SOLUTIONS
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components
The component that is present in the largest quantity is known as solvent
One or more components present in the solution other than solvent are called solutes
Types of binary solutions
Expressing the concentration of solutions
1. Molarity: - Number of moles of the solute present per liter solution is known as
Molarity
Volume depends on temperature so Molarity is dependent on temperature
2. Molality:- Number of moles of the solute present per kg solvent is known as
Molality
Mass does not depend on temperature so Molality is independent on temperature
3. Mole fraction:- Mole fraction is the ratio of number of moles of one component
to the total number of moles of all the components in the solution
Examples
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SOLUTIONS
Solubility: - Solubility is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a
specified amount of solvent at specified temperature.
Solubility of a gas in liquid
Henry’s Law: At constant temperature solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of gas present above the solution
OR
At constant temperature the partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase (p)
is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas(X) in the solution.
Mathematically, p is proportional to x;
p = KH x.
Where KH is Henry’s law constant. KH depends on the nature of the gas.
Graphically it represents as
Effect of pressure on solubility of gases in liquids: - The solubility of gases
increases with increase of pressure
Effect of temperature on solubility of gases in liquids: - Solubility of gases
in liquid decreases with rise in temperature. According to Le chatelier’s principle,
as dissolution is an exothermic process, the solubility should decrease with
increase of temperature
Why aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm
water?
Applications of Henry’s Law
1) To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drink and soda water, the bottle is sealed
under pressure
2) To avoid bends, as well, the toxic effects of high concentration of nitrogen in the
blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled with air dilute with helium.
3) At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground
level. This leads to low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of
people living at high altitudes or climbers.
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SOLUTIONS
Solution of liquid in liquid
Raoult’s Law:- It states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial pressure
of each component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
P1 = p°1x1; P2 = p°2x2 ;
Using Daltons’s law of partial pressure the total pressure of solution is calculated
ptotal = p°1 + (p°2 - p°1) x2 ............ (1)
Conclusions from equation (1)
1) Total vapour pressure over the solution can be related to the molefraction
of any one component
2) Total vapour pressure over the solution varies linearly with the mole
fraction of component 2
3) Depending on the vapour pressure of the pure components 1 and 2, the
total vapour pressure over the solution decreases or increases with the
increase of the mole fraction of component 1.
4) Also, at equilibrium, pi = xi ptotal where pi is the partial vapour pressure of
component i and xi is the mole fraction of the component i
Liquid solution can be classified into Ideal and Non-ideal
solutions based on Raoult’s Law
Ideal solutions Non-ideal solutions
The solutions that obey Raoult’s law When a solution does not obey Raoult’s
over the entire range of concentrations law over the entire range of
are known as ideal solutions concentration, then it is called non-
ideal solution
∆mix H = 0 and ∆mix V = 0 ∆mix H ≠ 0 and ∆mix V ≠ 0
The intermolecular attractive forces The intermolecular attractive forces
between solute-solute molecules and between solute-solute molecules and
solvent-solvent molecules are nearly solvent-solvent molecules are not equal
equal to those present between solute to those present between solute and
and solvent molecules solvent molecules
i.e. A-A and B-B = A-B interactions i.e. A-A and B-B ≠ A-B interactions
Examples:- 1)solution of n-hexane and Examples:-1) ethanol and acetone
n-heptane 2)benzene and toluene 2)phenol and aniline
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SOLUTIONS
Non ideal solution showing positive Non ideal solution showing
deviation negative deviation
The vapour pressure of a solution is The vapour pressure of a solution is
higher than that predicted by Raoult’s lower than that predicted by Raoult’s
Law Law
The intermolecular attractive forces The intermolecular attractive forces
between solute-solute molecules and between solute-solute molecules and
solvent-solvent molecules are greater solvent-solvent molecules are weaker
than those present between solute and than those present between solute and
solvent molecules solvent molecules
i.e. A-A and B-B > A-B interactions i.e. A-A and B-B < A-B interactions
Examples: 1) ethanol and acetone Examples 1) phenol and aniline
2) carbon disulphide and acetone 2) chloroform and acetone
Graph Graph
AZEOTROPES :- These are binary mixtures having same composition in liquid
and vapour phase and boil at constant temperature. Liquids forming azeotrope
cannot be separated by fractional distillation.
There are two types of Azeotropes
1) Minimum boiling azeotrope:- The solutions which show a large positive
deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific
composition.
Example:- 95% by volume of ethanol in water
2) Maximum boiling azeotrope:- The solutions which show a large negative
deviation from Raoult’s law form Maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific
composition
Example :- 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass at 395.5 k
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SOLUTIONS
Colligative properties and determination of molar mass
Properties of solution which depends on only the number of solute particles but
not on the nature of solute are called colligative properties.
There are four colligative properties:-
1) Relative lowering of vapour
pressure:- Difference in the vapour
pressure of pure solvent and solution
represents lowering of vapour pressure.
Dividing lowering in vapour pressure by
vapour pressure of pure solvent is called
relative lowing of vapour pressure.
Relative lowering of vapour pressure is
directly proportional to mole fraction of
solute. Hence it is a colligative property.
2) Elevation of boiling point: The
difference in boiling points of solution (Tb) and
pure solvent (Tb°) is called elevation in boiling
point (∆T = Tb- Tb°).
For a dilute solution elevation in boiling point
is directly proportional to molal concentration
of the solute in solution.
∆Tb = Kb x m
Kb is called boiling point elevation constant or
molal elevation constant or Ebulliscopic
constant (K kg mol-1)
3) Depression of freezing point:- The
lowering of vapour pressure of solution causes
a lowering of freezing point compared to that of
pure solvent. The difference in freezing point
of the pure solvent (Tf°) and solution (Tf) is
called the depression in freezing point ∆T =
(Tf°- Tf).
For a dilute solution depression in freezing
point is a colligative property because it is
directly proportional to molal concentration of
solute.
∆Tf = Kf x m
Kf is called Freezing point depression constant or molal depression constant or
cryoscopic constant (K kg mol-1)
4) Osmosis: - The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a semi
permeable membrane from pure solvent to solution is called osmosis
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SOLUTIONS
Osmotic pressure: The excess pressure that must be applied to solution to
prevent the passage of solvent into solution through a semi permeable
membrane is called osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number of solute
particles and not on their identity.
For a dilute solution, osmotic pressure (π) is directly proportional to the Molarity
(C) of the solution i.e. π = CRT
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called
isotonic solution.
If a solution has more osmotic pressure than other solution it is called
hypertonic solution
If a solution has less osmotic pressure than other solution it is called hypotonic
solution
Reverse osmosis: The process of movement of solvent through a semi
Permeable membrane from the solution to the pure solvent by applying excess
pressure on the solution side is called reverse osmosis.
Desalination of sea water:- When pressure more than osmotic pressure is
applied, pure water is squeezed out of the
sea water through the membrane. A
variety of polymer membranes are
available for this purpose. The pressure
required for the reverse osmosis is quite
high. A workable porous membrane is a
film of cellulose acetate placed over a
suitable support. Cellulose acetate is
permeable to water but impermeable to
impurities and ions present in sea water.
Molar mass that is either lower or higher than expected or normal molar mass is
called as abnormal molar mass.
van’t Hoff factor (i)accounts for the extent of dissociation or Association.
Value of i is less than unity in case solute undergo association, Value of i is
greater than unity in case solute undergo dissociation
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