900s gender norms, not
concepts like Electra complex
modern understanding

The Trait Approach

Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory
Allport believed that personality is made up of traits, and these traits are the building blocks of who
we are.

Combination 212
 Central Traits (Core qualities across most situations)
Stable traits that describe you in general

Your friends would use these words to describe you

Everyone has them, but they differ across people

Examples

Friendly

Hardworking

Honest

Shy

Real-life example

“Jason is friendly and hardworking — you see this in school, at work, and even when playing sports.”

Secondary Traits (Specific to certain situations)

Less consistent

Come out only in some conditions

Situation-dependent

Examples

Gets irritated when hungry

Becomes talkative only with close friends

Nervous only during exams

Real-life example

“Amanda is usually calm, but she gets very competitive only during games.”

Cardinal Traits (Dominate entire personality)

Extremely strong, rare

One trait influences almost everything a person does

Not everyone has a cardinal trait

Examples

Mother Teresa → compassion

Hitler → power/dominance

Someone whose entire life is driven by ambition

Real-life example

“If a person’s whole identity is based on helping people, choosing jobs that help others, and always
sacrificing themselves — then altruism may be their cardinal trait.”

Trait Type Explanation Example for a person named Mei Ling

Shows up across most Mei Ling is generally responsible and patient with everyone she
Central Trait
situations meets

Secondary Shows up only in specific

She becomes very anxious only during public speaking
Trait situations

Combination 213
 Trait Type Explanation Example for a person named Mei Ling

Dominates the entire If she is guided by kindness in every decision — job, friendships,
Cardinal Trait
personality (rare) daily actions — kindness may be her cardinal trait

Raymond Cattell’s Factor Analytic Theory

He wanted to make personality research more scientific.

He used factor analysis, a statistical method that groups related traits together.

His goal: reduce thousands of traits → into a smaller number of core traits.

He made personality theory more scientific & measurable

Created one of the earliest personality tests (16PF)

Surface Traits
Traits we see on the surface — outward behavior

Easily observable

Change more across situations

Cattell found 36 surface traits

Examples:

Being talkative

Being messy

Being impatient

Being friendly

Source Traits (Core Traits)

The deeper, underlying traits that cause the surface behaviors

More stable, universal, and fundamental

Present in everyone, but in different strengths

After analysis, Cattell identified 16 source traits

Examples:

Warmth

Reasoning ability

Emotional stability

Dominance

Sensitivity

Perfectionism

Surface vs Source Traits

Example

Surface Traits (what you see)

Talkative

Combination 214
 Social

Likes group activities

👉 These might all reflect one source trait → High Warmth (Outgoing personality)
Example

Surface traits:

Easily stressed

Nervous in public

Worries a lot

👉 These reflect Low Emotional Stability (a source trait)

The PEN Model (Hans Eysenck)

Built on Cattell’s findings but simplified personality into fewer core dimensions

Originally: 2 factors

Introversion ↔ Extraversion (I–E)

Emotional Stability ↔ Neuroticism (S–N)

Later added the 3rd factor: Psychoticism (P)

Final model = PEN Model

1. Introversion ↔ Extraversion (I–E)

Where your energy is directed.

Introversion (energy inward)

Quiet

Careful

Controlled

Combination 215
 Prefers being alone or in small groups

Reserved

Extraversion (energy outward)

Outgoing

Talkative

Lively

Sociable

Excitable

📌 Everyone is somewhere along the continuum, not 100% introvert or extrovert.

Emotional Stability ↔ Neuroticism (S–N)
How well you handle stress and emotions.

Emotional Stability

Calm

Relaxed

Even-tempered

Handles pressure well

Neuroticism (emotional instability)

Moody

Touchy

Worrying

Easily upset

Anxious

📌 Higher neuroticism = more emotional reactivity.

Psychoticism (P)
Tendencies toward impulsivity and rule-breaking.

High Psychoticism

Hostile

Aggressive

Impulsive

Reckless

Doesn’t follow rules

Lack of empathy

Low Psychoticism

Kind

Considerate

Responsible

Combination 216
 Follows social norms

📌 It does NOT mean “psychotic disorder.”

It’s just a personality dimension related to impulsivity and antisocial tendencies.

PEN Dimension High End Characteristics Low End Characteristics

P — Psychoticism Impulsive, aggressive, disregard rules Responsible, kind, follows norms

E — Extraversion Outgoing, lively, sociable Reserved, quiet, reflective

N — Neuroticism Moody, anxious, easily upset Calm, even-tempered, emotionally stable

Dimension Sarah’s Position How It Looks in Real Life

Extraversion High Loves group projects, talks easily to strangers

Neuroticism Medium–High Gets stressed before exams, overthinks mistakes

Psychoticism Low Very kind, follows rules, avoids conflict

The Neurobiology of Extraversion and Introversion

Personality is partly biological — based on arousal levels in the brain

Introverts naturally have higher baseline brain arousal

Combination 217
 Extraverts naturally have lower baseline brain arousal

Introverts → Higher Arousal

Their nervous system is already more active

They get overstimulated easily

Too much noise, socialising, or stimulation becomes uncomfortable

Behaviour

Prefer quiet places

Avoid large crowds

Need time alone to recharge

More sensitive to loud noises and bright lights

Example

At a party, an introvert may feel overwhelmed after a while because their arousal level shoots
up too high.

Extroverts → Lower Arousal

Their nervous system is less active

They need more stimulation to feel energized

Behaviour

Seek excitement and social interaction

Enjoy crowds, activities, conversations

Take more risks

Are more energetic in stimulating environment

Example

At a party, an extravert feels more alive because the stimulation raises their arousal to a
pleasant level.

Reward-Processing Theory (Modern View)

Extraverts’ brains are more sensitive to rewards and dopamine.

Extraverts experience MORE pleasure from rewards (fun events, socialising, success)

Their dopamine system fires more strongly

So they naturally seek more excitement and social interaction

Introverts

Less sensitive to dopamine spikes

Don’t chase high-reward, high-stimulation environments as much

Trait Introverts Extraverts

Baseline Arousal High Low

Comfort Level Prefer calm, low stimulation Prefer high stimulation

Typical Behaviour Quiet, reflective, avoids crowds Outgoing, social, thrill-seeking

Biological Sensitivity More sensitive to noise, stimuli Less sensitive, need more input

Combination 218
 Trait Introverts Extraverts

Dopamine/Reward System Lower reward sensitivity Higher reward sensitivity

The Five Factor Trait Theory

Found across cultures, ages, and even other species (chimps & bonobos).

Suggests these traits are biologically rooted.

Most widely accepted trait theory today.

OCEAN

O — Openness to Experience

High Openness
Traits:

Imaginative

Curious

Creative

Likes novelty and variety

Examples:

Tries new foods whenever travelling

Enjoys art museums, poetry, creative hobbies

Signs up for new classes (e.g., pottery, coding) out of curiosity

Low Openness
Traits:

Prefers routine

Traditional

Practical

Avoids new experiences

Examples:

Always orders the same food

Sticks to familiar vacation destinations

Prefers clear instructions and dislikes unstructured tasks

C — Conscientiousness

High Conscientiousness
Traits:

Hardworking

Organised

Responsible

Combination 219
 Self-disciplined

Examples:

Uses planners or calendar apps daily

Submits assignments early

Cleans their room regularly

Low Conscientiousness
Traits:

Disorganised

Spontaneous

Forgetful

Poor at planning

Examples:

Constantly misplaces items

Starts tasks but doesn’t finish them

Oversleeps and misses deadlines

E — Extraversion

High Extraversion
Traits:

Sociable

Outgoing

Energetic

Talkative

Examples:

Loves parties and group activities

Feels energised after hanging out with others

Makes friends easily

Low Extraversion (Introversion)

Traits:

Quiet

Reserved

Reflective

Prefers solitude

Examples:

Enjoys reading or solo hobbies

Leaves parties early to recharge

Combination 220
 Prefers meaningful 1-to-1 conversations over big groups

A — Agreeableness

High Agreeableness
Traits:

Kind

Cooperative

Trusting

Helpful

Empathetic

Examples:

Volunteers to help classmates

Mediates when friends fight

Easily forgives others

Low Agreeableness
Traits:

Competitive

Stubborn

Suspicious

Less empathetic

Examples:

Argues often

Assumes others have bad intentions

Prioritises winning over cooperation

N — Neuroticism

High Neuroticism
Traits:

Anxious

Easily stressed

Moody

Self-conscious

Examples:

Worries excessively before exams

Overthinks small mistakes

Gets upset easily over negative feedback

Low Neuroticism

Combination 221
 Traits:

Calm

Stable

Even-tempered

Not easily upset

Examples:

Stays relaxed during stressful situations

Handles criticism well

Rarely feels overwhelmed

Contributions and Critisims of the Trait Approach

Strengths of the Trait Perspective

1. Provides a common vocabulary

Gives psychologists a shared language to describe personality

Makes communication and research easier

Helps organize traits into meaningful categories (e.g., OCEAN)

2. Useful for personality assessment

Trait theories form the basis of many personality tests

e.g., 16PF, PEN, Big Five assessments

Helps identify consistent tendencies in people

3. Helps predict future behavior

Knowing someone’s traits helps predict how they might behave

BUT prediction strength depends on the situation

4. Encourages biological research

Assumptions about traits being internal and stable →
Leads to studies on:

genetics

brain differences

neurotransmitters

biological bases of personality across lifespan

Criticisms of the Trait Perspective

1. Describes personality but doesn’t explain it

Tells us what traits a person has

But does not explain why those traits exist

Lacks depth (Digman, McCabe & Fleeson)

Combination 222
 2. Oversimplifies personality
Critics argue personality is too complex for just 3, 5, or 16 traits

Real people are more dynamic and layered (Block, Epstein)

3. Ignores interactions
Traits vs environment cannot be cleanly separated

Critics say trait theories ignore the interaction between biology + environment

4. Poor at predicting behavior across different situations

Traits are not always stable across contexts

Situational forces strongly affect behavior (Wiggins)

Example: A usually calm person may panic in an exam

A shy person may be confident with close friends

Number of Traits /
Theory Main Focus Examples
Categories

Describes unique
Allport 3 types Central, Secondary, Cardinal traits
individuals

Uses factor analysis to

Cattell 16 source traits 16PF (warmth, dominance, sensitivity…)
find core traits

Biological basis of
Eysenck (PEN) 3 dimensions Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism
personality

Costa & McCrae Most widely accepted; OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness,

5 universal factors
(Big Five) cross-cultural Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

The Social Cognitive Approach

Reciprocal Determinism: Albert Bandura’s Interacting Forces
Reciprocal Determination
Environment (where you are, the people around you, models you observe)

Behavior (your actions, habits, reactions)

Thoughts/Cognition (beliefs, values, attitudes, goals)

Environment ↔ Behavior ↔ Thoughts all influence each other continuously.

Example: Parenting

Environment: You grew up in a home with strict discipline

Thoughts: You believe strict parenting is “normal and effective”

Behavior: You later discipline your children the same way

✔ Your environment shaped your thinking
✔ Your thinking shaped your behavior
✔ Your behavior becomes part of your children’s environment
Example: School / Social Life

Combination 223
 Environment: You join a group of hardworking, motivated students

Thoughts: You start valuing discipline and good grades

Behavior: You study more and get better results

Your behavior (studying hard) may then influence your environment:

→ Your teachers praise you
→ You join more academic groups

→ You choose similar environments in the future

Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy = your belief about your ability to succeed in a specific situation.

It is domain-specific, meaning:

You can have high self-efficacy in sports

But low self-efficacy in maths

Or high in social situations but low in exams

High Self-Efficacy

“I can do this.”

Leads to trying harder

More persistence

Higher chance of success

Low Self-Efficacy

“I will fail.”

Avoids tasks

Gives up easily

Lower chance of success

Example: High Vs Low Efficacy Parent

High Self-Efficacy Parent

Believes: “I can be a good parent.”

Uses consistent discipline

Children behave well → reinforces belief

Confidence increases

Low Self-Efficacy Parent

Believes: “I’m a bad parent.”

Changes discipline methods often (inconsistent)

Children misbehave → reinforces belief

Confidence decreases

🔁 This creates a self-fulfilling cycle.

Combination 224
 Locus of Control: Internal and External Expectation
Personality is influenced by our expectations about crontrol over life events

Locus of Control = Where you believe control comes from

Internal Locus of Control

You believe that your own actions, decisions, and efforts determine outcomes.

Characteristics:

Hardworking

Motivated

Responsible

Persistent

Takes initiative

Examples:

“I will do well on the exam because I studied hard.”

“If I exercise regularly, I can improve my health.”

“My success in my career depends on how much effort I put in.”

Outcomes:

Higher academic achievement

Better health habits

More persistence

More problem-solving

Combination 225
 External Locus of Control
You believe outcomes are controlled by external forces such as:

luck

fate

other people

environment

chance

“good/bad timing

Characteristics:

Passive

Less motivated

More anxious

Feels powerless

Relies on luck or others

Examples:

“I will pass because the exam is easy.”

“My health is in God’s hands; if I get sick, it is fate.”

“I didn’t get the job because the interviewer didn’t like me.”

Outcomes:

Tend to study less

Less likely to exercise or manage health

Reduced problem-solving

More likely to give up

How Locus of Control Shapes Personality

These beliefs influence how much effort people apply

Internals → take action, try harder, improve themselves

Externals → more passive, depend on luck or environment

Example:

Internal LOC

Someone gains weight.

Internal response: “I need to change my diet and exercise.”

Personality outcome: Becomes disciplined, consistent, proactive.

A student fails a math test.

Internal response: “I didn’t study enough. Next time I will practise more.”

Personality outcome: Works harder, joins a study group, improves grades.

External LOC

Combination 226
 A student fails a math test.

External response: “The teacher hates me, the test is unfair.”

Personality outcome: Doesn’t study more, keeps failing.

Someone gains weight.

External response: “It’s in my genes. Nothing I do matters.”

Personality outcome: Doesn’t exercise, continues unhealthy habits.

Contributions and Critisisms of the Social Cognitive Approach

Strengths of the Social Cognitive Approach

1. Highlights the role of cognitive processes

Focuses on thinking, expectations, beliefs, attributions, and decision-making

Shows how these processes shape behavior and personality

Helps explain why people behave differently in the same situation

2. Expanded our understanding of personality

Moves beyond traits and unconscious forces

Includes mental processes, goals, self-beliefs, and self-regulation

Important for explaining learning, motivation, and behavior change

3. Supports large amounts of research

Concepts such as memory, attribution errors, heuristics, schemas, and problem-solving came from
social cognition

Theories contribute heavily to:

education

health psychology

motivation research

cognitive therapy

4. Easy to research using experiments

Cognitive processes can be measured objectively:

reaction times

surveys

performance tasks

laboratory experiments

More scientific and testable than psychodynamic theories

Less invasive and more ethical than biological measure

Criticisms of the Social Cognitive Approach

1. Ignores biological influences

Combination 227
 Does not fully consider:

genetics

brain structure

hormones

temperament

Biological factors clearly shape personality, but social-cognitive theories under-emphasize them.

2. Ignores unconscious processes

Focuses mainly on conscious thoughts

Does not explain deeper unconscious motives or emotional conflicts

Less useful for understanding psychological disorders involving unconscious processes

3. Underestimates emotions
Personality is not only about thinking; emotions play a powerful role

The approach does not fully address:

emotional outbursts

mood disorders

irrational fears

extreme emotional behaviors

4. Does not clearly explain personality development

Does not specify how personality forms across stages

Lacks a developmental model (unlike Freud with psychosexual stages or Erikson with psychosocial
stages)

Focuses on current thinking rather than long-term growth or childhood roots

The Humanistic Approach

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Abraham Maslow)
We behave the way we do because we are motivated to meet different levels of needs.

Lower needs → must be met first

Higher needs → guide behavior only after lower needs are fulfilled

Level Meaning Example behaviors

1. Physiological needs (food,

Basic survival needs Eating, drinking, sleeping, looking for shelter
water, rest, warmth)

2. Safety needs (security, Feeling safe from danger, Locking doors, saving money, seeking job
stability) predictable environment stability

Need for friends, family, Joining clubs, maintaining friendships,

3. Belongingness & Love needs
closeness, acceptance seeking romantic relationships

Need for respect, achievement, Working hard for recognition, chasing

4. Esteem needs
confidence awards, wanting validation

Combination 228
 Level Meaning Example behaviors

Need for knowledge,

5. Cognitive needs Studying, reading, asking questions
understanding

Need for beauty, balance,

6. Aesthetic needs Enjoying music, art, nature
harmony

Achieving full potential; Creative expression, personal growth,

7. Self-actualization
becoming your best self helping society, living authentically

Maslow + Personality
Maslow believed your consistent behavior patterns (your personality) reflect which needs you are
currently trying to satisfy.
Examples:

Someone stuck at safety level → cautious, anxious, risk-avoidant personality

Someone focused on esteem → hardworking, achievement-oriented

Someone reaching self-actualization → creative, independent, peaceful

Maslow said only about 10% of people operate mainly from self-actualization.

Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy

1. Cannot explain people who sacrifice lower needs for higher needs
Example:

Nelson Mandela choosing prison over giving up his moral beliefs

Hunger strikers

People risking safety for self-respect or purpose

→ This contradicts the “lower must come first” rule.

2. Too Western and too focused on individualism

In collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan, China), belongingness and community are more important than self-
actualization.
Maslow’s model may reflect Western values, not universal values.

3. Too simple
Human motives are more complicated—people often pursue multiple needs at the same time.
Example:

A student studies (cognitive)

For good grades (esteem)

To make parents proud (belongingness)

While hungry (physiological not fully satisfied)

4. Not enough scientific evidence

Hard to measure:

which “level” someone is at

whether needs follow the strict order Maslow proposed

Combination 229
 Some research shows needs overlap rather than follow a ladder.

Self Theory (Carl Rogers)

To understand personality, we must understand how a person sees themselves, not how others see
them
✔ self-concept (how you view yourself)
✔ personal experiences
✔ how you interpret the world
✔ your drive to grow and become your best self
1. Actualizing Tendency (Core of Rogers’s Theory)
A built-in, natural motivation in all people to:

grow

improve

fulfill your potential

become your “best true self”

This is similar to Maslow’s self-actualization, but Rogers says it is present in every moment, not just at
the top of a hierarchy.

Situation How actualizing tendency appears

A child learning to walk They keep trying, even after falling many times

A teen developing hobbies They explore music, sports, coding, art to discover who they are

An adult changing careers They pursue what feels meaningful or authentic

A person in therapy They want to heal, grow, and understand themselves

2. The Development of Self-concept

Self-concept = how you see yourself (abilities, traits, uniqueness)

Starts simple, becomes complex as you grow

Self-concept is based on your own experiences.

Age Example of Self-Concept

3-year-old “I have brown hair.” / “I’m happy.” (simple, concrete)

10-year-old “I’m good at drawing and soccer.”

15-year-old “I’m a decent second baseman, a B student, and I have many friends.”

3. Organismic Valuing Process (OVP)

⚠️ This is NOT “under” self-concept.
It is a separate system, but it influences how your self-concept grows.
OVP =
Your natural inner compass that tells you:

What feels good for your growth → you value it

What harms you → you avoid it

Combination 230
 ✔ Example (internal valuing)
Love feels good → I value closeness

Hunger feels bad → I value food

Being encouraged feels good → I value learning

Being shouted at feels bad → I avoid that situation

OVP = your true inner values.

4. How Parents and Society distort the OVP

Children want love, acceptance, approval.
So they start listening more to others’ values than their own inner OVP.
This leads to Conditions of Worth.

✔ Example
Parent: “You’re a good child when you get good grades.”

Child’s OVP originally: “I like learning because it’s fun.”

After parent influence:
“I must get good grades to be loved.”

Now the child ignores their inner compass (OVP)

and listens to external rules to gain acceptance.

This changes how the self-concept forms.

Step Concept Clear Meaning Example

Baby learns they can cry to

1 Actualizing Tendency Inborn drive to grow + survive
get comfort

“I am kind,” “I’m good at

2 Self-Concept How you see yourself
drawing”

Organismic Valuing Natural inner compass deciding what feels Preferring encouragement,
3
Process good for growth avoiding shame

Parents/society teach what is “good” or Praise only for grades → child

4 Influence of Others
“bad” → child adjusts behavior chases grades

Hides bad grades to avoid

5 Conditions of Worth Feeling loved only if meeting expectations
losing love

The Value of Unconditional Postitive Regard

1. Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)

= Being loved for who you are, not what you do.

= “I love you even if I don’t like your behavior right now.”

✔ What this looks like

Parent says:
“You shouldn’t kick the dog, but I know you were upset. I still love you.”

✔ Effect on the child

Combination 231
 Child feels safe to express feelings

Child stays connected to their OVP (inner voice)

Child learns healthy ways to manage emotions

Child develops an authentic, stable self-concept

High self-worth

✔ Adult outcome
Healthy personality → acts based on inner values, not fear

2. Conditional Positive Regard (CPR)

= Love only if you behave a certain way.
= “I love you when you do what I expect.”

✔ What this looks like

Parent says:
“You are a BAD child for being angry.”

“You only get my approval if you get good grades.”

✔ Effect on the child

Child learns certain feelings are “wrong”

Child ignores inner compass (OVP)

Child creates conditions of worth, like:

“I must be perfect to be loved.”

“I must never get angry.”

“I must be the smart one.”

✔ Adult outcome
Acts based on fear of losing approval

Self-concept becomes external, not authentic

Leads to anxiety, guilt, shame

Personality development becomes blocked

Concept Meaning Child Learns Adult Outcome

Unconditional Positive Healthy personality,

Loved for who you are “My feelings are valid.”
Regard authenticity

Conditional Positive Loved only if you meet “I must earn love by being Anxiety, low self-worth,
Regard expectations perfect.” inauthenticity

Staying connected to “I know what feels right for

Trusting your inner feelings Self-directed, resilient
OVP me.”

Losing contact with Ignoring inner voice to “I must hide my real self to Incongruence, psychological
OVP please others be loved.” distress

Contributions and Criticisms of the Humanistic Approach

Combination 232
 Strengths (Why Humanistic Theory Matters)
Encouraged greater self-awareness

Focused on personal growth and fulfillment

Highlighted importance of subjective experience and personal values

Emphasized empathy, acceptance, and authentic communication

Inspired individual, family, and group therapy (client-centred therapy, unconditional positive regard,
active listening)

Influenced education, counselling, and positive psychology

Helped people understand the role of self-concept and self-esteem in behavior

Criticisms (Why Humanistic Theory Is Controversial)

1) Too idealistic / unrealistic

Assumes all people are naturally good

Assumes everyone is motivated to grow, improve, and self-actualize

Critics argue some people show harmful, destructive, or selfish behaviour that humanistic theory
cannot explain

2) Hard to test scientifically

Many concepts cannot be measured objectively

Examples:

actualizing tendency

organismic valuing process

unconditional positive regard

These are internal processes → cannot be observed or tested directly in experiments

3) Weak scientific evidence

Rogers relied mainly on client self-reports

Concerns:

Clients may hide or distort their true feelings

Self-reports can be inaccurate

Rogers may have been biased as a therapist

4) Too focused on conscious experience

Ignores unconscious processes

Overlooks biological drives, genetics, and neurochemistry

Underestimates influence of social learning, reinforcement, and environment

5) Not a dominant modern theory

Because of limited empirical support

But → many ideas influenced modern positive psychology, which studies:

Combination 233
 happiness

well-being

strengths

meaning in life

→ considered a “rebirth” of humanistic goals

Scientifically Measuring Personality

Reliability (Consistency)

A reliable test produces similar results over time

Example: Your height stays the same each time you measure it

Personality tests must show consistent trends even though behaviour may vary slightly

A test can be reliable BUT not valid

Validity (Accuracy)

A valid test measures what it claims to measure

Example: Measuring foot size to determine intelligence → not valid

A test must reflect your actual personality traits

A test can be reliable but invalid if it measures the wrong thing consistently

Personality Inventories (MMPI) → Mark Which One Best Describes

You
Objective, structured paper-and-pencil or computerized self-report tests

You respond to statements like:

“True/False”

“Rate how well this describes you”

Used in:

Job applications

Dating apps

Clinical diagnosis

Research

MMPI-2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2)

➡️ Most commonly used clinical personality inventory
📌 Key Features
567 items (True/False)

Takes ~1 hour

Designed to identify mental health problems

📌 Clinical Scales
Combination 234
 Measures traits related to disorders such as:

Depression

Paranoia

Schizophrenia

Anxiety

Hypochondriasis

Psychopathic Deviance

📌 How Scoring Works

MMPI-2 was given to thousands of people (“norming group”)

Two groups used:

People with no disorders

People with specific disorders

Your answers are compared to:

The average/normal pattern

The pattern typical of certain disorders

If your pattern resembles a disorder group → suggests an area to explore in therapy

📌 Validity Scales (VERY IMPORTANT)

Because people may lie or exaggerate, MMPI-2 includes scales to detect:

Faking good

Faking bad

Inconsistent answers

Random guessing

CPI (California Psychological Inventory)

➡️ Used for healthy populations, not diagnosis
📌 Key Features
434 true/false items

194 items are from MMPI

Measures positive, healthy traits

📌 What It Measures
Sociability

Independence

Responsibility

Self-control

Tolerance

Flexibility

Combination 235
 📌 Purpose
Used in:

Schools

Career counselling

Leadership training

Team building

➡️ Not for mental disorder diagnosis

Inventory Purpose Measures Used For Strengths Problems

✔ Very reliable
and valid ✔
✘ People may still
10 clinical scales Clinical fake answers ✘
Strong validity
(depression, diagnosis, Long test (567
Identify mental scales to detect
MMPI-2 paranoia, forensic items, ~1 hour) ✘
health disorders lying or
schizophrenia,
anxiety, etc.)
settings, therapy
planning
exaggeration ✔ Requires trained
professionals to
Standardized on
interpret
large populations

✘ Self-report =

Sociability, Schools,
✔ Focuses on people may
answer to look
normal/healthy
traits ✔ Easy to
CPI (California Measure responsibility, workplaces, good ✘ Not

administer ✔
Psychological positive, healthy independence, counselling, designed to detect
Inventory) personality traits leadership, self- leadership mental disorders ✘
Good for team or
control selection Still influenced by
career assessment
cultural
expectations

Projective Tests → Tell Me What You See

Rorschach Inkblot Test
What it is

A projective test with 10 inkblot cards

The images are ambiguous (no clear meaning)

How it works

Examiner asks: “What do you see?”

Client describes shapes, movement, colours

Combination 236
 Responses are coded (e.g., location, detail, emotion)

What it measures

Unconscious conflicts

Emotional functioning

How the person organizes and interprets the world

Thought disorders (e.g., bizarre, illogical responses)

Why psychologists use it

Helps uncover things clients might not openly share

Useful when a client is guarded or unaware of their own feelings

Problems/Limitations

Interpretation can be subjective

Mixed scientific support (less reliable)

Results can differ depending on mood or situation

TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)

What it is

A set of 20 cards with people in different social situations

Less ambiguous than Rorschach, but still open for interpretation

How it works

Client creates a story about the picture

“What is happening?”

“What led up to this?”

“What are the characters thinking/feeling?”

Combination 237
 “How will it end?”

Clinician looks for repeated themes

What it measures

Motives (achievement, power, affiliation)

Relationship patterns

Fears, conflicts, coping style

How the person interprets social situations

Why psychologists use it

Great for uncovering recurring emotional themes

Useful in therapy to understand deeper issues

Helps identify problem-solving style

Problems/Limitations

Time-consuming

Interpretation varies between psychologists

Lower scientific validity

Influenced by client’s culture, gender roles, personal experiences

What It
Test What It Is How It Works Strengths Problems
Measures

Rorschach 10 ambiguous Client says Underlying ✔ Reveals ✘ Interpretation

Inkblot Test inkblots “What do you unconscious unconscious can be subjective
see?”; thoughts, material ✔ Useful ✘ Lower reliability
responses coded emotional when clients compared to

Combination 238
 What It
Test What It Is How It Works Strengths Problems
Measures
by location, functioning, struggle to openly inventories ✘
shape, color, internal conflicts describe feelings Responses may
movement ✔ Can uncover vary depending on
hidden thought mood or situation
patterns

✔ Shows ✘ Time-
interpersonal style consuming ✘
Themes of and recurring Dependent on
20 cards with Client tells a motivation, emotional themes examiner’s
TAT (Thematic social scenes story about the relationships, ✔ Helpful in interpretation ✘
Apperception (not as picture (past, fears, conflicts, therapy to explore Limited scientific
Test) ambiguous as present, future, needs deeper issues ✔ validity ✘ Cultural
inkblots) feelings) (achievement, Good for bias (responses
power, affiliation) understanding influenced by
problem-solving culture and
approaches upbringing)

Rating Scales and Direct Observations

Rating Scales
Checklist-style assessment tools

Person checks statements/behaviours that apply to them

Can be completed by:

Self (the person being assessed)

Parents

Teachers

Partners

Clinicians

Purpose of using others:

Reduces self-distortion (e.g., lying, denial, inaccurate self-view)

Provides multiple perspectives

Useful for:

Identifying patterns across different settings (home/school/work)

Evaluating specific behaviours (e.g., aggression, attention, social withdrawal)

Combination 239
 Behavioral Observation
Psychologist directly observes the client’s behaviour

Observations made in real situations or structured tasks

Focus on:

What happens before behaviour (triggers)

What happens after behaviour (consequences)

Helps reveal:

Environmental causes

Social influences

Patterns the client may not be aware of

Commonly used by psychologists who favour the social cognitive perspective

Because it shows how environment + behaviour interact (like Bandura’s theory)

Clinical Interviews
Understand the core problem the client is facing

Gather enough information to assign a diagnosis

Foundation for planning treatment

Questions depend on the clinician’s theoretical orientation

Social Cognitive Clinician

Focuses on thoughts + situations

Likely to ask:

“What were you thinking before the behaviour happened?”

“What went through your mind during the event?”

“How did you interpret the situation after it happened?”

Humanistic Clinician

Focuses on the client’s personal perception of reality

Combination 240
 Likely to ask:

“How do you understand this situation?”

“How did this experience make you feel about yourself?”

“What do you think this event means to you?”

Personality, Health and Well-being

Type A-D Personality
Type A Personality
Traits

Aggressive

Competitive

Driven to achieve

Impatient

Time-urgent

Example

Gets angry when others work slowly

Always rushing deadlines

Wants to be the best at everything

Health Research

Early research → higher risk of heart attack

BUT later research could NOT fully replicate this

The true risk factor = hostility + anger + mistrust

People high in anger, bitterness, suspicion → higher risk for heart disease

Cultural note:

In the U.S. → expressing anger = worse health

In Japan → expressing anger = lower health risk

Type B Personality
Traits

Relaxed

Easygoing

Patient

Flexible

Example

Doesn’t mind waiting in long queues

Handles stress calmly

Combination 241
 Doesn’t compete aggressively

Health Research

Type B alone is not linked to specific health risks

Often used as the “low-risk comparison group”

Type C Personality (“cancer-prone” hypothesis)

Traits

Cautious

Careful

Overly patient

Nice, avoids conflict

Suppresses negative emotions (especially anger)

Example

Smiles politely even when upset

Never confronts others

Bottles up emotions

Health Research

Early studies → suggested Type C linked to cancer

Later, large studies → very weak or no evidence

Suppressing anger alone ≠ strong predictor of breast cancer

Type D Personality (“distressed” personality)

Traits

Always expects the worst

Worries a lot

Often sad or pessimistic

Avoids social interactions

Socially inhibited

Example

Thinks “something bad will happen anyway”

Avoids meeting new people due to fear of rejection

Health Research

Stronger evidence for risk:

Heart problems

High blood pressure

Depression

Stress hormone levels ↑ especially in social situations

Problem: unlike Type A (who expresses anger),

Combination 242
 Type D hides or suppresses negative emotions, causing internal stress/

Type Key Traits Health Risk Summary

A Competitive, angry, hostile, driven Risk only if high hostility/anger

B Relaxed, patient, flexible Low risk

C Suppresses emotions, avoids conflict Weak evidence for cancer link

D Worrying, pessimistic, socially withdrawn ↑ risk: heart issues, BP, depression

Learned Helplessness
Learned helplessness = A personality factor where a person becomes passive, gives up, or stops
trying because past experiences taught them that nothing they do will change the outcome.

Key Features

Perceived lack of control

(“No matter what I do, it won’t change anything.”)

General expectation of failure

(“Everything I try goes wrong.”)

Global, internal attributions

→ “I failed because I’m stupid, not because the test was hard.”

Passive coping

→ They endure stress instead of trying to solve it.

See stressors as threats, not challenges

Example: Academic Failure

Student fails multiple math tests

Starts believing: “I’m just bad at math”

Stops studying or giving effort

→ Grades worsen → reinforces helplessness

Example: Sports

Someone always gets picked last

Believes: “I’m too uncoordinated for any sport”

Combination 243
 Refuses to join PE activities anymore

Attribution Style:

Negative Style (Leads

Attribution Healthy Style (Protective,
to Learned Examples (Side-by-Side)
Dimension More Resilient)
Helplessness)

Internal → “It’s my fault. External → “This Failing a test: Internal → “I am

1. Internal vs
Something is wrong with happened because of the stupid.” External → “The test was
External
me.” situation, not my ability.” unusually hard.”

Sports performance: Stable → “I will

Stable → “This flaw is Unstable → “This can
2. Stable vs always be bad at sports.” Unstable
permanent. It will always change with effort or
Unstable → “I didn’t sleep well; next time I’ll do
be like this.” strategy.”
better.”

Rejected by a friend: Global →

3. Global vs Global → “This affects Specific → “It only affects
“Nobody will ever like me.” Specific
Specific everything in my life.” this one area.”
→ “This friend was in a bad mood.”

What is Stress? Stress and Stressors

Stressors
Definition:
External events or situations that cause stress

They are the cause

Examples:

Major Life Events

Big, significant changes that require you to adjust your lifestyle

They can be positive (marriage) or negative (divorce)

Example: Starting uni, losing your job, birth of a child

Causes stress as they require major adjustment, even if good

Catastrophes & Trauma

Large-scale, unexpected, dangerous events

Affect many people or cause intense psychological shock

Example: Natural disaster, war, serious car accident

Causes stress as it threaten life or safety & can lead to PTSD

Daily Hassles

Small, everyday irritations

They seem minor but add up and can be more harmful than major events

Example: Traffic jams, missing the bus, losing your keys, siblings annoying

They accumulate → Chronic Stress

Predict mental health problems more than major life events

Conflict

Think: “What is happening to me?” → That is the stressor.

Combination 244
 Stress
Definition:
The internal psychological and physical response your body produces because of the stressor

It is the effect

Examples:

Feeling anxious or overwhelmed

Heart beating fast

Sweaty palms

Headache

Irritability

Trouble sleeping

Think: “How do I feel and react?” → That is stress.

Conflict: Approach & Avoidance

Approach - Approach (Good vs Good)
You must choose between two desirable options

Easiest to resolve

Lowest stress

✔ Examples:
Want to eat pizza or Korean BBQ

Choose between a holiday in Japan or Korea

Offered two good jobs with great benefits

Idea: You can’t lose—both are good

Avoidance - Avoidance (Bad vs Bad)

You must choose between two unpleasant options

Highly stressful

People often avoid making the decision (“freeze”)

Choose the lesser evil

✔ Examples:
Do house chores or get nagged by your parents

Pay a $200 fine or spend 3 hours attending a boring mandatory course

Go to the dentist (painful) or suffer tooth pain

Idea: Both choices suck.

Approach - Avoidance (One thing: Good + Bad)

One single goal has positive AND negative aspects

Combination 245
 You feel pulled toward it, but also pushed away

Decision-making becomes stressful

✔ Examples:
Take a high-paying job (salary good) but it requires relocating overseas (far from family)

Want to confess to your crush (chance for relationship) but fear rejection (pain)

Want to save your dog in a fire (love) but risk your life (danger)

Idea: “I want it… but also I don’t want it.”

Multiple Approach - Avoidance (Many Choices, Each Good + Bad)

Several options to choose from, each with

pros (approach)

cons (avoidance)

Most realistic + most stressful

✔ Examples:
Choosing a university:

NUS: good reputation, expensive

NTU: near your home, difficult major

SMU: flexible schedule, high fees

Choosing a house:

House A: great location but small

House B: cheap but far

House C: big but old

Idea: Real-life decision-making = complicated mixtures.

Type of Conflict Meaning Why It Causes Stress Easy Example

Go out with your best friend

1. Approach– Choose between two Least stressful — both choices
or go on a date you’ve been
Approach positive options are good
waiting for

Very stressful — both choices

2. Avoidance– Choose between two Do your assignment or get
are bad; people freeze or avoid
Avoidance negative options scolded by your lecturer
making a choice

Want to study overseas

3. Approach– One single option that has Stressful because you’re pulled
(good) but afraid to leave
Avoidance both good + bad sides in two directions
your family (bad)

4. Multiple Several options, and each Choosing among 3

Most stressful — many mixed
Approach– option has good + bad universities: each has pros
features
Avoidance parts and cons

Combination 246
 The Stress Response
Cognitive Appraisal: Assessing Stress
Primary Appraisal
“What does this situation mean to me?”

1. Irrelevant - Doesn’t Matter

You feel it has nothing to do with your safety, happiness, goals.

Example:

Your uni library is being renovated → you don’t use that library → irrelevant

Weather changes → doesn't affect anything important today

Stress level: None / very low

2. Positive - Something Good

You view the situation as beneficial.

Examples:

Small class size → you like more attention from lecturer

Work from home → you love staying home

Stress level: none or positive excitement

3. Stressful - Requires Effort to Handle

Threat

Potential future damage

Leads to anxiety/fear

Example:

Combination 247
 Oral presentation in 2 weeks

You worry your voice will crack or classmates will judge you

Harm

Damage has already happened

Leads to fear, sadness, regret

Example

You think climbing on the roof will definitely injure you

You lost your wallet → harm already occurred

Challenge

Opportunity to grow, improve, gain something

Positive emotions (excitement, motivation)

Example:

Taking on a new job for career growth

Getting married → chance to deepen relationship

Primary Appraisal is PERSONAL

Different people can appraise the same situation differently.
Example:

One student sees exams as a threat

Another sees exams as a challenge

Someone else sees exams as irrelevant because they are auditing the module

Culture also affects appraisal:

Individualistic cultures (US): lack of control = very stressful

Collectivistic cultures (China): focus more on group harmony → less stress from low control

Secondary Appraisal
Once you decide the event is a stressor, you evaluate: “Do I have the resources to handle this?”

Factors to Consider

Skills (“I know how to solve this assignment.”)

Time (“I still have 3 days to prepare.”)

Energy (“I’m too tired to cope.”)

Social support (“I can ask my friend to help.”)

Strategies (“I can study by using notes + practice questions.”)

Confidence (“I think I can handle it.”)

If you think you can cope → stress decreases

If you think you cannot cope → stress increases

Example combing BOTH appraisal

Combination 248
 Situation: You have an exam tomorrow.

Primary appraisal:
If irrelevant → “This exam doesn’t matter, I’m exempted.”

If positive → “I can score well and improve my GPA!”

If stressful →

Threat: “I might fail and ruin my GPA.”

Harm: “I already messed up earlier tests.”

Challenge: “This is my chance to prove myself.”

Secondary appraisal:
High coping: “I have notes, time, and confidence → I can handle it.”

Low coping: “I don’t understand anything → I’m doomed.”

Your stress level = interaction of primary + secondary.

Coping With Stress

Problem-Focused Coping: Change the Situation
Coping strategy aimed at changing, controlling, or removing the source of stress (the stressor)

Focuses on solving the problem directly

Key Features

Active attempts to alter the environment

Used when you believe the situation is controllable

Includes:

Planning

Making decisions

Taking action

Seeking solutions

Advantages

Removes or reduces the actual stressor

Gives you a greater sense of control

Can improve self-esteem (“I handled it.”)

Often leads to better long-term health outcomes when used correctly

Because you fix the root problem, not just your emotions

Disadvantages

You may misdiagnose the problem

Example: thinking long work hours cause bad grades, but actually motivation or time
management is the real issue

Combination 249
 Acting on a wrong solution can increase long-term stress

Reducing school credits → takes longer to graduate

Changing jobs → lower pay → more financial stress

Not effective if the situation is uncontrollable

Example: death of a loved one, chronic illness, global pandemic

Examples

COVID-19 Examples
Wearing a mask in public

Regular hand-washing

Creating childcare plans

Using technology to stay connected with others to reduce isolation

Work–School Example
Stressor: Your boss increases your work hours → less time for school/social life
Problem-focused coping options:

Find another job with fewer hours

Reduce your credit hours in school

Rearrange your weekly schedule

All of these aim to change the stressful situation directly.

Problem-Focused Coping WORKS WELL When… Problem-Focused Coping DOES NOT Work Well When…

The situation is uncontrollable (e.g., illness, death, breakup

You can control the situation
already happened)

The stressor is ambiguous / unclear (you don’t know the real

The stressor is clear and specific
cause of stress)

Taking action won’t change anything (e.g., waiting for exam

Taking action will change the outcome
results)

You have resources (time, money, skills) to change

You lack resources, so action causes more stress
the situation

Acting may make things worse (e.g., quitting job leads to

You can directly reduce or eliminate the stressor
financial problems)

You feel a high sense of control (high self-

You feel low control or powerless (learned helplessness)
efficacy)

Stressor is external (workload, schedule,

Stressor is internal/emotional (fear, grief, anxiety)
environment)

Emotion-Focused Coping: Change Your Reaction

Aimed at controlling your internal emotional reaction to a stressor

NOT about changing the external situation

Focuses on:

Reducing anxiety, anger, fear, guilt, shame

Combination 250
 Comforting yourself

Making yourself feel better emotionally

Cognitive Reappraisal (Positive Reframing)

Active + conscious method of changing how you interpret the stressor.

Examples
“My partner is late → not because they don’t care, but because they were stuck in traffic.”

“COVID lockdown = chance to spend more time with my family.”

“This exam is stressful → but it’s also a chance to improve.”

When It’s Useful

When the situation is uncontrollable

When the only thing you can control is your emotional response

Defense Mechanisms (Unconscious)

Automatic, unconscious strategies that reduce anxiety but don’t solve the actual problem.

Strengths
Quickly reduces emotional tension

Protects self-esteem

Gives temporary relief

Problems
Does NOT remove the stressor

May worsen long-term problems

Can reduce self-awareness

Defense
Definition Simple Everyday Example
Mechanism

Refusing to accept reality because it is A smoker says, “Smoking doesn’t harm me.”
Denial
too threatening Someone denies their relationship is over.

Making excuses to justify “I failed because the exam was unfair.” Cheating →
Rationalization
unacceptable behavior “Everyone does it.”

Reaction Dislike someone → act overly nice to them. A person

Acting opposite to your true feelings
Formation hides attraction by being hostile.

Returning to childish ways when Adult throws tantrum. Teen slams door. Uni student
Regression
stressed cuddles childhood toy.

Sublimation Channeling unacceptable impulses Anger → gym workout. Stress → cleaning or studying.
(Healthy) into productive activities Aggressive person becomes boxer.

Unconsciously blocking painful A person cannot recall childhood trauma; forgetting

Repression
memories or feelings an embarrassing moment.

Attributing your unacceptable feelings You dislike someone → claim “They hate ME.” A
Projection
to someone else jealous partner accuses you of cheating.

Angry at boss → yell at sibling. Stress from exam →

Displacement Redirecting emotions to a safer target
slam door.

Combination 251
 Defense
Definition Simple Everyday Example
Mechanism

Consciously choosing to push A student pushes away stress until after exams. “I
Suppression
feelings/thoughts away won’t think about this now.”

Making up for weakness in one area Poor in academics → excel in sports. Insecure about
Compensation
by excelling in another appearance → career success.

Avoiding emotions by focusing on After breakup → talk about relationship statistics, not
Intellectualization
facts/logical analysis feelings. Cancer patient focuses only on test results.

Boosting self-esteem by imitating Child copies superhero. Bully victim imitates bully.
Identification
someone stronger/prestigious Student models after a surgeon.

Trying to “erase” a wrong Saying something hurtful → buying a gift to make up

Undoing
thought/action with another action for it.

Seeing people as all good or all bad; “My friend is PERFECT.” Next day: “She’s the
Splitting
no middle ground WORST.” Common in BPD.

Emotion-Focused Coping Does NOT Work Well

Emotion-Focused Coping Works Well When…
When…

The stressor is uncontrollable (e.g., illness, pandemic, death, The stressor is controllable, but emotions replace
partner being late) taking action

You need to calm yourself to think clearly You use it to avoid the problem completely

You are overwhelmed and need to regulate emotions before It becomes your only coping style and prevents real
problem-solving solutions

Defense mechanisms distort reality → causing long-

Reframing helps you see the situation more positively
term issues

You suppress emotions too much → risk burnout,

You need comfort, support, emotional expression
anxiety, depression

You are journaling, talking to a friend, expressing feelings You use denial, avoidance, displacement excessively

Managing Stress

Combination 252
 Technique What It Is / How It Works Example

Aerobic exercise reduces physical tension, boosts mood Jogging, swimming, dancing
Exercise
(serotonin, endorphins), improves sleep, lowers anxiety after a stressful day

Alternating between tensing and relaxing muscle groups

Progressive Tense shoulders for 5 sec →
→ increases awareness of tension + teaches body to
Relaxation Training release → repeat for entire body
relax on command

Yoga, deep breathing, mindfully

Other Relaxation
Reduces physical arousal + calms mind listening to music, massage,
Techniques
hobbies

Having people to talk to (friends/family/partner) reduces Venting to a friend after a hard

Social Support
perceived threat + stress hormones day; partner comforting you

Helping a classmate study

Giving Support Helping others also buffers stress
reduces your own stress

Spirituality / Provides purpose, hope, values, community; lowers Prayer, attending temple/church,
Religion distress in some people meditation within faith tradition

Imagining walking by the beach

Guided Imagery Mentally visualising a calm, safe scene → body relaxes
whenever stressed

Mindfulness & Staying present without judgment; improves emotion Focusing on breathing for 5 mins
Meditation regulation, attention, and reduces anxiety before sleep; mindful yoga

Believing “I can handle this

Expecting good outcomes reduces stress hormones and
Optimism exam,” leading to better immune
boosts coping & health
response

Increases deep breathing, reduces muscle tension, Watching funny videos, joking
Laughter
boosts immune system with friends

Using a planner, breaking tasks

Time Management Organising schedule reduces pressure + avoids overload
into chunks, realistic deadlines

Combination 253