course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

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 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

LESSON 3: SUPPORT AND

MOVEMENT OF THE BODY
Musculo-Skeletal System parts: the axial skeleton (those bones that form

Your musculo-skeletal system are the body’s longitudinal axis) and appendicular

composed of a closely interconnected systems--- skeleton (bones of the girdles and limbs). See

the muscular and skeletal system. Both of these figure 1.4. These skeletons are made up of bones

systems work together in order for you to move that are connected at joints or articulations.

your bodies according to your will called voluntary

movements. These movements entail powerful Task 5. The skeleton has five main functions:

execution of these systems in using sporting support, protection, movement, bone cell

techniques in games like gymnastics, swimming, production and mineral store. Give at least 3

rugby or in any game you think of. Watch sports examples of how the functions of the skeleton

channel and notice how strong muscles and enable you to carry out your every-day needs and

sturdy bones of athletes work together efficiently routine.

and effectively. 1. _______________________________________.

2. _______________________________________.
3. _______________________________________.
In this lesson, you will look at the structural
and function of both body systems, which will help
you understand how you move your bodies during
physical activity. Firstly, you need to learn the Task 6. Memorize all the skeletal bones.

skeleton which provides the framework of the

body that allows movement to take place---its
chemical composition, types of bones, and
functions. Then secondly you will learn all about
“muscles” that provide energy and supports the
movement by studying the different types of
muscle fibres, contraction and relaxation of
muscles and seeing how each adapts to suit
certain forms of physical activity.

Skeletal system

Your skeleton is constructed of two of the

strongest and most supportive tissues in the human
body---cartilage and bone. When you were just an
embryo, your skeleton is composed mainly of
hyaline cartilage, but as you become an adult,
most of these cartilages are replaced by more
rigid bones. Now, an average human adult like
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you have 206 bones that are divided into two

Figure 1.4 Skeletal Structure of the Human Body
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

When your mom cooked bulalo at home, have you Classification of bones
noticed the delicious fatty inner filling of bone—it’s There are five types of bone in the skeleton that
called yellow marrow and the red-looking meaty are classified according to their shape or kind of
ones are actually called red marrow. In an adult
texture of osseous tissue.
animal, the medullary cavity or the central cavity of
shaft is essentially a storage regions for adipose According to the microscopic structure of bones:
tissue (yellow marrow) and red marrow is confined 1. Compact bones - dense and looks smooth
to the interior of the epiphyses of bone. In infant, and homogenous. It is riddeld with
red marrow is involved in forming blood cells. Did passageways carrying blood vessels and
you notice that spongy part of the bone? and some nerves that provide the living bone cells
have different texture and shapes? Next time, with needed substances and a way to
before your mom cook it, go get a bone sample and eliminate wastes. e.g. femur
examine it! 2. Spongy bone - composed of small
needlelike bars (called taberculae) of
Chemical composition of bones bone and lots of open spaces.

Although bone is relatively light, it is one of the

According to bone shape:
hardest materials in the body and it has a 1. Long bones - longer than it is wide and
remarkable ability to resist tension and shear consists of shaft, called diaphysis and two
forces that continually act on it. ends called epiphysis. The epiphysis is
Bone is made up of collagen fibres filled with 2 covered by articular cartilage that acts as
a cushion to absorb shock and also
minerals, mainly calcium salts. 99% of body’s
prevents friction during joint movement.
calcium is stored in bones. And phosphorus that
most long bones are compact bones. e.g.
makes the framework hard and strong. femur
2. Short bones– are typically cube-shaped,
Structure of a Long Bone and they contain more spongy bone than
compact bones. e.g. tarsals and carpals.
3. Flat bones – are generally thin, with layer
of spongy bone sandwiched between two
waferlike layers of compact bone. e.g.
bones of skull are flat bones.
4. Irregular bones – are bones that do not fall
into one of the preceding categories. e.g.
vertebrae.

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Figure 1.5. Structure of a long bone during adolescence

 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from

Task 7. List the individual bones that make up the the inner face of diaphysis wall. (see Figure1.5).
following regions of the skeleton: this process by which bones increase in diameter is
• thoracic girdle called appositional growth.
• shoulder girdle
• upper limb
• pelvic girdle Task 8. Bone growth is also controlled by 2
• lower limb hormones namely: the growth hormone and sex
hormone. Do some research and explain how it
Bone formation, growth and remodeling influence bone lengthening. Write your answers
below.
You already know that the skeleton is
formed from cartilage and bones. During
conception, while in embryonic state, the skeleton Bone remodeling
is primarily made up of hyaline cartilage then As you grow, bones are remodeled
being replaced by bony matrix as you grow into
continually in response to changes in calcium
an adult human being. Some does not change levels in blood and the pull of gravity and muscles
and remains a cartilage such as bridge of nose, attached to it.
parts of ribs and the joints.
When blood calcium level drops below normal
Ossification is the processes of bone level (homeostatic state), the parathyroid gland is
formation wherein from a hyaline cartilage stimulated to release more parathyroid hormone
structure it develops into a bone. It has 2 major (PTH) into blood. PTH activates osteoclasts, to
phases of ossification. At first, the hyaline cartilage break more bone matrix and release calcium ions
model of a fetus is completely enclosed with bone into blood in order to regain homeostasis.
matrix (bone collar) by bone-forming cells called Conversely, if blood calcium is too high, calcium is
osteoblasts. Short after, the enclosed hyaline deposited in bone matrix as hard calcium salts.
cartilage is digested away to form a hollow called
medullary cavity within the newly formed bone. Task 9. Explain how physical activity (exercise)
Then at birth, these newly formed bone have affects bone strength?
been completely converted to bone except for
the two regions---the articular cartilages that
cover the bone ends and persists for life by
reducing friction at joint surfaces, and the
epiphyseal plates which provide for longitudinal
growth of the long bones during adolescence.
These old cartilages abutting the internal face of Common Skeletal Diseases and Disorders
articular cartilage and the medullary cavity is
broken down by osteoclasts (bone-destroying Bone Fractures
cells) and replaced by bony matrix. During sports events, you can witness some
athletes who got really unluckily and experience
The question is, how do bones widen as gruesome bone fracture such as bone breakage
they lengthen? or bones being twisted or crushed. Familiarize with
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these common types of fractures and answer task

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Osteoblasts in the periosteum add more 10.

bone tissue to the external face of diaphysis as
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

A fracture is treated by reduction, which is

the realignment of the broken bone ends. There
are 2 kinds of reduction: close and open
reduction. A close reduction is an external
manipulation of bones by a trained physician
without making a cut or break in a skin. An open
reduction is performed by surgery where the bone
ends are secured with the use of pins, brackets or
wires. Then after the bone is reduced, it is
Figure 1.5 Common types of fractures
immobilized by a casts or traction to allow healing
process to begin. For a simple fracture, it takes
Task 10. Complete the table 1.1 below.
Fracture Description Comment around 6 to 8 weeks for a bone to heal and longer
Type for large bones of elderly people. Why do you
Greenstick Bone Breaks Common in children,
incompletely, much whose bones are think so?
in the way a green more flexible than
twig break. those of adults
Task 12. How does bone heal? State the four
Spiral Ragged break
occurs when stages of bone healing and explain.
excessive twisting
forces are applied
to a bone.

Bone breaks into Particularly common

many fragments. in the aged, whose
bones are more
brittle.
Compound Bone breaks
or Open cleanly and the
Fracture broken bone ends
penetrates through
skin
Transverse Bone breaks
or closed cleanly and the
broken bones does
not penetrate
through the skin.
Normal Osteoporotic
Bone is crushed. Common in porous
bones. e.g.
Figure 1.6 Comparison between normal and osteoporotic
osteoporosis
Depressed Typical of skull bone
fracture.

Osteoporosis– is a bone-thinning disease that

afflicts half of women over 65 and some 20% of
Task 11. You were watching a live football game men over the age of 70. It is a metabolic bone
and you saw the star player runs so fast then disorder wherein bone becomes porous, brittle
suddenly his playmate step and hit his legs. He felt a and prone to fracture. It is usually caused by
sharp excruciating pain on his legs and he feel down inadequate intake of calcium and phosphorous,
on his knees. His left leg became swollen and a bone lack of vitamin D, insufficient weight-bearing
on his calf come out from his skin. Identify the name
exercises to stress the bones, estrogen deficiency
of the fractured bone and what should you do to
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which happens after menopause, and aging.

prevent further damage to the affected area? Write
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Person having this kind of disease usually has loss

your answers on the space provided.
of height.
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

respiratory cartilages (in larynx & upper

Task 13. respiratory passageways) & nasal
A. Site examples of weight-bearing exercises cartilages
B. Explain how nutrition and hormones and
exercise affects bone density. 2. Elastic Cartilages: similar to hyaline
cartilage, more elastic fibers (very flexible)
– found in external ear & epiglottis (larynx
covering)

Abnormal spinal curvature 3. Fibrocartilage: rows of chondrocytes with

thick collagen fibers; highly compressible
Kyphosis- bowing of the back, usually at the with great tensile strength- found in
thoracic level. There is visible curving, pain, menisci of knee, intervertebral discs &
stiffness, tightening of hamstring muscles. It is pubic symphysis.
caused by growth retardation, degeneration of
intervertebral disks, osteoporosis. It can be Consider an action of kicking a football.
managed by exercise, firm mattress, surgery. The knee of one leg is allowing the lower part of
the limb to swing freely while the knee of the
supporting limb is keeping the leg stable to
maintain balance between the executions of the
skill.

What is a joint?

Joints is a linkwhere any two or more bony parts

(a) (b) (c)
join together. It is also called an articulation. They
Figure1.6 Abnormal curvature (a) Kyphosis (b)Lordosis
(c) Scoliosis act to allow movement but also work to stabilize
areas of the body.
Lordosis- anterior convex curvature of the lumbar
spine. Usually caused bypoor posture, wearing What is the Difference between a
high heels. It can be managed by exercise, Ligament and a tendon?
improving posture, proper footwear.
Ligament – is a tough band of fibrous, slightly
Scoliosis- lateral curvature of the spine usually in elastic connective tissue that attaches one bone
the thoracic region. Seen with uneven hemlines or to another. It binds the ends of bones together to
unequal pants legs, one hip appearing higher prevent dislocation.
than the other, one shoulder appearing higher. Tendon– a very strong connective tissue that
It is caused by congenital defects, muscular attaches skeletal muscles to bone.
dystrophy, and paralysis, transmitted trait that
develops during the growing process, poor
posture, and uneven leg lengths. It can be
managed through exercise, brace, and surgery.

Cartilage

What are the types of Cartilage?

1. Hyaline Cartilages: fine collagen fiber Figure 1.7

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matrix- most abundant type- found in

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articular (movable joint) cartilages, costal There is functional classification of joints

cartilages (connect ribs tosternum), that focuses on the amount of movement a joint
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

allows. Familiarize with all the joint classes but Articular Glassy-smooth To absorb
focus your study on synovial joints. cartilage cartilage that shock and to
is spongy and prevent friction
covers the between the
Joint Classifications: ends of the ends of the
bones in the bones in the
1. Synarthrosis/fibrous joint ––immovable joint. joints.
joints. The bones are joint by fibrous tissue. Joint capsule A tough fibrous The fibrous
tissue that has capsule helps
This allows little or no movement. e.g.
two layers, with to strengthen
Cranial sutures. the fibrous the joint, while
2. Amphiarthroses/cartilaginous–slightly capsule lying the synovial
moveable joints. The articulating bone outside the membrane
ends are connected by cartilage. This synovial lines the joint
membrane. and secretes
allows wide range of movements. e.g.
synovial fluid.
largely restricted to the axial skeleton,
important example of this joint is found at Joint cavity – a space within a synovial joint that
the symphysis. contains synovial fluid.
3. Diarthroses –freely movable joints;
predominate in the limbs e.g. synovial
Task 14. Discuss the importance of mobilizing each
joints. Synovial joints – the articulating bone
of your synovial joints as part of a warm up routine
ends are separated by a joint cavity
before physical activity.
containing synovial fluid.

Synovial Joints

The structure of synovial joints

Synovial joints have four main distinguishing
features, shown and analysed in table 12.
Task 15 Synovial joints require a fine balance
between stability and mobility. From your
knowledge of the general structure of synovial
joints:
1. List two features that increase joint stability,
giving a specific function for each.
2. List two features that increase joint
mobility, giving a specific function for
each.

Figure 1.8 the structure of synovial joint.

TABLE 12. FEATURES OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT

Five Types of Synovial Joints
FEATURE STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Ligament A band of To connect 1. Hinge– movement in one direction like a
strong fibrous bone to bone.
door. This allows bending and
tissue
Synovial fluid A slippery fluid To reduce straightening only. e.g. knee, elbow and
the friction ankle.
consistency of between the 2. Ball-and-socket – round end of bone fitting
egg-white that articular
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snuggly within another bone. This allows

is contained cartilage in the
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the greatest range of motion. e.g. shoulder

within the joint joint.
cavity. (head of humerus with glenoid fossa of
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

scapula) and hip (head of femur with There are many types movements but you only
acetabulum of pelvis). need to focus on the following types of body
3. Pivot– bone resting atop another bone movements mentioned here.
permitting free movement. This allows one
bone to rotate around another. e.g. radio
–ulnar spine (atlas/axis joint at the top)
4. Gliding – allows one bone to slide over
another, but is severely limited. e.g. spine
(between the bony process of the
vertebrae in the cervical, thoracic and
part of the lumbar regions.
5. Condyloid- this joint allows the second
greatest range of motion. e.g. wrist

Task 16. Identify what type of synovial joints are

the following pictures.

a.

b.
Figure 1.9 Body movements

Main Types of Movement

1. Flexion- movement that reduces the angle

between articulating joints.
2. Extension- movement that increases the
angle between articulating joints.
c. 3. Abduction - movement away from the
longitudinal axis of the body.
4. Adduction - movement towards the
longitudinal axis of the body.
5. Rotation - Turning around the longitudinal
axis of the body or limb. Example, when
using screwdriver, rotation is occurring at
d. the shoulder joint as the arm turns about
an axis that travels straight though the arm
from the shoulder to the wrist.
6. Horizontal flexion- occurs when shoulder is
already flexed with the arm parallel to the
ground and the shoulder joint moves
towards the middle of the body.
7. Horizontal extension - occurs when
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shoulder joint with the arm parallel to the

 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

ground moves away from the middle of

the body. Task 18. Provide all the information required, each
8. Circumduction – makes a body part move box would be worth one mark.
from the anatomical position, describing a
cone shape. The joint performing Joint Joint Articulating Movements
circumduction stays still while the furthest type bones possible at
end of the body part moves in a circle. joint
Wrist
Other movements
Radio-
1. Pronation and supination – are anatomical
ulnar
terms unique to the radio-ulnar joint and Elbow
are separate terms to describe rotation of
the forearm Pronation of the radio-ulnar Shoulder
joint makes the palm move face
backwards or downwards. Supination of Spine
the radio-ulnar joint is with the palm facing
Hip
forward or upwards.
Knee

Ankle

Common Joint/Ligament Diseases

The following are common joint and
ligament diseases.

Arthritis - joint inflammation. It has more than 100

different types. It currently affects 40 million
2. Lateral flexion – it involves bending the Americans, mostly women.
spine sideways as you might do as a part
of warm up to mobilise your spine. Most common forms:
3. Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion – are • Osteoarthritis
anatomical terms unique to the ankle joint. • Rheumatoid arthritis
Dorsiflexion of the ankle makes the foot • Gout
move towards the shin as when you walk • Fibromyalgia
on your heals. Plantar flexion of the ankle • Lupus
joint makes the foot move away from the
shin as when you walk on your tiptoes.

Task 17. For each of the movements you have

identified and learned, give a sporting techniques
that demonstrate the movement. For example,
flexion of the wrists occurs in the follow-through of
set shot in basketball.
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 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

Bursitis - inflammation of sac located around a Figure 1.10 Major muscles of the body
joint; most often occurs at hip, shoulder, or knee.
There is pain upon movement, limited motion of
joint. Usually occurs in middle age and is result of
recurring trauma or inflammatory joint disease. It
can be managed by joint rest, pain medication,
steroid injection combined with anesthetic,
removal of fluid by aspiration, physical therapy.
Joint Dislocation–painful displacement of the
bones of a joint. It is caused by congenital,
trauma, disease of surrounding joint. It can be
managed by reduction, splint, cast, traction

Herniated Disk (ruptured disk)- the soft gel-like

material within an intervertebral disk has been
forced through its outer surface causing pressure
on a spinal nerve. It has severe lower back pain,
frequently radiating deep into the buttocks and
down the back of the leg; sensory loss from
compression of nerve; motor difficulties. Usually
caused by severe trauma or strain, degeneration
of the intervertebral joints; occurs in adults, mainly
men under 45; often occurs from trauma in elderly.
(a) Anterior view

Sprain- complete or incomplete tear in the

supporting ligament of a joint. There is pain,
swelling, black and blue discoloration; ankle most
common site. It is caused by twisting action.
It can be managed by following R.I.C.E.—Rest, Ice,
Compression, and Elevation; may also require
surgery.

The Muscular System

In relation to this course, you will learn the

structure and functions of muscles, the different
types of muscles but more importantly the skeletal
muscle. This is because skeletal muscles are
responsible for all types of body movements that
enables one to perform various physical activities
such as sports, dance and etc.

Skeletal muscle forms the bulk of the

body’s muscle. It is called “skeletal” muscle simply
because these muscles are attached to the
skeleton. Anyway, don’t you know that there are
640 skeletal muscles in the human body? But
don’t you worry, you do not need to know them
all! However, you have to familiarize and scrutinize
(b) Posterior view
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each part of the muscles in the body on figure

1.10 to appreciate and create coordinated
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movements.
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

What are the muscle function? Gross Structure of Skeletal Muscles

The muscle plays four important roles in the Skeletal fibers are packaged into the
body: it produces (1) movement, (2) maintains organs called skeletal muscles.
posture, (3) stabilizes joints, and (4) generates
heat.
F
Task 19. Explain in your own words how does
muscle function.

There are three basic muscle types found in

the body namely: skeletal, cardiac. and smooth
muscle. The following table shows the summary of
unique characteristics of each muscle. Try to look
at the similarities and differences they have.
igure 1.11 Connective tissue wrappings of skeletal muscle
TABLE 13. THREE BASIC MUSCLE TYPES AND ITS and the microscopic structure of a muscle fiber
UNIQUE FEATURES
Cell shape Regulation Speed& Endomysium– around single muscle fiber.
Muscle &appearance of rhythmic Location
Contraction contraction
Perimysium– around a fascicle (bundle) of fibers.
Skeletal Multinucleate Voluntary; Slow to fast; Found in Epimysium– covers the entire skeletal muscle.
cell with very via nervous there is no superficial Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium.
obvious system rhythmic muscles,
striations; control contraction attached to
single very bone e.g.
long, arms, legs
cylindrical
Cardiac Uninucleate, Involuntary; Slow; there Found only Microscopic Structure of Muscle
branching the heart is rhythmic in the walls
chains of cells, has a contraction of heart
striations, pacemaker; A skeletal muscle varies considerably in size,
intercalated also nervous
discs system shape and arrangement of fibers but has the
controls; same basic structure. In figure 1.11 you can see
hormones
Smooth Single nucleus Involuntary; Very slow; Found in that a single muscle e.g. deltoid muscle is
fusiform, nervous there is walls of composed of bundles of muscle fibers that are
uninucleate, system rhythmic hollow
no striations, controls; contraction visceral held by a fascicle. Each muscle fiber is made up
spindle- hormones; organs e.g. of tiny muscle___ called myofibrils. Within a
shaped cells, chemicals, stomach
stretch. myofibrils, it is divided into contractile units of
muscle fiber called sarcomere which has
myofilaments proteins strands known as actin (thin)
Now let us first study the how skeletal and myosin (thick) strands wherein movement of
muscle is made up. Then, in order to easily muscle is created as it produces a zigzag pattern
memorize the names each muscle, you have to during contraction.
identify the origin, insertion of each muscle group.
e.g. deltoid muscle bundles of muscle fiber
bundles of myofibril divided by sarcomere actin
and myosin

Now the question is, how does actin and

myosin creates muscle movement? But to
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understand it better you have to look at first the

microscopic structure of myofibril which is
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composed of bundles of myofilaments—the actin

 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

and myosin are found. Then we will discuss how For example, when you see fitness
muscle works within a sarcomere. enthusiast in a gym who keeps on lifting dumbbells
up and down through flexion and extension of
upper arm muscles, you notice that there is
contraction or shortening and relaxation between
these two upper arm muscles: biceps brachii and
triceps brachii. Both of these muscles works
opposite to each other. During flexion when the
other upper arm muscle contracts (biceps
brachii), the opposite muscle (triceps brachii)
relaxes thereby pulling of one bone(radio-ulna)
towards another(shoulder) across a movable joint
(synovial joint) causing such movement. During
extension, the biceps brachii relaxes while the
triceps brachii contracts. Thus, repeated
movements causes both muscle to grow
(hypertrophy) as each are under stress thereby
producing energy and heat.

Figure 1.12 microscopic structure of myofibril showing

sarcomere and the actin & myosin

• A bands are the dark region and I band

are the light regions. Both A band and I
bands are responsible for the striated
appearance of skeletal muscle.
• One sarcomere runs from one Z disc to the
next. Within a sarcomere lies actin and
myosin filaments.
• Myosin (thick filament) is a protein with two
globular heads pointing upwards with long
tail. The heads is where the ATP binding Figure 1.13 Muscles of the upper arm
sites happen as well as actin binding sites.

• Proteins like to change shape when stuff

binds to them and changing shapes can
allow proteins to bind or unbind with other
stuff.

Muscle and Body Movements

As you can see on figure 1.13skeletal

muscle are found attached to bones and are
regulated by nervous system as one moves. Now,
look at table 19, you can see that skeletal muscles
are also arranged and works in pairs since these
skeletal muscles only pull in one direction. Figure 1.14 Two points of muscle movement
Consequently, when one muscle moves the bone
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in one direction, the other pair moves it back

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again. This is termed as antagonistic muscle

action.
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an How does muscle work?

attached bone. Muscles are attached to at least Skeletal muscles are voluntary. Meaning a
two points: muscle cell must be stimulated by a nerve to allow
us to consciously move our limbs or do whatever
1. Origin– attachment to a moveable bone
we desire through muscle contraction. And it
2. Insertion– attachment to an immovable
bone. begins once the muscle cell receives signal from
the brain via motor neurons, the muscle uses up
Remember that during movement, the origin energy either through anaerobic or aerobic
remains stationary and the insertion moves. The cellular respiration or creatine phosphate
force producing the bending is always a pull of depending on the specific task we want to
contraction. Reversing the direction is produced perform. Remember that the stimulated muscle
by the contraction of a different set of muscles. As works in an all or nothing action such that not all
one group of muscles contracts, the other group muscle fiber must be stimulated but only a single
stretches and then they reverse actions. muscle fiber is enough to cause contraction.
Inside the myofibrils of muscle lies a
Different Types of Muscle sarcomere which is a contractile unit of muscle
1. Prime mover – muscle with the major fiber, where the action takes place. This action is
responsibility for a certain movement. an intricate process called sliding filament theory
2. Antagonist – muscle that opposes or of the actin and myosin.
reverses a prime mover.
3. Synergist – muscle that aids a prime mover Sliding Theory of Muscle Contraction
in a movement and helps prevent rotation. Begins when the nervous system stimulates
4. Fixator – stabilizes the origin of a prime the muscle fibers, the myosin heads will interact
mover. with the binding sites of the actin subunits. These
attachments forms and breaks several times as the
Effects of Exercise on Muscle thick filament (myosin) pull the thin filament (actin)
Results of increased muscle use are following: inside of the sarcomere towards the center thus
1. Increase in muscle size pulling the z discs towards the M line. The I band
2. Increase in muscle strength shorten and the H band disappears. The overall
3. Increase in muscle efficiency effect shows adjacent A bands get closer
4. Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant together, and the entire muscle contracts.
([Link])

Check out this website and watch the

mechanism of muscle contraction @
[Link]

Task 20. Stand in the anatomical position and

identify the position of the following muscles:
biceps brachii, pectoralis major, hamstrings, and
abdominals. For each muscle, identify the
approximate position of:
• origin
• the insertion
• The partner muscle that produces the
opposite movement—can you name it?
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Figure 1.14 Changes in the structure within a sarcomere

(a) shows prior contraction (b)during contraction
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

Transmission of a Nerve Impulse at Neuromuscular

Junction to Muscle Fibers

Figure 1.15. Transmission of ACh at synaptic cleft and the

release of calcium ions

The muscle contraction cycle is triggered by

Figure 1.15 Transmission of Nerve Stimulus from the brain calcium ions binding to protein complex troponin,
then spinal cord via motor neuron to skeletal muscles fiber
exposing the active-binding sites on the actin. As
soon as the actin binding sites are uncovered, the
Each muscle fiber has neuromuscular junction.
high energy myosin head bridges the gap, forming
These sections called axon terminal are nearly
a cross-bridge. Once myosin binds to the actin,
touching the muscle fiber separated only by a thin
the P1 is released, and the myosin undergoes a
space called synaptic cleft, where muscle
conformational change to a lower energy state.
produces junctional folds within postsynaptic
As myosin expends the energy, it moves through
membrane. The axon terminals have lots of
the “power stroke,” pulling the actin filament
synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine which is
toward the M-line. When the actin is pulled
a neurotransmitter. The acetylcholine is released
approximately 10nm toward the M-line, the
at the synaptic cleft upon arrival of a nerve
sarcomere shortens and the muscle contracts. At
impulse which causes a conformational change.
the end of the power stroke, the myosin is in a
Then, the neurotransmitter attaches to receptors
lower energy position.
on the sarcolemmamaking it to be semi-
permeable. This change causes movement of
After the power stroke, ADP is released, but the
sodium ion through Na ion channels. A leak of Na
cross-bridge formed is still in place. ATP then binds
ions not in equal proportion to K ions generates
to myosin, moving the myosin to its high-energy
action potential. Action potential travels down the
state releasing the myosin head from the actin
T tubules and initiates action potential which
active site. ATP can then attach to myosin, which
causes calcium levels to rise in the muscle fiber.
allows the cross-bridge cycle to start again; further
The sarcoplasmic reticulum which surrounds each
muscle contraction can occur. Therefore, without
myofibrils, regulates level of calcium which stores
ATP, muscles would remain in their contracted
and release calcium.
state, rather than their relaxed state.
([Link])

Inside a myofibril: actin and myosin sliding

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filament theory of muscle contraction happens.

This action causes the myosin to slide along the
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actin. The result is shortening of the muscle- a

contraction.
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

Figure 1.16 Actin and myosin sliding theory of contraction

Properties of Skeletal Muscle Activity

1. Irritability – ability to receive and respond

to stimulus.
2. Contractility - ability to shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received.

Types of Graded Responses

Figure 1.17. Comparison between aerobic and anaerobic
1. Twitch - single, brief contraction; not a cellular respiration
normal muscle function
2. Tetanus (summing of contractions)- one Anaerobic glycolysis
contraction is immediately followed by
another; the muscle does not completely - Reaction that breaks down glucose
without oxygen
return to a resting state; the effects are
- Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to
added. produce some ATP
3. Unfused (incomplete) tetanus - some - Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
relaxation occurs between contractions;
the results are summed. What causes muscle fatigue?
4. Fused- no evidence of relaxation before
the following contractions; the result is a Muscle fatigue occurs because of
sustained muscle contraction. intracellular acidosis due mainly to lactic acid
build up when the body uses anaerobic respiration
There ways that ATP can be produced in muscle during production of ATP. When a muscle is
fiber: (1) from creatine phosphate, (2) anaerobic fatigued, it is unable to contract. The common
cellular respiration and (3) aerobic cellular reason for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt. Oxygen
respiration. must be placed as oxygen is required to rid of
accumulated lactic acid. Increase acidity (from
Check out this website and watch this video: @ lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes the muscle to
www.______.com contract less.

Naming of Skeletal Muscles

Aerobic Respiration (Cellular respiration)
- Series of metabolic pathways that occur in 1. Location of the muscle
the mitochondria; Example: many muscles are named for
- Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide bones (e.g., temporalis)
and water, releasing energy;
2. Number of origins
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- This is a slower reaction that requires

continuous oxygen e.g. marathon running Example: triceps (three heads)
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3. Location of muscle’s origin and insertion

Example: sterno (on the sternum)
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

4. Shape of the muscle

Example: deltoid (triangular)
5. Action of the muscle
Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or
extends a bone)

HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES

PELVIC. HIP, AND THIGH MUSCLES

TRUNK AND CHEST MUSCLES

MUSCLES OF THE LOWER LEG

DEEP TRUNK AND ARM MUSCLES

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 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

becomes easier to maintain the correct

body alignment when standing, sitting and
exercising.

✓ Strength training or Swiss ball training will

increase the muscle tone in the postural
muscle of the trunk and develop core
stability. This will improve the alignment of
the spine and minimize the risk of lower
back pain.

What does it take to exercise safely?

Exercise-related injuries have risen in

recent decades. Over 7 million Americans receive
medical attention for sports-related injuries each
year, with the greatest numbers of injuries
Posture and Body Alignment affecting 6- to 24-year old. To reduce your risks of
exercise injury. follow warm up and cool down
✓ Posture can be thought of in terms of before your workout.
alignment and good posture, meaning
that you can carry out physical activity
with maximum efficiency and minimum risk WARM UP AND COOL DOWN
of injury
✓ Even during rest, muscles are in constant WARM UP
state of partial contraction, called MUSCLE - Light aerobic exercise that takes place
TONE. The greater the muscle tone in the prior to physical activity, normally including
muscles that stabilize the trunk, the better some light exercise to elevate the heart
your posture and core stability. rate, muscle and core body temperature,
some mobilizing exercises for the joints,
some stretching exercise for the muscle
and connective tissue and some easy
rehearsal of the skills to follow. It consists of
two phases: In general warm-up and a
specific warm-up.
COOL DOWN
- Low intensity aerobic exercise that takes
place after physical activity and facilitates
the recovery process. It consists of two
phases: (1) Pulse lowering activities –
moderate/low-intensity aerobic activity (2)
stretching of active muscles.
Figure1.18. Stabilizing muscles of the trunk
The table below focuses on the effects of
Posture and Physical Activity warm up and cool down on skeletal muscle tissue
as their effects on the cardiovascular system that
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✓ The right type of physical activity will will be discussed in the later topics.
improve your posture. Aerobic exercise will
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help to control body weight meaning less

strain is put on the muscles and joints and it
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

TABLE 20. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EFFECTS OF Three Primary Types of Muscle Contractions
WARM UP AND COOL DOWN EXERCISES ON SKELETAL Muscle contractions all result in an increase in
MUSCLE tension or force within the muscle, but some
EFFECTS OF WARM UP EFFECTS OF COOL contractions move body parts while others do not.
ON SKELETAL MUSCLE DOWN ON SKELETAL There are three primary types of contractions:
TISSUE MUSCLE TISSUE isotonic, isometric and isokinetic.
1. Isotonic contractions
An increase in core ➢ An increase in
-are characterized by a consistent muscle
body temperature will the speed of
tension as the contraction proceeds and a
produce the following removal of
resulting movement of body parts.
physiological effects on lactic acid and
- Myofilaments are able to slide past each
skeletal muscle tissue: carbon dioxide
other during contractions while the tension
➢ A reduction in that raise the
muscle acidity levels of
in the muscles increases and the muscle
viscosity, the muscle and shortens. Example: An arm curl with a 10-
leading to an affect pain pound hand weight involves isotonic
improvement in receptors due contractions throughout your arm.
the efficiency to oxygen rich
of muscular blood being 2 Types of Isotonic contraction
contractions. flushed through
➢ A greater the muscle 1a. Concentric contraction
speed and ➢ A decrease in -A type of isotonic contraction that
force of the risk of involves the muscle shortening while
contraction DOMS, which is producing tension
due to a higher the muscular
speed of nerve pain 2a. Eccentric contraction
transmission experienced -A type of isotonic contraction that
➢ An increase 24-48 hours
involves the muscle lengthening while
flexibility that after intense
producing tension
reduces the risk exercise due to
of injury due to microscopic
2. Isometric contractions
increased tears in the
extensibility of muscle fibers.
- Characterized by a consistent muscle
tendons and length throughout the contraction with no
ligaments visible movement of body parts.
- Tension in the muscles increases while the
muscle is unable to shorten.
Task 21. - Example: when you hold a hand weight at
1. What are the two phases of warm up arm’s length in front of you; your arm is not
and two phases of cool down? moving but you feel tension in your arm
Differentiate each phases in terms of muscles.
its goal and time requirement?
3. Isokinetic contractions
2. List all the benefits of a warm up and - Characterized by consistent muscle
cool down. contraction speed within a moving body
part. Example: you need specialized
3. Make a video showing warm up and equipment that holds the speed of
cool down exercises, isotonic and movement constant as your arm, leg, or
isometric exercises. other muscles contract with varying forces.
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TABLE 21. ISOTONIC AND ISOMETRIC CONTRACTI Table Analysis of Preparation Phase

MOVEMENT ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

A movement analysis of physical activity

allows you to identify the joints, movement and
muscles that are involved in carrying out a
sporting technique. It requires knowledge on the
following:
a. The joint type
b. The type of movement produced
c. The muscles in action (the agonist
and the antagonist)
d. The type of muscle contraction
taking place Jonny Wilkinson in Recovery Phase

Table Analysis of Recovery Phase

Take a look at the picture of Jonny
Wilkinson and the following table analysis of
movement both in preparation and recovery
phase. Then on the next page provide what is
asked in task 22.

Task 22. Cut out a picture of a varsity player of any

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sport “in action” then analyse the movement by

identifying the joints, movement and muscles
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involved. Make a table to organize your answers.

Jonny Wilkinson in Preparation Phase Please be guided on the previous example above.
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

Every muscle fiber can be categorized as

either slow or fast, depending on how quickly it FAST OXIDATIVE GLYCOLYTIC FIBERS –TYPE 2G or
can contract. Slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle FOG FIBERS
fibers. - These anaerobic fibers are more resistant
to fatigue than type 2b, but generates
SLOW-TWITCH MUSCLE FIBERS (TYPE 1) slightly less force.
These are designed for aerobic exercise and
use oxygen to produce a small amount of tension FAST GLYCOLYTIC FIBERS TYPE 2B or FG FIBERS
over a long period of time, as they are resistant to - These fibers have the greatest anaerobic
fatigue. Performers in endurance events tent to capacity and therefore generates the
have a high percentage of slow twitch muscle largest amount of force.
fibers.

AEROBIC EXERCISE- is performed in the Task 23. A Case Study.

presence of oxygen at a sub-maximal Gina says “I love to go on hikes. There are
intensity over a prolonged period of time.
some gorgeous trails in the San Fransisco Bay Area.
e.g. Rowing
Some of them are kind of hilly, but I don’t mind---
the views from the top are always worth it. My
SLOW -TWITCH MUSCLE FIBER-a type of
calves definitely get a workout! I’d like to be able
muscle fiber associated with aerobic work. It
to do longer hikes, but the truth is that I usually get
produces a small force over a long period of
tired after about three miles. I know there are
time: high resistance to fatigue. It is suited to
endurance-based activities. Example: some longer hikes with spectacular views, but I
Marathon running. don’t feel ready for them yet.”

FAST-TWITCH MUSCLE FIBERS (TYPE 2)

These are designed for anaerobic exercise and
produce a large amount of force in a very short 1. Given what you’ve learned so far, what
time, as they fatigue easily. Performers in power would you tell Gina about how resistance
events tend to have a high percentage of fast training can benefit her?
twitch muscle fibers.
2. Which type of muscle fibers would you
ANAEROBIC EXERCISE- is performed in the guess that Gina has more of: Slow-twitch
absence of oxygen at a maximal intensity fibers or fast-twitch fibers?
that can only be sustained for a short period
of time due to the buildup of lactic acid. e.g. 3. Name an outdoor activity that you enjoy.
Sprinting Can you give one or two examples of
isotonic contractions that occur in your
FAST TWICH MUSLCLE FIBER- a type of muscle body during the course of that activity?
fiber associated with anaerobic work. It
produces a large force over a short period of
time: low resistance to fatigue. It is suited to
TABLE 22. STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES
power-based activities. Example: Sprinting,
Power Lifting. STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES

Characteristic Slow Fast Fast

- 2 Types: FAST OXIDATIVE GLYCOLYTIC Twitch Oxidative Glycolytic
(Types 2a/FOG) and FAST GLYCOLYTIC (Type 1) Glycolytic (Type 2b /
(Type 2b/FG). (Type 2a / FG)
FOG)
Note: FOG fibers have a slightly
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greater resistance to fatigue than Fiber size Small large Large

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FG fibers. Number of Large moderate Small

mitochondria
 course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement

Number of Large moderate Small Force of Low high Highest

capillaries contraction

Myoglobin High Moderate Low Resistance of High low Lowest

content fatigue

PC stores Low high High Aerobic High Low Lowest

capacity
Glycogen Low high High
stores Anaerobic Low high Highest
capacity
Tryglyceride High moderate Low
stores ACTIVITY SUITED

FUNCTIONAL DIFFERENCES
Marathon 1500m 110m
Speed of Slow fast Fastest hurdle
Contraction

Check out this list of references for more information

to broaden your knowledge!

American College of Sports and Medicine (2011)

Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and
maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and
neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults:
Guidance for prescribing exercise, Medicine &
Science in Sports and exercise, 43(7)
Anatomy of Exercise (A Trainer’s inside guide to your
workout) by Pat Manocchia
Anatomy and Physiology by Elaine N. Marieb
Get Fit and Stay Well by Janet L. Hopson [Link].
Physical Education 1st edition by Dave Carnell, [Link].
[Link]

CONGRATULATIONS!!!
YOU REACHED A CONSIDERABLE AMOUNT OF KNOWLEDGE
TO BECOMING A FIT AND WELLNESS EXPERT.
The End of Module Part 1.

mary lynn o. espina-verano, phd. e.d.

course title: anatomy and physiology of human movement
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university of eastern Philippines

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email: lexie_cooks@[Link]
cp: 09396567211