Module 2

Fuels and Energy Conversion

Contents

Ø Fuels and combustion: CV, GCV, NCV, Bomb Calorimeter, Numerical

Ø Green fuels
Ø Introduction
Ø Biodiesel – composition
Ø Synthesis by transesterification
Ø Combustion characteristics

Ø Power alcohol
Advantages and combustion characteristics
Ø Hydrogen Fuel
Advantages
Generation of hydrogen by electrolysis of water

Fuel cells: Construction and working principle of hydrogen-oxygen (HOFC) and solid oxide (SOFC) fuel cells.
 Fuel
What is fuel?
a combustible substance, upon burning in air/O2 gives large amount of h e a t .
Ex. wood, charcoal, petrol, LPG, etc.

What is combustion?
a process in which a substance burn in air/O2 with evolution of heat.

Domestic fuels - Hydrocarbons (C & H as main constituent) ex.

3
 Fuel
When you burn hydrocarbons in air/O2, C-combusted to CO2 and H t o
H2O with simultaneous release of heat.

Thus energy released during the combustion process is the difference i n

the energy of the reactant and that of products formed.

4
 Classification of fuels

Fuels

Origin Physical state

Primary fuels Solid

ex. coal, petroleum etc. Liquid
Gaseous
Secondary fuels
(derived from
primary fuels ex.
kerosene,
diesel, etc. 5
 Calorific Value (CV) of a fuel
Efficiency of a fuel - based on their CV

CV of fuel - quantity of heat evolved by complete

combustion of unit quantity of fuel in air or O2.

Units of heat - Calories (cal), Kilo calories (kcal)

1 Calorie – quantity of heat required to raise the temp. of 1 g of H2O by 1
°C

6
 Calorific Value (CV) of a fuel

Unit of CV of solid and liquid fuels - (cal/g)

calories/gram kilocalories/kilogram (kcal/kg) or

Unit of CV of gaseous fuel

cal/cm3 or kcal/m3 at given T & P.

Since volume of gas varies with T & P. CV of g a s e o u s

fuel includes T & P.

7
 Calorific Value (CV) of a fuel

CV of fuel generally expressed in two ways

Calorific Value
(CV)

Gross/High Calorific V a l u e Net/Low Calorific V a l u e

(GCV/HCV) (NCV/LCV)

8
 Gross/Higher Calorific Value (GCV/HCV)
GCV = Quantity of heat evolved by complete combustion of unit mass o f
fuel + latent heat of condensation of steam

GCV = Heat of combustion of fuel + latent heat of condensation of steam

9
 Net/Lower Calorific Value (NCV/LCV)
NCV = Quantity of heat evolved when unit mass of
fuel is burnt completely and the products are permitted to
escape.

NCV = GCV – latent heat of steam

10
 Characteristics of a good fuel
High calorific value

Moderate ignition temperature Low moisture content

Low non-combustible matter

Combustion should be easily controllable

Products of combustionshould not be harmful &

easy to transport, store and handle.

11
Determination of Calorific Value of Fuel b y
Bomb Calorimeter

12
 Apparatus-Bomb Calorimeter
Bomb Calorimeter – used to determine C V
value of solid & non-volatile liquid fuels

13
 Working Procedure-Bomb Calorimeter
Known mass (1 g) of fuel taken in crucible.

Fine Mg wire bent into loop & made t o

touch the fuel sample & stretched a c r o s s
electrodes.

Bomb lid closed & filled with O2 to 25 atm.

Bomb immersed in copper calorimeter w i t h

known mass of water.

14
 Working Procedure-Bomb Calorimeter
Calorimeter vessel - placed
in insulating jacket.

Stirrer is operated & initial

temp. of water noted

Electrodes connected to 6V battery

to ignite fuel. Fuel burns & heat is
liberated

Heat liberated rises temp. of water i n

calorimeter. Uniform stirring of water i s
continued & maximum temp. attained i s
noted. 15
 Heat Capacity-Bomb Calorimeter

Specific heat capacity (SHC): Amount of heat needed

to increase the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 °C

SHC of water = 1 cal/g per 1 °C rise.

Heat capacity = mass of substance x SHC

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 Calculation-Bomb Calorimeter
Heat liberated by fuel = Heat absorbed by water, calorimeter
mθ = (W+w) (t2-t1) x SHC

θ = GCV of fuel
m = mass of fuel taken
W = weight of water
w = water equivalent
t1 = initial temp. of w a t e r
t2 = final temp. of water
17
 Water Equivalent in Bomb Calorimeter

Water Equivalent - heat capacity of b o m b

expressed in terms of thermal equivalence o f
water.

Ex. assume, to bring about 1 °C rise i n

temperature of calorimeter is 570 cal. T h i s
same amount heat (570 cal) can bring 1 ° C
rise in 570 g of water (we know SHC o f
water,1 cal/g °C). Thus calorimeter i s
thermally equivalent to 570 g of water o r
simply its water equivalent is 570 g.

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 Calculation Correction-Bomb Calorimeter
Corrections: For accurate results, the following correction are applied.

Fuse wire correction (tF): Heat liberated, as measured above, i n c l u d e s

the heat given out by ignition of the fuse wire used, which actually has t o
be excluded from GCV.

Acid correction (tA): Fuel containing S and N are oxidized to H2SO4 a n d

HNO3, under high pressure and temperature of ignition.

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 Calculation Correction-Bomb Calorimeter

Formation of these acids are exothermic reactions. So, the measured h e a t

also includes the heat given out during the acid formation.

The amount of these acids is analyzed from washing of bomb by titration.

H2SO4 alone is determined by reacting with BaCl2 or Ba(OH)2 t o
precipitate as BaSO4 (correction for 1 mg of S is 2.25 cal). If it does n o t
form precipitate with Ba(OH)2, means H2SO4 absent. May only nitric acid i s
present. Which can be determined by titration against a base (eg. NaOH).

For each ml of N/10 H2SO4 formed, 3.6 cal. should be subtracted For each
ml of N/10 HNO3 formed, 1.43 cal. should be subtracted
20
 Calculation Correction-Bomb Calorimeter

Cooling correction (tC): Time taken to cool the water in calorimeter f r o m

maximum temperature to room temperature is noted, let it be (u) a n d
rate of cooling dt°/min, then cooling correction = u x dt° This should b e
added to the observed raise in temperature.

(W+w) (t2−t1 + tC) x SHC of H2O

ᵃᵃᵄᵅᵅ ��������θ = − (�� ��
+ ���� ) cal/g (or
�� kcal/kg)

21
 Calculation-Bomb Calorimeter
NCV can be calculated if the % of hydrogen in the fuel is known. Let the
% of hydrogen be n

1 g of hydrogen produce 9 g of steam. So “n” gram of hydrogen p r o d u c e

9n gram of steam.
If hydrogen is given in percentage (%). Divide the hydrogen percentage
by 100 to convert to grams, ex. 2% hydrogen = �� = 0.02 g of hydrogen.
������
Latent heat of condensation of steam = 587 cal/g.

��
NCV = GCV – 9 x X 587 cal
������
22
 Problems
1)Calculatethe CV of a fuel sample of coal 0.6 g.
Water equivalent of calorimeter 2200 g. Increase in temperature =
6.52 °C

Ans: GCV = 23906 cal/g 24

2)Calculate GCV and NCV of a fuel from the following data: Mass of f u e l
burnt = 0.75 g, water equivalent of calorimeter = 350 g, mass of w a t e r
taken = 1150 g, rise in temperature = 3.02 °C, % of hydrogen in fuel = 2.8.

Ans: GCV = 6040 cal/g, NCV = 5892.1 cal/g 25

3)0.6 g of a coal sample with 92% C, 5% hydrogen, and 3% ash, caused a
rise in the temperature of 2000 g water by 3.2 °C in a bomb calorimeter
experiment. Calculate the GCV and NCV of coal, given. Water equivalent
= 200 g.

Ans: GCV = 11733.3 cal/g, NCV = 11469.2 cal/g

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4. 0.72 gram of a fuel containing 80% carbon, when burnt in a bomb calorimeter, increased t h e
temperature of water from 27.3o to 29.1oC. If the calorimeter contains 250 grams of water a n d
its water equivalents is 150 grams, calculate the HCV of the fuel. Give your answer in KJ/Kg.

Solution. Here x= 0.72 g, W = 250g, t1 = 27.3oC, t2 = 29.1oC.

HCV of fuel (L) = (W + w) (t1 - t2) Kcal/kg

x
= (250 + 150) × (29.1-27.3) kcal/kg = 1,000 × 4.2 kJ/Kg = 4,200 kJ/kg
0.72

26
5. On burning 0.83 of a solid fuel in a bomb calorimeter , the temperature of 3,500g of w a t e r
increased from 26.5 oC to 29.2 oC. Water equivalent of calorimeter and latent heat of steam a r e
385.0g of and 587.0 cal/g respectively. If the fuel contains 0.7% hydrogen, calculate its g r o s s
and net calorific value.
Solution. Here wt. of fuel (x) = 0.83 g of ; wt of water (W) = 3,500 g;
water equivalent of calorimeter (w) = 385 g ; (t2 - t) = (29.2oC - 26.5oC) =
2.7oC ; percentage of hydrogen (H) = 0.7% ; latent heat of steam =
587 cal/g

Gross calorific value = (W + w) (t1 - t2) cal/g

x
= (3,500 +385) × 2.7 = 12,638 cal/g
0.83

NCV = [GCV – 0.09 H × 587]

= (12,63 8– 0.09 × 0.7 × 587) cal/g
= (12,638 – 37) cal/g = 12,601 cal/g 28
6)Determine the water equivalent of the bomb calorimeter
apparatus which gave the following data in an experiment:
GCV of benzoic acid = 6324 cal/g Wt. of benzoic acid taken = 1.364 g Wt. of
calorimeter = 1025 g
Wt. of calorimeter + water = 3025 g Initial temperature = 11.872 C
Final temperature = 14.625 C Cooling correction = 0.015 C Heat from fuses = 22
cals
Washing of the bomb on analysis indicate the presence of 3.5 ml of N/10 HNO3
and there is no H2SO4 formed.
Ans: Water equivalent of calorimeter = 1126 g
Biofuels

Green fuels (also called biofuels or renewable fuels) are environmentally friendly
alternatives to conventional fossil fuels. They are derived from renewable biological
sources and are designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and environmental
impact.

Characteristics
•Renewable: Made from biomass (plants, algae, organic waste).
•Lower emissions: Produce less CO₂, sulfur, and particulates.
•Biodegradable: Break down more easily in the environment.
•Carbon-neutral: Ideally, the CO₂ released is offset by the CO₂ absorbed during feedstock
growth.
Type Source Use
Fermented sugars from crops Used in gasoline blends (e.g.,
Bioethanol
(e.g., corn, sugarcane) E10, E85)
Biodiesel Vegetable oils, animal fats Diesel engines (B5, B20, B100)
Anaerobic digestion of organic
Biogas Heating, electricity, vehicle fuel
waste
Water electrolysis using
Green Hydrogen Fuel cells, industry
renewable energy
Under research for aviation and
Algae-based fuels Microalgae grown in water
diesel
Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel made primarily from vegetable oils, animal fats, or
waste cooking oils. It is a cleaner-burning alternative to petroleum diesel and can be used in
diesel engines with little or no modification.

Biodiesel mainly consists of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), which are produced by reacting
triglycerides (fats/oils) with an alcohol (usually methanol).

General reaction (Transesterification):

Triglyceride (oil/fat)+Methanol Catalyst Biodiesel (FAME)+ Glycerol

Common Feedstocks:
Ø Vegetable oils : Soybean, canola, palm, sunflower
Ø Animal fats : Tallow, lard
Ø Used cooking oil (UCO)
Ø Algal oil (emerging technology)
Methods of Biodiesel Synthesis:

1. Base-Catalyzed Transesterification (Most Common)

Ø Catalyst: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Ø Alcohol: Methanol or ethanol
Ø Pros: Fast, high yield
Ø Cons: Sensitive to water and free fatty acids (FFAs)

Triglyceride (oil/fat)+Methanol NaOH Biodiesel (FAME) + Glycerol

Transesterification involves the exchange of the ester group in a molecule with another
alcohol.
•"Trans-" = across or exchange
•"Ester" = an organic compound derived from an acid (usually a carboxylic acid) and an
alcohol
•"-ification" = the process of making or transforming
So, transesterification literally means "the process of exchanging ester groups."
 2. Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification

Ø Catalyst : Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)

Ø Used when : High free fatty acid (FFA) content in feedstock
Ø Slower than base-catalyzed, but good for low-quality oils

3. Two-Step Transesterification (Acid + Base)

Ø Step 1: Acid esterification reduces FFAs
Ø Step 2: Base transesterification completes conversion
Ø Used for: Waste cooking oil and animal fats

4. Enzymatic Transesterification
Ø Catalyst : Lipase enzymes
Ø Mild conditions , environmentally friendly
Ø High cost and slower reaction rate
5. Supercritical Methanol Method
Ø No catalyst used
Ø High temperature (above 240°C) and pressure (above 80 bar)
Ø Pros: Handles any feedstock, fast
Ø Cons: High energy cost and specialized equipment
Characteristics of Biodiesel

1. Higher Oxygen Content

•Biodiesel contains ~10–12% oxygen by weight.
•Promotes more complete combustion.
•Leads to reduced carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) emissions.

2. Higher Cetane Number

•Cetane number of biodiesel is typically higher (50–65) than that of petroleum diesel (45–55).
•Improves ignition quality and results in shorter ignition delay.
•Leads to smoother combustion.

3. Lower Heating Value

•Biodiesel has a lower calorific value (~37–40 MJ/kg) compared to diesel (~42–45 MJ/kg).
•Means slightly reduced engine power output or higher fuel consumption for the same work.
4. Higher Viscosity
•Biodiesel is more viscous than diesel.
•Can affect atomization and spray pattern, especially in cold weather.
•Leads to larger droplet size, potentially influencing combustion efficiency.

5. Lower Volatility
•Biodiesel has a higher boiling point and flash point.
•Results in slower vaporization, especially during cold start

6. Lower Volatility
•Biodiesel has a higher boiling point and flash point.
•Results in slower vaporization, especially during cold start
 Power Alcohol

Power alcohol refers to ethyl alcohol (ethanol) blended with petrol (gasoline) to be used as a motor
fuel. It's called "power" alcohol because it can power internal combustion engines, similar to gasoline

Composition:
•Typically 80–90% petrol and 10–20% ethanol.
•Sometimes denatured alcohol is used (ethanol with additives to make it non-drinkable).
•Blends like E10 (10% ethanol) or E20 (20% ethanol) are common.

Key Features:
•Renewable : Ethanol is derived from biomass (sugarcane, corn, molasses, etc.).
•Anti-knocking agent : Ethanol has a high octane number, improving engine performance.
•Cleaner burning : Reduces CO and hydrocarbon emissions.
•Oxygenated fuel : Promotes more complete combustion
 Advantages:
•Reduces dependency on fossil fuels.
•Lower emissions of carbon monoxide and particulate matter.
•Higher octane rating improves engine efficiency.
•Can be produced domestically from renewable sources.

Characteristics of Power alcohol

Oxygenated Fuel
•Ethanol contains ~35% oxygen by weight.
•Promotes more complete combustion of hydrocarbons.
•Results in lower emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC).

Oxygenated Fuel
•Ethanol contains ~35% oxygen by weight.
•Promotes more complete combustion of hydrocarbons.
•Results in lower emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC).
 Lower Calorific Value
•Ethanol's heating value is ~27 MJ/kg , lower than petrol
(~44 MJ/kg).
•Power alcohol blends have less energy per liter , leading
to slightly reduced mileage .

Higher Latent Heat of Vaporization

•Ethanol absorbs more heat to vaporize.
•Results in cooler intake charge , which can increase engine efficiency and reduce
NOₓ.
•However, it may affect cold start performance , especially in high-ethanol blends.

Flame Speed
Cleaner Burning
•Ethanol has a faster flame speed , promoting quicker
•Produces less soot, CO, and HC .
combustion .
•Reduces particulate emissions due to oxygen content
•Can lead to better throttle response and power
and cleaner burn.
delivery in engines tuned for it.
 Hydrogen as
fuel
• Due to highest calorific values (~150 MJ/KG) it can serve as an
excellent fuel

• By thermal dissociation of water (at 3000 K and above)

• It is produced by chemical reaction of water with some o t h e r

chemicals in 2-3 cycles

• Electrolytic method dissociate water to hydrogen and o x y g e n

by making current flow through it.

• Photolysis of water involves breakdown of

water in the
presence of sunlight to release hydrogen.

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Catalysis

q Increase in the rate of a chemical reaction due to the participation

of additional substance called a Catalyst H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O (liq) DH = -286
kJ/mol
Ø Biocatalyst Specific enthalpy -143 kJ/gram H2

Ø Homogeneous catalyst
Ø Electrocatalyst
Ø Conventional heterogeneous catalyst
Ø Ultra-high vacuum surface science
Advantages of electrocatalysis:
Fuel Production
Ø Generates H 2 and O 2 (scalable mechanism to store
2H+ + 2e- H2
intermittent renewable energy)
CO2 + nH+ + ne- CxHy + CaHbOcH + mH2O
Ø Replaces fossil fuels
2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
Ø Ecofriendly
Fuel Consumption
 Hydrogen Fuel
Hydrogen fuel holds great promise for powering cars and generating electricity, but f o r
it to be environmentally beneficial, we would have to produce it without using fossil
fuels.

ØThe sun produces its energy, which sustains life on the earth, through the nuclear f u s i o n

of hydrogen atoms.
ØFuel cells that combine H2 and oxygen gas (O2) to produce electricity and water vapor (2 H2

+ O2 2 H2O + energy), which is emitted into the atmosphere.

Ø H2 also provides more energy per gram than any other fuel, therefore a lightweight fuel
ideal
for aviation.
Ø It is a fuel produced by using other forms of energy, and thus has a negative net energy
yield.
Ø Fuel cells are best way to use H2 to produce electricity, but current versions are expensive.
ØElectricity from coal-burning and nuclear power plants to produce H2 would add much m o r e
CO2 to the atmosphere per unit of heat generated than does burning carbon-containing f u e l s
directly.
 E1
H 2O + H2 + O 2
Energy E2

E1 > E 2
 Solar Hydrogen Revolution

 H2 could be used as fuel if it is made with electricity produced by low-

polluting, renewable sources (Solar/ wind) that emit little or no CO2.

The basic ideas of a solar-hydrogen energy scheme are first that s o l a r

energy should be collected where it is most available.

The electricity from solar panels thus obtained, would be used t o

electrolyze water.

 The H2 from the electrolysis would be pumped up and piped to distant

places.
 A fuel cell takes in hydrogen gas and separates the hydrogen atoms’ electrons from their
protons.
The electrons flow through wires to provide electricity, while the protons pass through a membrane and combine w i t h
oxygen gas to form water vapor.
 Note that this process is the reverse of electrolysis, the process of passing electricity through
water to produce hydrogen fuel.
 Fuel Cells
▪ A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical potential energy (energy stored in molecular
bonds) into electrical energy
▪ Electricity is generated without combustion by combining hydrogen and oxygen to
produce water and heat
▪ They offer higher electrical efficiency (≥ 40%) compared to conventional power
generation systems.
 Principle of Operation
▪ A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to
create electricity by an electrochemical process.
▪ Hydrogen and oxygen (air) are supplied to anode and cathode, respectively.
▪ When hydrogen is led to the anode, the hydrogen molecules are split into
proton and an electron.
▪ The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they react
with oxygen to form water.
▪ At the same time, the electrons are forced to travel around the electrolyte to
the cathode side, because they cannot pass through the electrolyte. This
movement of electrons thus creates an electrical current.
 Types of Fuel Cells
▪ There are eight main types of fuel cells, based mainly on the type of electrolyte:
• PEMFCs, proton exchange membrane or polymer electrolyte membrane fuel
cells
• AFCs, alkaline fuel cells
• PAFCs, phosphoric acid fuel cells
• MCFCs, molten carbonate fuel cells
• SOFCs, solid oxide fuel cells
• DMFCs, direct methanol fuel cells
• DAFCs, direct ammonia fuel cells
• DCFCs, direct carbon fuel cells
▪ Apart from DAFCs, DMFCs, and DCFCs, other types of fuel cells are fed with
hydrogen.
 Hydrogen – oxygen fuel cells (HOFC)
▪ This cell is a common type of fuel cell. Similar to a galvanic cell, fuel cell also
have two half cells.
▪ Both half cells have porous graphite electrode with a catalyst (platinum, silver
or a metal oxide).
▪ The electrodes are placed in the aqueous solution of NaOH or KOH (alkaline fuel
cells-AFC) or H2SO4 (acidic fuel cell) which acts as an electrolyte.
▪ Hydrogen and oxygen are supplied at anode and cathode respectively at about
50 atmospheric pressure, the gases diffuse at respective electrodes.
▪ The overall chemical reaction in a hydrogen fuel electrochemical cell involves
the oxidation of hydrogen by oxygen to produce only water.
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
▪ Hydrogen fuel is processed at the anode where electrons are separated from
protons on the surface of a platinum-based catalyst.
▪ The protons pass through the membrane (in case of PEMFC) to the cathode side
of the cell while the electrons travel in an external circuit, generating the
electrical output of the cell.
▪ On the cathode side, another Pt electrode combines the protons and electrons
with oxygen to produce water.

• At anode: H2 (g) → 2 H+ + 2 e-
• At cathode: O2 (g) + 4 H+ + 4 e- → 2 H2O
• Net reaction: O2 (g) + 2 H2 (g) → 2 H2O (I)
ECell˚= 1.23 V
▪ Advantages
• The energy conversion is very high (75-82%).
• Fuel cell minimizes expensive transmission lines and transmission losses.
• It has high reliability in electricity generation and the by-products are environmentally
acceptable.
• Maintenance cost is low for these fuels and they save fossil fuels.
• Noise and thermal pollution are very low.
▪ Disadvantages:
• The major disadvantage of the fuel cell is the high cost and the problems of durability and
storage of large amount of hydrogen.
• The accurate life time is also not known and It cannot store electricity.
• Electrodes are expensive ad short lived.
• Storage and handling of H2 gas is dangerous because it is inflammable.

▪ Applications:
• The most important application of a fuel cell is its use in space vehicles, submarine or military
vehicles.
• The product H2O is valuable source of fresh water for the astronauts.
• Fuel cell batteries for automotive will be a great boon for the future.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
▪ SOFC is a high-temperature FC that utilizes solid ceramic inorganic oxide as an
electrolyte; e.g., zirconium oxide stabilized with yttrium oxide, instead of a
liquid or membrane, also known as Yttria-stabilized Zirconia (YSZ).
▪ SOFC is also referred to as ceramic FC.
▪ Both hydrogen and carbon monoxide are used as fuels.
▪ Solid oxide fuel cells work at very high temperatures, the highest of all the fuel
cell types at around 800 °C to 1,000 °C.
▪ Efficiency: over 60% when converting fuel to electricity
▪ This cell relatively resistant to small quantities of sulphur in the fuel, compared
to other types of fuel cell, and hence can be used with coal gas.
 Structure of SOFC
▪ Anode or fuel electrode:
• Nickel mixed with YSZ (Yttria stabilized Zirconia) or called Nickel-YSZ cermet (a cermet
is a mixture of ceramic and metal).
• It is a porous ceramic layer to allow the fuel to flow towards electrolyte.
▪ Cathode or air electrode:
• The cathode is usually a mixed ion-conducting and electronically conducting ceramic
material.
• It is a thin porous ceramic layer coated over the solid electrolyte where oxygen
reduction takes place. One example being, strontium doped lanthanum manganite
(LSM).
▪ Electrolyte:
• Oxide ion (O2-) conducting ceramic.
• The most popular electrolyte material is a bilayer composite electrolyte (YSZ layer +
gadolinium doped CeO2) (GDC) layer) or a mixture of ZrO and CaO.
▪ At anode (oxidation):
H2 (g) + CO (g) + 2 O2- → H2O (g) + CO2 (g) + 4e-
▪ At cathode (reduction):
O2 (g) + 4e- → 2 O2-
▪ Net reaction:
H2 (g) + CO (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
▪ Advantages of SOFC:
• SOFCs have a number of advantages due to their solid materials and high
operating temperature.
• Since all the components are solid, as a result, there is no need for electrolyte
loss maintenance and electrode corrosion is eliminated.
• Also because of high-temperature operation, the SOFC has a better ability to
tolerate the presence of impurities as a result of life increasing.
• High efficiencies: Due to high-quality waste heat for cogeneration
applications and low activation losses, the efficiency for electricity production
is great.
• Low emissions. Releasing negligible pollution. It is the cleanest among all fuel
cells.
▪ Disadvantages:
• High operating temperature (500 to 1,000 °C) which results in longer start up
times and mechanical/chemical compatibility issues.
• The cost and complex fabrication are also significant problems that need to be
solved.

• Applications:
• SOFCs are being considered for a wide range of applications, such as working
as power systems for trains, ships and vehicles; supplying electrical power for
residential or industrial utility.
• Stationary power generation
• By product gases are channeled to turbines to generate more electricity:
cogeneration of heat and power and improves overall efficiency.
• Auxiliary power units in vehicles