Introduction to Automatic Control
Automatic control refers to the use of control systems to regulate the behavior of a process,
machine, or system without human intervention. In engineering, automatic control systems are
essential for maintaining desired outputs in processes by manipulating inputs. These systems are
designed to respond to external disturbances, feedback, or changes in system conditions, ensuring
that the process stays within a specific range or achieves the desired outcomes.
Objectives of Automatic Control
The main objectives of automatic control are:
1. Stability: Ensuring that the system does not exhibit unwanted oscillations or deviations
from the desired state.
2. Accuracy: Maintaining the system's output as close as possible to the desired value or
setpoint.
3. Efficiency: Minimizing energy consumption, costs, or any resource needed to achieve the
desired control.
4. Response Time: Ensuring the system responds quickly to changes in conditions or
disturbances.
5. Disturbance Rejection: Reducing the impact of external disturbances on the system’s
output.
6. Safety: Ensuring that the process or system operates within safe limits, avoiding dangerous
conditions.
Automatic control is applied in a wide range of fields, from industrial manufacturing processes to
home appliances and even in aerospace systems.
1
Process Control
Process control refers to the regulation of variables within a process to ensure that it operates
optimally, safely, and consistently. This is particularly crucial in industries such as oil refineries,
chemical plants, and food production, where the quality and efficiency of the final product depend
heavily on precise control of process parameters.
A typical process control system involves sensors to measure key variables, controllers to compare
measured values with setpoints, and actuators to make the necessary adjustments to the process.
Process Variables Classifications
1. Controlled Variables:
o These are the variables that need to be maintained at a desired setpoint.
o Examples: Temperature, pressure, flow rate, pH, level, etc.
2. Manipulated Variables:
o These are the variables that are adjusted by the control system to achieve the desired
value of the controlled variables.
o Examples: Valve position, motor speed, power supply, etc.
3. Disturbance Variables:
o These are external factors that affect the process but cannot be directly controlled.
o Examples: Environmental temperature, raw material quality, supply voltage
fluctuations, etc.
4. Setpoint:
o The target or desired value for the controlled variable.
o Examples: The required temperature for a chemical reaction, the optimal speed of
a motor, etc.
Process Control Systems
Process control systems are often classified into two types:
1. Open-Loop Control System:
2
o In this system, the controller sends a command to the actuator without considering
feedback from the process.
o Example: A washing machine’s timer that runs for a set duration regardless of the
load.
2. Closed-Loop Control System (Feedback Control):
o In this system, the controller adjusts the input to the process based on feedback
from sensors measuring the output.
o Example: A thermostat in a heating system, which adjusts the heat output based on
the current temperature reading.
In summary, automatic control and process control aim to regulate processes efficiently, ensuring
that they perform safely and meet desired specifications. Understanding and classifying process
variables are key components in designing robust control systems.
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID):
P&ID is a detailed diagram that shows the Piping and Process Equipment along with the
Instrumentation and Control Devices.
A standard set of symbols are used to prepare P&ID and these symbols are generally based on
International Society of Automation (ISA) Standard S5.1.
Importance of P&ID:
It shows component identification.
It shows how instruments are connected.
It shows where instruments are located.
It shows functions within the process.
It is used for plant construction and process monitoring.
It is used for trouble shootings in the plant.
3
Things to note on a P&ID:
Thick continuous lines represent: pipes.
4
A break or gap at the cross-over means that pipes are not connected in the plant.
The direction of the fluid flow is drawn as a solid arrowhead on the line representing the pipe.
Instrument symbols associated with P&ID:
A circle with no line in it: physically located (mounted) somewhere in the field.
A circle with single horizontal line: instrument located on a main control panel near the control
room.
A circle with double horizontal line: instrument located on sub-panels or remote locations.
5
A circle with a single dash horizontal line: instrument located inside or backside of control panels
(hidden instrument), inaccessible or not generally located where it can be easily accessed.
When you spot the instrument symbol on the P&ID, you will be able to understand three things
from it:
6
Instrument Tag Number: it provides information about an instrument or its function. The upper
line shows the functionality of the instrument (functional identifier), while the lower line shows
the loop number (loop identifier).
7
8
Line Symbols:
Instrument Supply: pipe through which material flow. Ex, steam, raw material, final product.
Connection to Process: the instrument is directly connected to the process. Ex, a meter inserted
into a pipe, or an instrument measures the material and display a reading.
Pneumatic Signal: pressured air ranging from 3 to 15 psi is sent through a tube.
Electrical Signal: the value of a variable is transmitted between two instruments.
Hydraulic Signal: a hydraulic fluid which represents a signal is sent through a tube.
9
Capillary Tube: this tube carries a fluid that expands and contracts as the temperature to which it
is exposed changes. The expansion and contraction vary pressure that is converted to a proportional
electrical signal.
Software Link: These are signals sent between computers.
Electromagnetic or Sonic Signal: These are electromagnetic or sonic signals sent between
instruments.
Mechanical Connection: a physical connection between two instruments.
Line Number: it’s a unique number assigned to every line. Line number has five parts:
10
Pumps:
Pumps are devices used to move fluids and increase fluid pressure. Common pump symbols
include:
Tanks and Vessels:
Tanks and vessels store fluids, gases, or solids and are integral to many processes. Symbols
include:
11
• Storage Tanks: Typically represented by a simple cylinder or rectangular shape,
sometimes with a fixed roof or floating roof to indicate the type of storage.
• Reactors: Symbolized by a tank with additional features like agitators (shown as a small
circle with a line) to indicate mixing capabilities, used for chemical reactions.
• Columns: Shown as a vertical cylinder, often with internal lines to indicate trays or
packing, used for distillation or gas absorption processes.
• Drums: Similar to tanks but often smaller, used for temporary storage or separation of
liquids and solids, with symbols that might include additional details like outlets or weirs.
12
Heat exchangers:
Heat exchangers transfer heat between two or more fluids. Common types include:
- Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
- Plate Type Heat Exchanger
- Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger
13
14
15
16
17
Reading and Interpreting P&ID:
Example 1: Simple Temperature Control Loop:
In the P&ID, TW is a field mounted temperature sensor located inside a Thermowell (TW). The
signal from the sensor is transmitted via a field mounted temperature transmitter TT 101 to a
temperature indicator and controller TIC 101 located in the control room by electrical signals
(shown by dotted lines). Based on the set point in TIC 101, TIC 101 then sends an electrical
signal to TY 101 located in the field or plant. TY 101 is an I/P (I to P) converter, i.e. current to
pneumatic signal converter. This is because TY 101 receives an electrical signal from TIC 101
and then converts it to a pneumatic signal which then acts on the control valve shown in the
P&ID above. The control valve then opens or closes to increase or decrease water flow into the
heater exchanger.
18
Example 2: Another Temperature Control Loop
As shown in the P&ID, FT 501 is a field mounted flow transmitter connected via electrical signals
(dotted lines) to a flow indicator and controller, FIC 501 located in the control room and is a part
of a DCS. Please note that a square root extraction of the input signal is applied as part of the
functionality of FIC 501. This is because the flow is proportional to the square root of the
differential pressure being measured by the flow transmitter. To make flow proportional to
differential pressure, the square root has to be extracted.
The output of FIC 501 is an electrical signal to TY 501 (an I/P converter) mounted in the field.
The output of TY 501 is a pneumatic signal which acts on the control valve connected to it.
TT 501 and TIC 501 are respectively temperature transmitter and temperature indicator and
controller measuring, indicating and controlling temperature. The TIC 501 is located in the
control room. The output of TIC 501 is connected through an internal software or data link (lines
with bubbles) to the set point of FIC 501
19
20
Cascade Control
In single-loop control, the controller’s set point is set by an operator, and its output drives a final
control element. For example: a level controller driving a control valve to keep the level at its set
point.
In a cascade control arrangement, there are two (or more) controllers of which one controller’s
output drives the set point of another controller. For example: a level controller driving the set
point of a flow controller to keep the level at its set point. The flow controller, in turn, drives a
control valve to match the flow with the set point the level controller is requesting.
21
Cascade control can improve control system performance over single-loop control whenever
either:
(1) Disturbances affect a measurable intermediate or secondary process output that directly
affects the primary process output that we wish to control; or
(2) the gain of the secondary process, including the actuator, is nonlinear.
In the first case, a cascade control system can limit the effect of the disturbances entering the
secondary variable on the primary output. In the second case, a cascade control system can limit
the effect of actuator or secondary process gain variations on the control system performance. Such
gain variations usually arise from changes in operating point due to setpoint changes or sustained
disturbances.
When Should Cascade Control be Used?
Cascade control should always be used if you have a process with relatively slow dynamics (like
level, temperature, composition, humidity) and a liquid or gas flow, or some other relatively-fast
process, has to be manipulated to control the slow process. For example: changing cooling water
flow rate to control condenser pressure (vacuum), or changing steam flow rate to control heat
exchanger outlet temperature. In both cases, flow control loops should be used as inner loops in
cascade arrangements.
Does Cascade Control Have any Disadvantages?
Cascade control has three disadvantages. One, it requires an additional measurement (usually flow
rate) to work. Two, there is an additional controller that has to be tuned. And three, the control
strategy is more complex – for engineers and operators alike. These disadvantages have to be
weighed up against the benefits of the expected improvement in control to decide if cascade control
should be implemented.
22
When Should Cascade Control Not be Used?
Cascade control is beneficial only if the dynamics of the inner loop are fast compared to those of
the outer loop. Cascade control should generally not be used if the inner loop is not at least three
times faster than the outer loop, because the improved performance may not justify the added
complexity.
In addition to the diminished benefits of cascade control when the inner loop is not significantly
faster than the outer loop, there is also a risk of interaction between the two loops that could
result in instability – especially if the inner loop is tuned very aggressively.
How Should Cascade Controls be Tuned?
A cascade arrangement should be tuned starting with the innermost loop. Once that one is tuned,
it is placed in cascade control, or external set point mode, and then the loop driving its set point
is tuned.
Deriving Equations of Cascade Control System
23
24
Example (Cascade Control of a Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR), Journal of
Applied and Industrial Sciences, 2013): Given the cascade system below, design the
controllers of the inner and the outer loops.
Please see the following link to know more about Block Diagram Reduction:
[Link]
25
The open-loop transfer function of the secondary control loop is:
0.2𝐾𝑐2
𝑂𝐿𝑇𝐹 =
0.1𝑠 + 1
The open-loop transfer function of the primary control loop when 𝐾𝑐2 = 120 is:
60𝐾𝑐1
𝑂𝐿𝑇𝐹 =
(0.5𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 1)(0.1𝑠 + 25)
The characteristic equation of the primary control loop is:
0.05𝑠 3 + 12.65𝑠 2 + 37.6𝑠 + 25 + 60𝐾𝑐1 = 0
Ultimate gains results:
Two cases appear when determining the ultimate gain of the secondary loop (𝐾𝑐2,𝑢 ). If the loop is
unstable, the value of 𝐾𝑐2,𝑢 can be found directly, tuned with Z-N method and used to calculate
𝐾𝑐1,𝑢 . If there is no crossover frequency for the secondary control loop (system is unconditionally
stable), therefore large values for the gain 𝐾𝑐2 can be used, which produces a very fast closed-loop
26
response, to compensate for any change in the disturbance 𝑑2 arising within the secondary process.
Once the value of 𝐾𝑐2 has been selected, the crossover frequency for the overall open-loop transfer
function can be calculated. Then, the value of the primary controller gain 𝐾𝑐1 can be selected using
Z-N method. Here, the secondary control loop was unconditionally stable, hence 𝐾𝑐2 = 120 is
taken to calculate 𝐾𝑐1,𝑢 .
27
28
Tuning using Z-N method:
𝐾𝑐1,𝑢 = 159.8
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑃𝑢 = = = 0.2278
𝑤𝑐𝑜 27.56
𝐾𝑐1 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑑
P-Controller 79.9 - -
PI Controller 71.9 0.189 -
PID Controller 95.88 0.1139 0.028
𝐺𝑐2 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑐2 = 120
1 1
𝐺𝑐1 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑐1 (1+ ) = 71.9 ∗ (1+ )
𝑇𝑖 𝑠 0.189𝑠
29
Feedforward Control:
A feedforward control system improves system performance by taking pre-emptive action based
on known or anticipated disturbances rather than reacting to the system's output.
A feedforward control system requires accurate models of the system and disturbances, which can
be challenging to develop and may also be ineffective when dealing with unmodeled or
unpredictable disturbances.
By pre-emptively adjusting the input to counteract anticipated disturbances, a feedforward
controller boosts the system's overall accuracy, stability, and response time, making it a valuable
tool in various industrial applications, such as manufacturing, robotics, and process control.
Feedforward control is a strategy to reject persistent disturbances that cannot adequately be
rejected with feedback control. Feedforward control is typically added to feedback control and is
not usually implemented alone. In certain situations, the performance of control systems can be
enhanced greatly by the application of feedforward control. Two key characteristics are needed:
30
How to manipulate U(s) to cancel the effect that D(s) will have on Y(s)?
An identifiable disturbance is affecting significantly the measured variable, in spite of the
attempts of a feedback control system to regulate these effects. This disturbance can be
measured, perhaps with the addition of instrumentation.
The algebraic equation for the block diagram is given as:
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝑈(𝑠) + 𝐺𝑑 (𝑠)𝐷(𝑠)
If Y(s) is to be unaffected by D(s), then we want Y(s) = 0. Thus,
𝐺𝑑 (𝑠)
𝑈(𝑠) = − 𝐷(𝑠)
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)
An ideal feedforward controller is the negative ratio of the disturbance transfer function divided
by the process transfer function.
𝐺𝑑 (𝑠)
𝐺𝑓𝑓 (𝑠) = −
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)
31
Feedforward Controller Design Based on Dynamic Models:
In this section, we consider the design of feedforward control systems based on dynamic process
models. Consider the block diagram shown below.
A block diagram of a feedforward-feedback control system.
The closed-loop transfer function for disturbance changes is:
Ideally, we would like the control system to produce perfect control where the controlled variable
remains exactly at the set point despite arbitrary changes in the disturbance variable, D. Thus, if
the set point is constant (Ysp(s) = 0), we want Y(s) = 0 despite of the value of D(s).
The last figure indicates that a disturbance has two effects. It upsets the process via the disturbance
transfer function, Gd; however, a corrective action is generated via the path through GtGfGvGp.
Example 1:
32
Suppose that:
Then, the ideal feedforward controller is:
This controller is a lead-lag unit with a gain given by Kf = -Kd/KtKvKp.
Example 2:
Now consider,
From eq(2), we then have:
Because the term 𝑒 +𝜃𝑠 is a negative time delay, implying a predictive element, the ideal
feedforward controller in eq (6) is physically unrealizable. However, we can approximate it by
omitting the term 𝑒 +𝜃𝑠 and increasing the value of the lead time constant from 𝜏𝑝 to 𝜏𝑝 + 𝜃.
Example 3:
Finally, if
Then, the ideal feedforward controller is:
33
is physically unrealizable because the numerator is a higher order polynomial in s than the
denominator. Again, we could approximate this controller by a physically realizable one such as a
lead-lag unit, where the lead time constant is the sum of the two time constants 𝜏𝑝1 + 𝜏𝑝2 .
Stability Considerations
• To analyze the stability of the closed-loop system shown in the previous figure, we consider the
closed-loop transfer function in Eq. (1).
• Setting the denominator equal to zero gives the characteristic equation,
• The roots of the characteristic equation completely determine the stability of the closed-loop
system.
• Because Gf does not appear in the characteristic equation, the feedforward controller has no
effect on the stability of the feedback control system.
• This is a desirable situation that allows the feedback and feedforward controllers to be tuned
individually.
Lead-Lag Units
• The three examples in the previous section have demonstrated that lead-lag units can provide
reasonable approximations to ideal feedforward controllers.
• Thus, if the feedforward controller consists of a lead-lag unit with gain Kf, we can write
34
The following figure shows how find the value of Kp and Kd from the open loop responses to
step changes in u and d.
Tuning Feedforward Controllers
Feedforward controllers, like feedback controllers, usually require tuning after installation in a
plant.
Step 1. Adjust Kf.
• The effort required to tune a controller is greatly reduced if good initial estimates of the controller
parameters are available.
• An initial estimate of Kf can be obtained from a steady-state model of the process or steady-state
data.
• For example, suppose that the open-loop responses to step changes in d and u are available, as
shown in the previous figure.
• After Kp and Kd have been determined, the feedforward controller gain can be calculated from
the steady-state version of Eq. (3).
35
To tune the controller gain, Kf is set equal to an initial value, and a small step change (3 to 5%)
in the disturbance variable d is introduced, if this is feasible.
• If an offset results, then Kf is adjusted until the offset is eliminated.
• While Kf is being tuned, 𝜏1 and 𝜏2 should be set equal to their minimum values, ideally zero.
Step 2. Determine initial values for 𝝉𝟏 and 𝝉𝟐
• Theoretical values for 𝜏1 and 𝜏2 can be calculated if a dynamic model of the process is available,
as shown in Example 1.
• Alternatively, initial estimates can be determined from open loop response data.
• For example, if the step responses have the shapes shown in the previous figure, a reasonable
process model is
Where 𝜏1 and 𝜏2 can be calculated as shown in the previous figure.
A comparison of Eqs. (4) and (10) leads to the following expression for 𝜏1 and 𝜏2
These values can then be used as initial estimates for the fine tuning of 𝜏1 and 𝜏2 in Step 3.
𝜏1 𝜏1
• If neither a process model nor experimental data are available, the relations = 2 or = 0.5
𝜏2 𝜏2
may be used.
Step 3. Fine tune 𝝉𝟏 and 𝝉𝟐
• The final step is to use a trial-and-error procedure to fine tune 𝜏1 and 𝜏2 by making small step
changes in d.
• The desired step response consists of small deviations in the controlled variable with equal areas
above and below the set point [1], as shown in the following figure.
36
37