CHAPTER 7: EVOLUTION
1. Origin of life: Oparin-Haldane theory – primitive reducing atmosphere with
CH₄, NH₃, H₂, H₂O.
2. Miller-Urey experiment (1953): Simulated early Earth conditions →
produced amino acids (alanine, glycine).
3. First life forms: 3.5 billion years ago, non-cellular → RNA world →
prokaryotes → eukaryotes.
4. Evidence of evolution: Fossils (palaeontology), comparative anatomy,
embryology, biochemistry (universal genetic code).
5. Homologous organs: Same structure, different functions (divergent
evolution) – whale flipper, human hand, bat wing.
6. Analogous organs: Different structure, same function (convergent
evolution) – wings of butterfly & bird.
7. Adaptive radiation: Diversification from common ancestor to different
habitats – Darwin’s finches (Galapagos).
8. Natural selection: Darwin’s theory – survival of fittest, differential
reproduction.
9. Industrial melanism: Peppered moth evolution (dark form increased in
polluted areas).
10. Lamarckism: Use/disuse theory, inheritance of acquired characters –
disproven (giraffe neck example).
11. Genetic drift: Random change in allele frequency, significant in small
populations (founder effect, bottleneck).
12. Hardy-Weinberg principle: p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (evolution not occurring if 5
conditions met).
13. Speciation: Reproductive isolation leads to new species
(allopatric/geographic, sympatric).
14. Human evolution: Dryopithecus → Ramapithecus → Australopithecus →
Homo habilis → H. erectus → H. neanderthalensis → H. sapiens.
15. Modern human origin: African origin hypothesis (Out of Africa) – H.
sapiens from Africa ~1,00,000 years ago.
16. Fossil dating: Relative (deeper = older), Absolute (C-14 dating, K-Ar
method).
17. Biochemical evidence: Cytochrome c similarity shows evolutionary
relationships.
18. Divergent evolution: Common ancestor → different adaptations
(homologous structures).
19. Convergent evolution: Unrelated species → similar adaptations
(analogous structures).
20. Gradual vs punctuated equilibrium: Darwin – gradual change; Gould &
Eldredge – rapid changes between stability.
21. Human cranial capacity increase: Australopithecus (450 cm³) → H. habilis
(650-800 cm³) → H. erectus (900 cm³) → H. sapiens (1400 cm³).
22. Neanderthal man: Cranial capacity 1400 cm³, lived in Europe/Asia, used
tools, buried dead.
23. Lucy: Australopithecus afarensis (3.2 mya), bipedal, ape-like brain.
24. Origin of universe: Big Bang ~13.7 billion years ago.
25. First mammals: Jurassic period (~200 mya), small, shrew-like.
26. Mass extinctions: 5 major events, Cretaceous-Tertiary (65 mya) wiped out
dinosaurs.
27. Miller’s experiment apparatus: Flask with gases → electric sparks
(lightning) → condensation → amino acids.
28. Coacervates: Oparin’s pre-cells, aggregates of organic molecules.
29. Abiogenesis: Origin of life from non-living matter.
30. Biogenesis: Life from pre-existing life (Redi, Pasteur).
31. Continental drift: Pangea breakup influenced species distribution.
32. Archaeopteryx: Fossil link between reptiles & birds (Jurassic period).
33. Vestigial organs: Appendix, tail bone, wisdom teeth – evolutionary
remnants.
34. Atavism: Reappearance of ancestral features (human born with tail).
35. Mutation: Raw material for evolution, source of genetic variation.
36. Gene flow: Migration changes allele frequencies.
37. Reproductive isolation mechanisms: Prezygotic (habitat, temporal,
behavioral, mechanical, gametic) & postzygotic (hybrid inviability, sterility).
38. Allopatric speciation: Geographic barrier → genetic divergence → new
species.
39. Sympatric speciation: Same area → reproductive isolation (polyploidy in
plants).
40. Human chromosome number: 46 (23 pairs), chimpanzees have 48 (fusion
event in human evolution).
41. FOXP2 gene: Associated with speech/language development in humans.
42. Urey & Miller used: CH₄, NH₃, H₂, H₂O vapor + electric sparks → amino
acids.
43. First genetic material: RNA (ribozymes show catalytic activity).
44. Endosymbiotic theory: Lynn Margulis – mitochondria & chloroplasts from
prokaryotic symbionts.
45. Adaptation: Any trait that increases reproductive success (mimicry,
camouflage).
46. Genetic equilibrium conditions: No mutation, no gene flow, large
population, random mating, no selection.
47. Biological species concept: Ernst Mayr – species = interbreeding natural
populations reproductively isolated.
48. Bipedalism key human evolution trait: Freed hands for tool use.
49. Java man & Peking man: Examples of Homo erectus.
50. Modern synthesis: Combines Darwin’s natural selection with Mendelian
genetics.