Module-5, Modern Tools and geophysical methods

Hydrogeology
Hydrogeology is the science that deals with subsurface water (groundwater) and related geological
aspects of surface water. All the water occurring beneath the surface is called groundwater. It has been
estimated that the volume of water in the upper 0.8 km of the continental crust is nearly 20 times more
than the combined volume of water in all lakes and rivers. The chief source of groundwater is the
downward percolation of the rain water (meteoric water) some groundwater may also be derived from
juvenile and connate water. The juvenile water is the term used for magmatic water while connate water is
that water which was entrapped in the sedimentary rocks during their deposition.

Hydrological cycle
The water cycle is all about storing water and moving water on, in, and above the Earth.

The water
cycle has no
starting point.
But, we'll
begin in the
oceans, since
that is where
most of
Earth's water
exists. The
sun, which
drives the
water cycle,
heats water in
the oceans.
Some of it
evaporates as
vapor into the
air. Ice and
snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere,
along with water from evapotranspiration, which is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the
soil. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents
move clouds around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some
precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for
thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer climates often thaw and melt when spring arrives, and the
melted water flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land,
where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters
rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff, and
ground-water seepage, accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers,
though. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and
replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods
of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and
the ocean) as ground-water discharge, and some ground water finds openings in the land surface and
emerges as freshwater springs. Over time, though, all of this water keeps moving, some to reenter the
ocean, where the water cycle "ends" or where it "begins."

Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor. Evaporation is the
primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water
vapor. Studies have shown that the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers provide nearly 90 percent of the
moisture in our atmosphere via evaporation, with the remaining 10 percent being contributed by plant
transpiration.

Sublimation is most often used to describe the process of snow and ice changing into water vapor
without first melting into water. Sublimation occurs more readily when certain weather conditions are
present, such as low relative humidity and dry winds. It also occurs more at higher altitudes, where the air
pressure is less than at lower altitudes.

Evapotranspiration is defined as the water lost to the atmosphere from the ground surface and the
transpiration of groundwater by plants through their leaves.
Transpiration: The release of water from plant leaves. Transpiration is the process by which moisture is
carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and
is released to the atmosphere. It is estimated that about 10 percent of the moisture found in the atmosphere
is released by plants through transpiration.

Condensation is the process in which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water. Condensation is
crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the formation of clouds. These clouds may produce
precipitation, which is the primary route for water to return to the Earth's surface within the water cycle.
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation.

Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the
primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth.
Most precipitation falls as rain.

5.1 Rocks as aquifers:

Aquifer: Aquifer is derived from the Latin term meaning water bearer. An aquifer is a large body of
permeable material where groundwater is present in the saturated zone. It is a geologic formation that is
water bearing or saturated with water and is capable of yielding sufficient quantity of water for
exploitation. Aquifer serves as a transmission conduit from storage reservoir. It transports water from
recharge area to surface bodies of water and other collecting devices. Good aquifers are those with high
permeability such as poorly cemented sands, gravels, and sandstones or highly fractured rock.
Large aquifers can be excellent sources of water for human usage Aquifers can be of two types:
 Ground

Perched Water

Impervious layer

Fig.2.2, Shows types of aquifers

Confined aquifer: If the water within an aquifer is confined i.e., held under pressure by an overlying
impervious strata, the aquifer is known as confined aquifer.
Unconfined aquifer: If the aquifer is exposed to atmosphere or possesses a free surface, it is termed as
unconfined aquifer. The term watertable condition or a phreatic aquifer is also frequently applied to
denote an unconfined aquifer.
Perched aquifer: A special case of an unconfined aquifer is the perched aquifer that occurs whenever an
impervious (or relatively impervious) layer of limited horizontal area is located between the water table of
a phreatic aquifer and the ground surface.
Aquitard: An aquitard is a zone within the earth that restrict the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to
another. A completely impermeable aquitard is called an aquiclude or aquifuge. Aquitard comprises
layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity.
Aquifuge: A mask of rock matrix, which neither transmits nor stores water in significant quantity, is
called an aquifuge.
Aquiclude: If an aquifer is overlaid by a confined bed of impervious material, then this confined bed of
overburden is known as aquiclude.

Aquifer Parameters
The principal hydrologic properties of rocks are porosity, effective porosity or specific yield, specific
retention, permeability and direction of maximum ease of percolation. These properties control the
entrance of water into water bearing formations or rocks. Hydrologic properties depend chiefly on
porosity, size of openings or interstices and their shape, arrangement, interconnection and continuity.
Porosity and permeability:
The rate of groundwater flow is controlled by two properties of the rock: porosity and permeability.

Porosity is the percentage of the volume of the rock that is open space (pore space). This determines the
amount of water that a rock can contain. In sediments or sedimentary rocks the porosity depends on grain
size, the shapes of the grains, and the degree of sorting, and the degree of cementation. Well-rounded
coarse-grained sediments usually have higher porosity than fine-grained sediments, because the grains do
not fit together well.
Poorly sorted sediments usually have lower porosity because the fine-grained fragments tend to fill in the
open space.
Since cements tend to fill in the pore space, highly cemented sedimentary rocks have lower porosity.
In igneous and metamorphic rocks porosity is usually low because the minerals tend to be intergrown,
leaving little free space. Highly fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks, however, could have high
porosity

Permeability is a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces are interconnected, and the size of the
interconnections. Low porosity usually results in low permeability, but high porosity does not necessarily
imply high permeability. It is possible to have a highly porous rock with little or no interconnections
between pores. A good example of a rock with high
porosity and low permeability is a vesicular volcanic
rock, where the bubbles that once contained gas give
the rock a high porosity, but since these holes are not
connected to one another the rock has low
permeability.
A thin layer of water will always be attracted to
mineral grains due to the unsatisfied ionic charge on
the surface. This is called the force of molecular
attraction. If the size of interconnections is not as large as the zone of molecular attraction, the water can't
move. Thus, coarse-grained rocks are usually more permeable than fine-grained rocks, and sands are more
permeable than clays.

Specific yield (effective porosity): Measures water moved by gravity. It increases with size of grains and
sorting. It may be defined as the ratio expressed as a percentage of the volume of the water, which after
being saturated can be drained by gravity to its own volume.
Sy =100Wy/V
Where, Wy = Volume of water drained
V = gms. Volume of water of rock or soil

Specific retention: Measuring field capacity or content of particular water. It decreases with increase in
size of grains & assortment. It may be defined as a percentage of the volume of water, it will retain after
saturation against the forces of gravity to its own volume.
Sr= 100Wr/V
Where, Wr=the volume occupied by retained water
V=gm volume occupied by the rock or soil

Values of specific yield depend on grain size, shape and distribution of pores, compaction of the stratum,
and time of drainage. It should be noted that fine grained materials yield little water, whereas coarse-
grained materials permit a substantial release of water and hence serve as aquifers.
Transmissibility: The rate at which water of a prevailing density and viscosity is transmitted through a
unit width of an aquifer or confining bed under a unit hydraulic gradient. It is a function of properties of
the liquid, the porous material, and the thickness of the porous material.

Storage coefficient: Every aquifer whether under the water table or in a confined condition has the
capacity to store water which is expressed as a coefficient. The storage coefficient (or storativity) is
defined as the volume of water that an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface are of
aquifer per unit change in the component of head normal to that Wat surface.
Storage coefficients can best be determined from pumping tests of er wells or
Air
groundwater fluctuations in response to atmospheric pressure or Soil ocean
tide variations. Parti

5.2 Water bearing properties igneous, sedimentary

The subsurface occurrence of groundwater may be divided into zone of aeration and saturation separated
by the water table. On most of the land masses of the earth, a single zone of aeration overlies a single
zone of saturation and extends upward to the ground surface, as shown in the figure. The water table is
generally considered to be the lower surface of zone of suspended water and the upper boundary of the
zone of saturation. The water table may be defined as the contact plane between free ground water and the
capillary fringe. Water table fluctuates with weather conditions and its form varies with the topography of
the region. The water of saturated zone is usually denoted as groundwater or phreatic water.

Zone of aeration or zone of suspended water:

The zone of aeration consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially by air. This zone is
divided into three sub zones:

Soil water zone: The belt of soil water which constitutes the upper portion of the zone of aeration is
limited to the surface layer penetrated by roots. Its thickness varies with soil type and vegetation. The belt
of soil water is the great reservoir of available root moisture upon which plant life depends. Water in the
soil water zone exists at less than saturation except temporarily when excessive water reaches the ground
surface as from rainfall or irrigation. The water of the zone of aeration includes stored water occurs as
attached films on the surface of openings and as wedge shaped bodies at the junctions between interstices.
The water here occurs in thin films of moisture known as hygroscopic water which is remained adsorbed
on the fine grained soil particles. Temporarily the soil water zone may contain water in excess of capillary
water from rainfall or irrigation; this gravitational water drains through the soil under the influence of
gravity.
Intermediate Vadose Zone: This zone extends from the lower edge of the soil-water zone to the upper
limit of the capillary zone (figure). The thickness may vary from zero, where the bounding zones merge
with a high water table approaching ground surface, to more than 100 m under deep water table
conditions. The stored water above the capillary fringe is called „pellicular water‟ (pellicular word is
derived from latin, Pelliula meaning skin). The excess water is free to travel downward towards the water
table is referred to as gravity water or vadose water. Water moves freely under the control of gravity only
after the grains or rock surfaces have been coated with pellicular water.

Capillary zone: The capillary zone (or capillary fringe) extends from the water table up to the limit of
capillary rise of water. The water of the fringe is held above the water table by capillarity, which is
defined as the property of tubes with hairline openings when immersed in water to raise and hold water
above the static level of the water in which they are immersed. This water may be denoted as „capillary
water or fringe water‟. The capillary zone will vary inversely with the pore size of a soil or rock. Just
above the water table almost all pores contain capillary water; higher, only the smaller connected pores
contain water; and still higher, only the few smallest connected pores contain water lifted above the water
table.
The capillary fringe is from a fraction of an inch to 10 ft thick depending upon the size of the interstices
and texture of the material just above the water table. The limit of capillary lift varies inversely with the
diameter of the capillary openings Capillary movement is relatively rapid in the larger capillary openings
of small lift (1 to 3 ft), and slow in smaller tubes with higher lift (up to 10 ft).
Ground Surface
Vadose zone
Suspended water or

Soil water zone Soil water

Perched water
Zone of aeration

Intermediate (Pellicular and

vadose zone gravitational water)
Capillary water

Capillary zone
Water table
phreatic water
Groundwater
Zone of saturation

Free water

Groundwater
or

Fig.2.3 Shows subsurface distribution of ground water in a various formation

Zone of saturation: In the zone of saturation all the interstices/openings are filled with water under
hydrostatic pressure. Hence, the porosity provides direct measure of the water contained per unit volume.
It is from this zone that water is available for the development of satisfactory water supply system.
If water moves through an interconnected body of pervious material unhampered by impervious confining
material, it may be denoted „free groundwater‟ which moves under the control of the slope of the water
table.
Confined water moves in strata, conduits or veins under the control of the difference in head between the
intake and discharge areas of the confined water body. Fixed groundwater is held in small openings which
resist water movement under the usual hydraulic gradient existing underground.

5.3 Electrical Resistivity meter

A resistivity meter is an electronic device used to measure the flow of electric current through the ground
from probes inserted at regular intervals. Resistivity is defined as the amount of resistance to current flow,
therefore the device can determine different soil compositions based on the readings. These meters are
used for soil surveys, locating ground water, and even surveying for underground structures.

Principle
The electrical resistivity method is an active geophysical technique. It employs an artificial source which
is introduced into the ground though a pair of electrodes. The procedure involves measurement of
potential difference between other two electrodes in the vicinity of current flow. Apparent resistivity is
calculated by using the potential difference for the interpretation. These electrodes by which current is
introduced into the ground are called Current electrodes and electrodes between which the potential
difference is measured are called Potential electrodes.

Applications
1) Ground Water Exploration
2) Bed rock Investigation
3) Delineation of Geological Structures
4) Sand and Gravel Deposit Identification
5) Mineral Investigations

The electrical resistivity imaging technique is widely used to distinguish the different resistivity values
within the subsurface in landfill investigations, Hydrogeological, geological, geotechnical and downhole
logging investigations. The basic principle involves injecting a direct current (I) into the ground using a
voltmeter and current electrodes, as this current travels through the subsurface it is resisted and conducted
by the subsurface material, as electrical potential which is received by the corresponding potential
electrodes at the surface. The resistance is calculated using Ohms law:
“The current that flows in a conductive mass is directly related to the voltage passing through it”: Ohms
Law: V=I/R (i.e. Resistance = Voltage / Current)
In other words, the resistance across a cross sectional area is inversely proportional to its length, measured
in Ohm meters (Ω m). To obtain the true resistivity (i.e. not a singular reading), the apparent resistivity
must be calculated (i.e. pa=πaR). This is defined as the resistance, which is calculated at a distance from a
point electrode at a uniform half space, in homogeneous ground. Conversely, the conductivity can also be
measured as this is the reciprocal of resistivity (1/p), measured in siemens (S/m).

1. Electrical Resistivity Method:

Electrical resistivity methods, electromagnetic methods, self-potential methods and induced polarization
methods are the important categories of electrical methods. All geological formations have a property
called electrical resistivity (ƿ) and
this resistivity is expressed in the
units of Ohm-meters (Ωm). The
electrical resistivities of subsurface
formations vary from one another if
they are inhomogeneous and are
studied with the help of the
electrical resistivity methods.
Fig 4.6 Shows Resistivity meter

1. The various geological factors which influence the electrical resistivity of the subsurface formations
are: Mineral content (most of the rock forming minerals have high resistivity except sulphide
minerals)
2. Compactness
3. Moisture (moisture may occur in the rocks)
4. Salinity of moisture.
5. Texture of the rock (fine grained rocks show a higher resistivity compared to coarse grained ones)

Resistivity methods are classified into:

1. Profiling Method (Lateral exploration)
2. Sounding method (Vertical Electrical Sounding[VES])
3. Potential Method

Fig 4.7 shows arrangement of registivity meter

Profiling is done to detect lateral changes in resistivity which reflects the subsurface lithology in a
large area whereas sounding (also known as Vertical Electrical Sounding VES) is done to determine
vertical changes in resistivity which reveals the changes in Lithology at a particular place with
increasing depth.
In profiling or sounding, there is scope for electrode arrangements to be made in different ways in the
field as such arrangements are called “electrode configurations”. Profiling method is carried out by
adopting the Wenner configuration.

The Wenner configuration: This method was developed by Wenner in 1915. In this configuration, the
outer electrodes, C1 and C2 are used to send current into the ground and the inner electrodes, P1 and P2
are used to measure the potential. The important feature of this setup is that the distance between any two
successive electrodes is equal. The apparent resistivity measured in the Wenner method is given by
Pa = 2πa (V/I)
Where, a = Electrode separation
v = Potential difference measured
I = Current sent into the ground
Pa = apparent resistance (ohm-mts )

In this system, all four electrodes are shifted and moved simultaneously for each reading starting with
small separation of one to two meters and expanding upto hundreds of meters.

The Schlumberger Configuration: This method was developed by Schlumberger in 1916. In this
method, potential electrodes P1 and P2 are kept at smaller side compared to the current electrodes C1 and
C2 for a set of readings. At some stage C1 C2 sepera In general, the the distance between the current
electrodes is equal or more than five times the distance between the potential electrodes. The apparent
resistivity measured in the Schlumberger configuration is given by
Pa= (L2/2l)* (V/I)
Where, 2L=distance between current electrode
2l = distance between the two Potential electrodes
V = Potential difference
I = Current sent into the ground
Pa = apparent resistance (ohm-mts)

Fig 4.8
Shows Wenner
Configuration
In this
arrangement,
the potential
2 electrodes are
2L kept at constant
separation for a
set of readings when only current electrodes are moved. The potential electrodes are move for another set
of readings for another set of current electrodes expansion.
In both the systems, all the four electrodes are kept in a straight line.
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES): In this method, a number of „pa (resistance)‟ values are measured
at the same place by increasing the distances between the current electrodes each time after
taking the reading. The successive increasing in distance makes the current penetrate more and
more deeply. Generally, the depth of penetration of the current (ie depth) is about 1/3rd of the
distance between the current electrodes. The essential idea behind VES is assuming conductivity/
resistivity varies with depth. The apparent resistivity can be determined with help of Wenner
configuration or Schlumberger configuration.

Battery Resistivity Meter

Electrodes

Fig 4.9 Shows Vertical electrical Sounding (VES)

The values are plotted on log–log sheet by plotting the electrode separation (station/distance) on x-axis
and true resistivity values (ohm-mts) on y-axis. The obtained curve is to be matched with master curves.
There are two approaches in these regard- one is qualitative and the other is quantitative which may be get
by the interpretation of VES data. The qualitative interpretation helps in understanding general subsurface
information about geological structure of the area and to learn about geoelectrical action changes. The
quantitative interpretation helps in knowing the lithological variations and thickness of the subsurface
layers.
In this method four types of master curves are interpreted depending upon the resistivity variation with
depth (ie. A, Q, H and K type):
A-type Q-type
Pa Pa (High-Low-Low)

(High-High-High)

Depth Depth
K-type
Pa Pa H-type
(Low-High-Low) (High-Low-High)

Depth Depth
Above curves indicate the variation of resistivity (Pa) with depth. By this graph we easily get to know the
different types of layers and also we can measure the thickness of those layers. Type A and Q show fairly
uniform change in resistivity, the first increasing and the second decreasing with depth. Type H and K
have a definite minimum and maximum, indicating a bed or beds of anomalously low or high resistivity,
respectively. It generally possible to tell from the shape of the adjacent parts of the profile which layers
corresponds to the maximum or minimum on the second two curves.
Although, in general, the characteristic sounding curves illustrated in above graphs represent multiple
layers in their crudest from they may be considered to be for two beds over a basement. Increase in
resistivity indicates the presence of weathered rock formation, high fractured, jointed or high moisture
content rocks and vise versa.

5.4 Depth of water table

The most reliable method of obtaining the depth to the water table at any given time is to measure the
water level in a shallow well with a tape. If no wells are available, surface geophysical methods can
sometimes be used, depending on surface accessibility for placing electric or acoustic probes.

The water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. The zone of saturation is where the pores
and fractures of the ground are saturated with water. It can also be simply explained as the depth below
which the ground is saturated.
The water table is the surface where the
water pressure head is equal to the atmospheric
pressure (where gauge pressure = 0). It may be
visualized as the "surface" of the subsurface
materials that are saturated with groundwater in
given vicinity.
Figure Shows depth of water table

The groundwater may be from precipitation or

from groundwater flowing into the aquifer. In areas with sufficient precipitation, water infiltrates through
pore spaces in the soil, passing through the unsaturated zone. At increasing depths, water fills in more of
the pore spaces in the soils, until a zone of saturation is reached. Below the water table, in the phreatic
zone (zone of saturation), layers of permeable rock that yield groundwater are called aquifers. In less
permeable soils, such as tight bedrock formations and historic lakebed deposits, the water table may be
more difficult to define.
Groundwater provides about 33% of total water withdrawals worldwide; this fulfils about 35% of the
global drinking water demand and about 40% of irrigation water in agricultural areas. However, continued
groundwater abstraction can decrease the storage and threaten ecosystems and communities that depend
on below-surface water, especially in arid and semiarid regions.

Water table depth determination

The depth to the water table is a useful measure when planning manure applications. If water is near
(within 60 cm/2 feet of) the surface, the risk associated with runoff or infiltration into the water table is
great. If you have tile lines in your field, this is typically the depth they are at and can therefore transfer
ill-applied manure to surface outlets. Always determine water table depth before manure applications,
particularly during times of the year (October-May) when water tables are active and near the surface.
The water table depth can be determined by either using natural features or by digging a representative
hole with a shovel or an auger. When digging a test hole, make sure that the area and elevation of the hole
is representative of the entire field and is not over a tile line. Dig until water starts entering the hole, or to
a maximum depth of 120 cm (4 feet). Allow the hole to settle and observe if water fills the hole within 1
hour. The level that water enters and fills the hole is the water table level. Make note of this depth.
Multiple holes may be dug for greater accuracy. Fill the hole back in with the same soil immediately after
use. If this is not done, the hole can become a direct conduit to groundwater pollution.
Instead of digging a hole, you may use a nearby ditch or other natural feature that is representative of the
water table. Installation of a depth gauge can help with quick and accurate depth determination. Any
natural feature should be verified with a second method prior to consistent use as a measure of water table
depth.
General patterns in water table depths can be identified. At the global scale, sea level is the main control
of groundwater depth. Throughout the entire coastal ribbon shallow groundwater tables occur. These
areas expand where flat coastal plains meet the sea, including major river basins such as the Mississippi,
the Indus and large wetlands. At the regional scale, recharge is the main control in combination with scale
topography. For regions with high groundwater recharge rates, shallow groundwater tables are simulated,
for example the tropical swamps of the Amazon. The influence of the regional topography is also evident
in the central Amazon and for the flat lowlands of South America as these regions receive water from
elevated areas. Regions with low recharge rates correspond with deep groundwater where groundwater
head gets disconnected from the local topography. The great deserts stand out (hyper-arid regions dotted
in Figure). Also for the mountain ranges of the world deep groundwater tables are simulated.
As stated before, small local valleys with higher local groundwater tables are not captured by the model
due to the used grid resolution. The mountainous regions where local and perched water tables are likely
to occur are masked in the figure with a semi-transparent layer.

5.5 Seismic Study

This method involves the creation of small shocks at the earth‟s surface either by the impacting of a heavy
instrument or by a small explosive. Change and measuring the time required for the resulting sound or
shock wave to travel known distances. Seismic reflection methods provide information of geologic
structure thousands of meters below the surface, whereas seismic refraction methods of interest in
groundwater studies go only about hundred meters deep. Seismic waves depend on the media through
which it is passing velocities are greatest in solid igneous rocks and least in unconsolidated materials.
Characteristic seismic velocities for a variety of geological materials are employed to identify the nature
of alluvium or bedrock. In coarse alluvial materials, seismic velocity increases from unsaturated to
saturated zones. Consequently the depth of water table can be mapped. Changes in seismic velocities are
governed by changes in elastic properties of the formations. In sedimentary rock the texture and geologic
history are more important than the mineral composition. Porosity tends to decrease more velocity, but
water content increases it.
A More Realistic Model of the Earth’s Interior
Most of our knowledge of how the Earth is layered comes
from studies of how earthquake vibrations (seismic waves)
travel through the Earth‟s interior. Any abrupt change in the
composition and density of the Earth with depth causes
seismic waves to be reflected and refracted. By measuring the
time it takes different sets of waves to travel from the surface,
to the boundary between two layers, and back to the surface
again, the depth to the boundary can be calculated. From
studies of seismic waves we know that the Earth has three
compositionally distinct layers – a thin crust, a thick mantle,
and a thick core. Furthermore, we know that the depth to the
core-mantle boundary is about 2900 kilometers, almost
halfway to the center of the Earth.
The density values measured at the Earth‟s surface without the
increase in density caused by lithostatic loading, so it is
unlikely that the Earth‟s core is composed of mercury or solid gold. The iron and nickel have densities of
7.9 g/cm3 and 8.6 g/cm3, respectively at the Earth‟s surface and it can expect their densities to increase
under lithostatic load. In fact, under pressures calculated to exist in the Earth‟s core, the density of iron
would range from 10.0 g/cm3 near the core-mantle boundary to as high as 13.0 g/cm3 at the center of the
core. The average density of iron at core pressures works out to 11.5 g/cm3, which is very close to
predicted value based on the volume of the core and the densities of the mantle and whole Earth.

Table.4.1 Density (gm/cm3) of selected metals, rocks, minerals, and meteorites.

Metals Density Rocks Density Minerals Density Meteorites Density

Gold 19.3
Mercury 13.6
Nickel 8.6 Iron 6.9
Iron 7.9 Olivine 3.4 Stony Iron 4.9
Peridotite 3.3 Hornblende 3.2 Chondrite 3.3
Basalt 2.9
Alluminium 2.7 Granite 2.7 Calcite 2.7
Limestone 2.7 Quartz 2.7
Mudstone 2.6 Feldspar 2.65

Seismic refraction methods

Seismic methods are based on measurements of the time interval between initiation of a seismic (elastic)
wave and its arrival at detectors. The seismic wave may be generated by an explosion, a dropped weight,
a mechanical vibrator, a bubble of high-pressure air injected into water, or other sources. The seismic
wave is detected by a Geophone on land or by a hydrophone in water. An electromagnetic Geophone
generates a voltage when a seismic wave produces relative motion of a wire coil in the field of a magnet,
whereas a ceramic hydrophone generates a voltage when deformed by passage of a seismic
wave. Data are usually recorded on magnetic tape for subsequent processing and display.
Seismic energy travels from source to detector by many paths. When near the source, the initial seismic
energy generally travels by the shortest path, but as source– Geophone distances become greater, seismic
waves travelling by longer paths through rocks of higher seismic velocity may arrive earlier. Such waves
are called head waves, and the refraction method involves their interpretation. From a plot of travel time
as a function of source–Geophone distance, the number, thicknesses, and velocities of rock layers present
can be determined for simple situations. The assumptions usually made are that
(1) each layer is homogeneous and isotropic (i.e., has the same velocity in all directions);
(2) the boundaries (interfaces) between layers are nearly planar; and
(3) In practice, the seismic reflection method is much more complicated.
Reflections from most of the many interfaces within the Earth are very weak and so do not stand out
against background noise. The reflections from closely spaced interfaces interfere with each other.
Reflections from interfaces with different dips, seismic waves that bounce repeatedly between interfaces
(“multiples”), converted waves, and waves travelling by other modes interfere with desired reflections.
Also, velocity irregularities bend seismic rays in ways that are sometimes complicated.
The objective of most seismic work is to map geologic structure by determining the arrival time of
reflectors. Changes in the amplitude and waveshape, however, contain information about stratigraphic
changes and occasionally hydrocarbon accumulations. In some cases, seismic patterns can be identified
with depositional systems, unconformities, channels, and other features.
The seismic reflection method usually gives better resolution (i.e., makes it possible to see smaller
features) than other methods, with the exception of measurements made in close proximity, as with
borehole logs (see below). Appreciably more funds are expended on seismic reflection work than on all
other geophysical methods combined.
Each successive layer has higher velocity than the one above. The velocity values determined from time–
distance plots depend also on the dip (slope) of interfaces, apparent velocities increasing when the
Geophones are updip from the source and decreasing when downdip. By measuring in both directions the
dip and rock velocity, each can be determined. With sufficient measurements, relief on the interfaces
separating the layers also can be ascertained.
High-velocity bodies of local extent can be located by fan shooting. Travel times are measured along
different azimuths from a source, and an abnormally early arrival time indicates that a high-velocity body
was encountered at that azimuth. This method has been used to detect salt domes, reefs, and intrusive
bodies that are characterized by higher seismic velocity than the surrounding rock.
Two types of seismic waves can travel through a body: P waves (primary) and S waves
(secondary). P waves are compressional waves and travel at the highest velocity; hence, they arrive
first. S waves are shear waves that travel at a slower rate and are not able to pass through liquids that do
not possess shear strength. In addition, there are several types of seismic waves that can travel along
surfaces. A major type of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, in which a particle moves in an elliptical
path in the vertical plane from the source. The horizontal component of Rayleigh waves is probably the
principal cause of damage from earthquakes. Love waves are another type of surface wave; they involve
shear motion. Still other varieties of surface waves can be transmitted through low-velocity layers
(channel waves) or along the surface of a borehole (tube waves). Under certain circumstances
(e.g., oblique incidence on an interface), waves can change from one mode to another.
Most of the current knowledge about the Earth‟s internal constitution is derived from analysis of the
time–distance curves from earthquakes. Earthquakes usually generate several wave modes. These refract
and reflect at interfaces within the Earth and partially change to other wave types to add to the number of
seismic waves resulting from an earthquake. Different wave types can sometimes be distinguished by
their components of motion detected by three-component seismographs; the direction from which they
come can be determined by using an array of seismographs at the receiving station or by combining the
data from different stations. The first wave motion from an earthquake reveals the nature of earth motion
involved in the earthquake.
Very shallow seismic refraction is extensively used in engineering studies. Sometimes the energy source
for shallow-penetration engineering studies involves simply hitting the ground with a sledgehammer. The
ease with which a rock can be ripped by a bulldozer relates to the rock‟s seismic velocity. S-wave velocity
measurements are of special interest to engineers because building stability depends on the shear strength
of the foundation rock or soil. Seismic waves may be used for various other purposes. They are employed,
for example, to detect faults that may disrupt a coal seam or fractures that may allow water penetration
into a tunnel.

Seismic reflection methods

Most seismic work utilizes reflection techniques. Sources and Geophones are essentially the same as
those used in refraction methods. The concept is similar to echo sounding: seismic waves are reflected at
interfaces where rock properties change and the round-trip travel time, together with velocity information,
gives the distance to the interface. The relief on the interface can be determined by mapping the reflection
at many locations. For simple situations the velocity can be determined from the change in arrival time as
source–Geophone distance changes.
In practice, the seismic reflection method is much more complicated. Reflections from most of the many
interfaces within the Earth are very weak and so do not stand out against background noise. The
reflections from closely spaced interfaces interfere with each other. Reflections from interfaces with
different dips, seismic waves that bounce repeatedly between interfaces (“multiples”), converted waves,
and waves travelling by other modes interfere with desired reflections. Also, velocity irregularities bend
seismic rays in ways that are sometimes complicated.
The objective of most seismic work is to map geologic structure by determining the arrival time of
reflectors. Changes in the amplitude and waveshape, however, contain information about stratigraphic
changes and occasionally hydrocarbon accumulations. In some cases, seismic patterns can be identified
with depositional systems, unconformities, channels, and other features.
The seismic reflection method usually gives better resolution (i.e., makes it possible to see smaller
features) than other methods, with the exception of measurements made in close proximity, as with
borehole logs (see below). Appreciably more funds are expended on seismic reflection work than on all
other geophysical methods combined.