MODULE-2: EARTH MATERILS IN CONSYTRUCTION

MINEROLOGY

It is the scientific study of minerals, their chemistry, crystal structure and physical properties.
The varieties of minerals were widely used in human’s daily life, building and industrial activities.

Mineral: Homogenous, solid, naturally occurring inorganic substances with definite chemical
composition and atomic structure. More than 5,300 minerals were observed on the earth’s surface; while
only 5230 number of minerals was approved by United State Geological Survey (USGS) in March- 2017.
These minerals may be divided into two groups such as rock forming minerals and ore forming minerals.
i. Rock forming minerals: Rock made up of aggregate of minerals which are abundance in the
earth crust.
ii. Ore forming minerals: High concentration of elements sufficient for economic extraction and
do not occurs abundantly in earth crust; but site specific.
Eg:- Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, Uranium, Iron, Manganese etc.

MINERAL PROPERTIES
Every mineral has as set of physical, chemical and optical properties that differs from one to other
minerals. It is an utmost important to study and identify these minerals in order to make an optimum
utilization in specified industrial and as building material uses.

1. Color: The passionate attraction of any object which can be seen with the naked eye only when the
light appears on it. It is the most important physical properties which occur due to impurities and
isomorphous variation.
e.g., Galena and pyrite are cubic in structure but galena shows lead grey; while pyrite shows brass yellow
color.

2. Streak: The color of fine powder scratched against a hard porcelain plate (Streak plate).
e.g., Minerals Color Streak color
i. Pyrite brass yellow dark green
ii. Magnetite black cherry red

3. Luster: The surface appearance of the mineral in the reflected light. The luster depends upon the
amount of reflection of the light strikes the surface.
e.g., i. Vitreous luster: broken glass like shine (quartz).
ii. Silky luster: silk like shine (Asbestos).
iii. Resinous luster: Greasy shine (Talc).
iv. Metallic luster: metal like shine (Hematite; galena)
v. Pearly luster: pearl like shine (Muscovite)
vi. Dull luster: No luster.
 4. Crystal System: The regular polyhedral form bounded by smooth surfaces due to intermolecular
forces. There are six groups of crystal systems for common practices.
a. Isometric/ Cubic b. Tetragonal c. Hexagonal
d. Orthorhombic e. Monoclinic f. Triclinic

5. Structure/ Habit: The arrangement of atoms within the mineral to form a specific structure.
a. Columnar structure: Arrangement of
minerals in the form of thin and thick columns. c. Bladed structure: Arrangement of minerals in
thin blade like parts.

e.g., Hornblende
e.g., Kyanite.

b. Fibrous structure: Arrangement of minerals

d. Granular structure: Arrangement of minerals
in thread/ hair like structures.
in numerous coarse and fine grains.

e.g., Asbestos.

e.g., Chromite.
e. Botryoidal structure: Minerals shows
aggregates of spheroidal mass resembling of
grapes.

e.g., Hematite.

f. Accicular structure: Arrangement of minerals

in thin sharp needle like structures.

e.g., Muscocite mica.

g. Radiating: This forms when needles are

arranged around a central point.

e.g., Iron pyrite.

h. Foliated: Minerals consists of thin separable

sheets.

e.g., Mica.
6. Specific gravity: The ratio of the mineral weight to an equal volume of water. The heavier and closely
spaced atoms will have high specific gravity; whereas lighter and widely spaced atoms will have low
specific gravity such as high, medium and low.

7. Hardness: The ability to scratch one mineral by another higher order of mineral. Friedrich Mohs
(1812), a German Mineralogist has selected ten minerals of distinctly different hardness that ranged from
a very soft mineral (talc) to a very hard mineral (diamond).

Moh’s Scale of Hardness

Resistanc Name of Composition Remarks

e the
Number Minerals
1 Talc Mg3 (SiO10)(OH)2 (Hydrated Can be easily
silicate) scratched by
2 Gypsum CaSO4 (Hydrated Calcium Finger nail
Sulphate)
3 Calcite CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate) Can be hardly
4 Fluorite CaF2 (Calcium Fluorite) scratched by finger
5 Apatite Ca3 (F, Cl, OH) (PO)4 nail and easily by
penknife
6 Orthoclas KAlSi3O8 Can be hardly
e scratched
7 Quartz SiO2 (Silicon di oxide) with penknife
8 Topaz Al2 (SiO4)(SOH)2
9 Corundu Al2O3 (Oxides of Al) Cannot be scratched
m
1 Diamond C (Pure Carbon)
0

8. Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to split up in a specified direction. The different terms of cleavage
are perfect (mica) and imperfect (fluorite). Perfect cleavages are those minerals which splits up to form
smooth surface easily; whereas imperfect minerals do not split up evenly with an average force.

9. Fractures: The appearance of the mineral broken surface. The different terms of fractures are even,
uneven, conchoidal and hackly.
Even: Minerals break up with smooth and flat surface.
Uneven: Mineral breaks up with rough surface.
Conchoidal: Mineral breaks up with curved surface.
Hackly: Mineral breaks with irregular surface and having sharp edges.
 These minerals were classified into 5 groups such as oxides, silicates, carbonates, sulfides and sulfates.

Sl No Groups Minerals Chemical Composition

1. Oxides i. Hematite Fe2O3
ii. Magnetite Fe3O4
2. Silicates i. Quartz SiO2
ii. Feldspars: a. K Al Si3O8
Orthoclase Na Al Si3O8 (Albite)
b. Plagioclase K (Mg Fe) Al Si3O10 (OH)2
iii. Mica: a. Biotite K Al2 (Si2 Al10) (OH)2
b. Muscovite
3. Carbonates i. Limestone CaCO3
ii. Dolomite Ca Mg CO3
iii. Siderite FeCO3
4. Sulfides i. Pyrite FeS2
ii. Galena PbS
iii. Sphalerite ZnS
5. Sulfates i. Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O
ii. Barite BaSO4
iii. Monazite

COMPOSITION AND THEIR USE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS

OXIDE GROUP OF MINERALS

1. HEMATITE and 2. MAGNETITE

Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals

No minerals
1. Name of the mineral Hematite Magnetite
2. Chemical composition Fe2O3 Fe3O4
3. Color Metallic grey, dull to bright Black
red
4. Streak Bright red to dark red Cherry red
5. Luster Metallic Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Trigonal Isometric
7. Structure/ Habit Radiating, fibrous, botryoidal Octahedral
8. Specific gravity 5 5
9. Hardness 6 6
10. Cleavage None Imperfect
11. Fracture Uneven Uneven
12. Uses Used as main ore of iron, Used as iron ore and conversion of
pigments, radiation steel, audio recording and magnetite
shielding, ballast and steel. powder as recording medium.
[Link] and 4. BAUXITE

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals

No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Chromite Bauxite
2. Chemical composition FeCr2O4 Al2O32H2O
3. Color Black Reddish brown, yellowish by iron
oxides
4. Streak Brownish black White stained red
5. Luster Sub metallic Dull
6. Crystal Structure Hexa-Octahedral Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline, Massive Pisolitic earthy, massive
8. Specific gravity 4.8 2.5
9. Hardness 5.5 3
10. Cleavage Nil Nil
11. Fracture Uneven Earthy, Uneven
12. Uses Refractory materials, ore of Ore of aluminum, refractory bricks,
Chromium porcelain cement
 SILICATE GROUP OF MINERALS
5. QUARTZ
Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals
No
1. Name of the mineral Quartz
2. Chemical composition SiO2
3. Color White, Pink, Grey and colorless
4. Streak White/ colorless
5. Luster Vitreous
6. Crystal Structure Hexagonal
7. Structure/ Habit Granular/ massive
8. Specific gravity 2.7 (medium)
9. Hardness 7 to 7.5
10. Cleavage Absent
11. Fracture Conchoidal
12. Uses Most important rock forming mineral in granite, gneisses, sandstone
and quartzite. Used as gemstones, ornamental stones, manufacturing
of oscillator plates, optical lenses and building stones etc.

6. KAOLIN and 7. ASBESTOS

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Kaolin Asbestos
2. Chemical composition China clay- H4Al2SiO9 2H2O, CaMg Silicate
3. Color Dull white Grayish, yellowish
4. Streak White Pale grayish white
5. Luster Greasy, pearly Silky
6. Crystal Structure Triclinic Orthorhombic
7. Structure/ Habit Powdery Fibrous
8. Specific gravity 2.65 3.2
9. Hardness 1 2.5
10. Cleavage Nil Perfect
11. Fracture Earthy Hackly
12. Uses Cement stiffener, bricks, Fire proof, Electrical & thermal
glazed tiles filler, ceramic and insulator, Ayurvedic medicine
refractory

VARIEITES OF QUARTZ
1. Quartz crystal: It is a transparent and colorless mineral of quartz having composition of pure
Silicon-di-oxide (SiO2).
2. Rose quartz: It’s a pink color and translucent variety of quartz mineral. The color of the mineral is
due to the mineral content of Dumortierite (aluminium-boro-silicate).
3. Milky quartz: It’s a white color and commonest variety of quartz.
4. Amethyst: It’s a purple/ violet variety of transparent mineral.
5. Flint: It’s a compact cryptocrystalline silica of black or various shades of grey color. This breaks up
with well-marked conchoidal fracture and shows sharp cutting edges. This has main uses in fabrication of
weapons, jewelry industries and building materials.
6. Opal: It’s hydrated silica in chemical composition, compact form and occurs in various colors such as
white, grey, yellow, red and brown. This shows sub-vitreous to vitreous luster, conchoidal fracture,
hardness of 5 to 7 with medium specific gravity. This exhibits brilliant play of colors and used in gemstone
jewelry.

8. FELDSPAR: (a). ORTHOCLASE FELDSPAR and (b). PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Orthoclase feldspar Plagioclase feldspar
2. Chemical KAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8
composition
3. Color Pink, orange White
4. Streak White White
5. Luster Vitreous to pearly Vitreous, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Monoclinic Triclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Prismatic/ tabular Massive to granular
8. Specific gravity 2.6 2.7
9. Hardness 6 6
10. Cleavage Basal/ prismatic Perfect in two directions
11. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven ---
12. Uses Used in the manufacture of Important component of many
glass and ceramics; building stones. Labrodorite,
Moonstone orthoclase mineral spectrolite, sunstone and moonstone
used as gemstone. are gem-quality plagioclase feldspars.

9. MICA: (a). BIOTITE (b). MUSCOVITE

Sl Identification Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Biotite mica Muscovite mica
2. Chemical K (Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10 (F, OH)2 KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
composition
3. Color Dark brown White, silvery
4. Streak White White
5. Luster Vitreous to pearly Vitreous, silky, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Monoclinic Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Massive to platy Massive to platy
8. Specific gravity 3 2.7
9. Hardness 2.5 2
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Micaceous Micaceous
12. Uses It is used extensively to constrain ages Used in fireproofing and
of rocks by either K-Ar dating. Used insulating materials and to
to assess the temperature of some extent as a lubricant.
 metamorphic rocks due to partitioning
of iron and magnesium occurs
between biotite and garnet.

CARBONATE GROUP OF MINERALS

10. CALCITE AND 11. DOLOMITE
Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals
No
1. Name of the mineral Calcite Dolomite
2. Chemical composition CaCO3 CaMgCO3
3. Color White Brown
4. Streak Granular White
5. Luster Vitreous Vitreous, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Rhombohedral Hexagonal
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline Granular
8. Specific gravity 2.7 2.9
9. Hardness 3 4
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Conchoidal Uneven
12. Uses Used in optical microscopes, Used in construction industry,
chemical industries, manufacture crushed and sized for road base
of bleaching powder, calcium material, production of cement, acid
carbide, glass, papers and paints. neutralization in the chemical
industry.

I. SULPHIDE GROUP OF MINERALS

12. PYRITE and 13. GALENA
Sl Identification Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals
No criteria
1. Name of the mineral Pyrite Galena
2. Chemical composition FeS2 PbS
3. Color Brass yellow Bright metallic lustre
4. Streak Dark green to dark brown Lead grey to black
5. Luster Metallic Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Isometric Isometric
7. Structure/ Habit Cubic Cubic
8. Specific gravity 5 7.5
9. Hardness 6.5 2.5
10. Cleavage Conchoidal Perfect
11. Fracture Uneven uneven
12. Uses Pyrite contains 0.25% of gold by Ore of lead used in residential
weight or more, also used for the paints, motor vehicle fuels,
production of sulfur and sulfuric ammunition, fishing weights,
acid and crude oil processing. ceramic glazes and pesticides.
 14. CHALCOPYRITE
Sl No Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals
1. Name of the mineral Chalcopyrite
2. Chemical composition CuFeS2
3. Color Golden yellow
4. Streak Black to greenish black
5. Luster Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Tetragonal
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline
8. Specific gravity 4.3
9. Hardness 4
10. Cleavage Absent
11. Fracture Uneven
12. Uses Ore of copper & silver

II. SULFATE GROUP OF MINERALS

15. BARITE and 16. GYPSUM
Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Barite Gypsum
2. Chemical composition BaSO4 CaSO4, 2H2O
3. Color White White
4. Streak Colorless Colorless
5. Luster Vitreous Vitreous
6. Crystal Structure Orthorhombic Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Flaky Flaky
8. Specific gravity 4.5 2.3
9. Hardness 3.5 1.5
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Uneven Fibrous
12. Uses Used in chemical & sugar Used in the manufacture of plaster of
industries, paper, paint, Paris, cement and other constructive
ceramic industries, glass and materials, fertilizers and as ornamental
paint. stones.

The branch of geology deals with the formation, occurrence and classification of rocks.
Rock: Natural aggregate of minerals. The term rock means the hard and resistant like granite but it also
includes soft rocks like clay and sand. Most of the rocks are hidden within the earth’s surface and some of
them appear in the form of hills and mountains.

Process of formation of Igneous rocks

The temperature of the earth increases with increase in depth as going through the interior of the earth.
Generally, there will be increase of 10C temperature for every 40m depth and varies based on the
material situated underneath. At 40km depth, the temperature believed to be above the melting point of
all the rocks which is more than 10000C. At this depth, all rocks exist in molten state or liquid state.
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 The pockets of a mixture of melted rock and dissolved gas due to local melting of rock in the crust or
below are called as magma; whereas the magma material which pours out of the surface through
volcanic eruptions are called as lava. Magma remains in molten state as long as its physical and
chemical environment remains constant, but when the changes takes place the liquid rock changes to
solid rock.

Formation/ Forms of Igneous rocks

1. Concordant bodies: The upward journey of magma does not possess enough energy to push or cut
through the existing rocks, in such case the magma solidifies in the cavities and weak planes by
structural features of the existing rocks.

Following are the important forms of concordant bodies.

a. Sill:

Fig. Attitude of simple sill

(a) Horizontal sill; (b) Inclined sill; (c) Vertical sill; (d) following trends of folds.

Fig. Multiple sills within the pre-existing rock

A sill is formed by solidified magma which appears in thin sheet like intrusions in between the layers of
the existing rocks. The thickness of the body is always less than its length and width and made up of
doleritic or basaltic in composition. Sills may be formed by a single or more injections of magma, whereas
the multiple sills are generally found connected by feeding channels.

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b. Laccolith: This formed by the cooling of highly viscous magma that
get arching up of the overlying existing rocks due to the hydrostatic
pressure and forceful injection of magma. Generally, laccoliths are
mushroom or dome shaped bodies with a wide flat floor at shallow depths.
This varies in size from very small bodies of a kilometer to

several hundreds of square kms.

c. Lopolith: It is a large saucer like depression in which beds dip inwards from
all directions. It measures in tens to hundreds of kilometers. Lopoliths may be
single, multiple, composite and sometimes may be of enormous size.

d. Phaccolith: When solidified magma is pushed into the crest and trough
of a fold in the existing rocks forming a crescent structure in cavities. This
shape is governed by the conditions of folding strata and the regions of
weakness.

2. Discordant bodies: When magma pushed with huge energy that cuts through the existing rocks and
the magma cools and solidifies after disturbing the existing rocks. Such intrusions are not influenced
by the structural features of the existing rocks.

Following are the important forms of discordant bodies

a. Dyke/ dike:

Fig.5a. Dike Fig.5b. Origin of ring dike Fig.5c. Plan view ring dike

These are the cooling of magma intruded into almost vertical fissures that cut cross country
rocks and appears as thin wall like shapes. Sometimes the cracks are also widened due to hydrostatic
pressure of the magma and shows great variation in their thickness from a meter to several kms
depending on energy and nature of magma and the type of rocks. A single intrusion of magma above
earth surface is known as simple dyke; in case of 2 or more intrusions are known as multiple dykes.
When the infilling of magma is formed into circular cracks with a core of existing rocks known as ring
dykes.

b. Volcanic neck: The forceful intrusion of magma into

the vents of the dormant volcanoes (inactive) and later
solidifies in the form of circular thick pipe. Necks generally show steep contacts with the surrounding
existing rocks. Dykes appear as wall like structures whereas the volcanic neck occurs as circular pipes
especially in the vents of dormant volcanoes.

c. Batholith: An extremely large sized igneous

intrusion which covers hundreds to thousands of square
km. These expand downward with smooth steep slopes
and lofty fold mountains and run parallel to the axes of
mountain ranges. This occurs when the magma pushes
under high pressure forming an arch
like structure and later solidifies slowly in the cavity like intrusions. E.g.,
Chamundi hills, Mysore; Ramanagara hills; Nandi hills, Begaluru.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS based on their process of formation

1. Igneous rocks: They formed by the cooling and solidification of magma. The word igneous is
derived from Latin “Ignis” which means Fire and hence known as fiery rocks. These are the mixture
of melted rock and dissolved gases either beneath or above the ground surface. These were formed first
after the cooling of earth’s crust and hence called as primary or parent rocks.
Igneous rocks which are formed below the ground surface by the consolidation of magma are
called intrusive bodies and those formed by the cooling of lava above the ground surface in contact
with air or/and water are called extrusive bodies.

Classification of igneous rocks

These rocks were classified based on engineering point of view;
i. Classification based on mode of occurrence.
ii. Classification based on Mineral composition

I. MODE OF OCCURRENCE
a. Plutonic: These igneous rocks are formed at considerable depth of 7-10 km below the earth’s surface
and get exposed due to the erosion of the overlying strata.
b. Hypabyssal: These igneous rocks are consolidation of magma which takes place very close to the
earth’s surface generally of 2km below. These exhibits mixed characteristics of volcanic and plutonic
rocks such as porphyry of various compositions.
c. Volcanic: These formed as lava on the earth’s surface by the outpour of magma due to sudden change
of temperature or pressure of earth’s interior. The magma breaks into the earth’s crust along the line of
least resistant rocks. The lava spreads in all the directions on the earth’s surface and ultimately cooled,
solidifies when comes in contact with air. E.g., Basalt and rhyolite

I. MINERAL COMPOSITION
Igneous rocks may be classified into following 2 types based on the proportion of main constituents
such as Acidic igneous rocks and Basic igneous rocks.
a. Acidic igneous rocks are those which contain high percentage of silica which generally appears in
light in color. E.g., Granite, syenite, pumice.
b. Basic igneous rocks are those which contain low percentage of silica which appears as darker in
color as and heavier in weight than acidic rocks. E.g., Basalt, Peridotite.
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TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Texture is defined as the mutual relationship of different minerals in the rock and is determined by the
mineral shape, size and arrangement. The grain sizes are controlled by the factors like rate of cooling
of magma molecular concentration of mineral constituents and viscosity of magmatic materials. The
different types of textures of igneous rocks are as follows:
i. Fine grained texture: The average grain size of minerals measures less than 1mm in diameter.
ii. Medium grained texture: These average grain sizes vary from 1mm to 5mm in diameter.
iii. Coarse-grained texture: These grain sizes measures more than 5mm in diameter.
iv. Vesicular texture: These are the igneous rocks which develops numerous fine pores due to the
escape of gaseous substances which are also called as cellular texture.
v. Porphyritic texture: This texture is characterized by the presence of a few large sized crystals
which are embedded in a fine -grained groundmass due to the mixing and mingling of magma.

COLOR INDEX OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Three descriptive terms are used for the specified ranges of color index
1. Light-colored rock (leucocratic): contains less than 30% dark minerals.
2. Medium-colored rock (mesocratic): contains 20 to 60% dark minerals.
3. Dark-colored rock (melanocratic): contains more than 60% dark minerals.

Description of igneous rocks:

1. Granite: It is the most common type of plutonic group of igneous rocks which appears in white or
pink in color. These are observed in the form of dykes, batholiths with coarse grained to medium
grained crystals. Essential minerals are quartz, feldspars with few varieties of mica, hornblende, garnet
and magnetite. Granite is one of most important building stones specially used for decorative and
architectural purposes. It takes fine polish and strongest among all the variety of all building stone
extensively for roads.

2. Dolerite: It is also known as black granite and often contains olivine and basalt. It cools under
basaltic volcanoes like mid-ocean ridges. It cools moderately when magma moves up into fractures and
weak zones below a volcano.

3. Basalt: It’s a volcanic group of igneous rock having dark brown in color having fine crystalline
essential minerals of plagioclase and augite. The crushed basalt is used as road metal, concrete
aggregates and also used for construction of bridges and other engineering works.

3. Pumice: The igneous rock shows cellular and glassy texture formed on the surface of the acid lava
which floats on water.

4. Granite Porphyry: A hypabyssal rock differing from quartz porphyry by the presence of sparse
phenocrysts of mica, amphibole, or pyroxene in a medium- to fine-grained groundmass.

5. Syenite: It is a plutonic rock of light-colored coarse-grained texture. The essential minerals are
orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, augite and hornblende. Syenite shows shades of blue and green colors
due to presence of feldspar.
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 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

➢ These are typically impervious, hard, strong and form very strong foundations for most of Civil
Engineering projects such as dams and reservoirs.
➢ Granite, syenite and dolerite possess very high crushing strength and most suitable for
construction works.
➢ Basalts are recommended for foundation of structures and roads only.
➢ Many of the igneous rocks are used extensively as materials for constructions.
➢ Joints and fractured granitic rocks permit passage for groundwater accumulation.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

The disintegrated products of pre-existing rocks are transported by rain water as sediments
which gets deposited in depression parts of the earth and later consolidated and cemented to form
sedimentary rocks. This occurs in layers and frequently contains fossils. These rocks are formed under
the influence of mechanical, chemical or organic activities of denudation or geological agents (wind,
running water and glaciers). The constituents of sedimentary rocks derived from the mechanical
breakdown and chemical decay of pre-existing rocks, get compacted and cemented in due course of
time, to form solid rock bodies.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the pre-existing rocks through the following stages.
1. Erosion of existing rocks
2. Transportation of eroded materials
3. Deposition and transformation of materials into thick and massive rocks.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Based on the engineering point of view, the sedimentary rocks are classified into 2 as follows,
i. Classification of sedimentary rocks based on origin of rocks
ii. Classification of sedimentary rocks based on their origin sizes.

i. Classification based on origin of rocks

a. Mechanical origin: Erosion, transportation and deposition are the types of mechanical action that
helps in the formation of sedimentary rocks without any change in their chemical composition.
e.g., Sandstone, breccias, mudstone, shale.
b. Chemical origin: Decomposition and crystallization are the types of chemical action that helps in
the formation of sedimentary rocks.
e.g., Dolomite, gypsum, rock salt.
c. Organic origin: The sedimentary rocks which contains the activities or parts of fossils (plants and
animals).
e.g., Limestone, chalk, coal, petroleum.

ii. Classification of sedimentary rocks based on their origin sizes.

a. Argillaceous: The sedimentary rocks which are made up of finest clay particles of less than 1mm.
E.g., Clayey rocks and shale.
b. Arenaceous: The sedimentary rocks which are made up of particles having grain size between
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1mm to 2mm in diameter.
E.g., Sandstone (Sandy rocks).
c. Rudaceous: The sedimentary rocks which are made up of particles having grain size more than
2mm in diameter. E.g., Conglomerate.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES

Due to successive deposition and compaction of sediments these rocks are always occurs as stratified
formations. However, the environmental conditions would differ during deposition and consolidation
and later impressed on the rock masses. Structural features of sedimentary rocks are of great value in
determining their origin which are as follows,

1. Stratification: These are the layered arrangement of sedimentary

rocks produced by successive deposition and compaction of
sediments. Each layer is called as bed or stratum which varies in
thickness from a few mm and extends laterally over wide areas, often
several kms. The contact between successive layers is called as
bedding plane. The beds commonly are found traversed by vertical
drying shrinkage cracks called joints.
E.g., Limestone formation; sandstone formation.

2. Cross bedding or current bedding: These are also called as current

beddings or false beddings. The lamination lies in an angle to the plane
of general stratification. These are caused by swift water currents or
swirling wind storms in a disturbed environment as at the edge of a
delta. E.g., Current bedded sandstones of Kaladgi, Badami and
Bagalkot, Bijapur district.

3. Graded bedding: The gradation of grain size from coarse below

to fine above in each sequence of strata. This formed due to
fractionation and sorting of sediments according to grain size and
density while settling through water in the depositional basin. This
helps to determine the orientation of the beds.

4. Rain prints (Rain-drop impression): The marks left by rainfall on the loose sediments. These are
the series of small circular pits and depressions preserved on the surface of fine grained sedimentary
rocks.

5. Oolitic structure: Certain varieties of sedimentary rocks made up of small spherical or rounded
grains (0.1 to 1mm in diameter) resembling insect eggs in appearance.

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 DESCRIPTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. Sandstone: It is mechanically formed by the cementation of sand particles between 1/10 to 2mm in
diameter. Sandstone occurs in variety of colors and may be classified into following based on the
cementing material such as silica, calcite, iron oxide or clay.
Siliceous sandstone: Cementing material is made up of silica.
Calcareous sandstone: Cementing material is made up of calcium carbonate.
Ferruginous sandstone: Cementing material is made up of iron oxide.
Argillaceous sandstone: Cementing material is made up of clay.

2. Limestone: It is formed by chemical as well as organic process. Pure limestone is composed of

calcium carbonate but few varieties also contain impurities such as clay, silica, quartz and feldspar.
These are very important and widely distributed rocks. Depending upon the mineralogical composition,
limestone is named as chalk or argillaceous limestone and shelly limestone. Textures of limestone are
generally fine-grained compact rocks. Limestone formed by the accumulation and cementation of
organic remains (Shells, corals etc.). Sometimes be loosely packed and thus exhibit coarse texture.
Following are the varieties of limestone are commonly recognized.
a. Chalk: It is the purest form of limestone (CaCO3) appears as white color and is having fine grained
texture and shows soft nature.
b. Argillaceous limestone: It contains clay in considerable proportion.
c. Siliceous limestone: It contains silica as chief accessory constitution and posses hard and more
resistant to weathering.

3. Shale: These are mechanically formed sedimentary rock laminated with fine grained and mainly
composed of clay minerals. It contains silt size grains of quartz which is used for brick and tiles
manufacture.

4. Laterite: It’s a combination of soil and rock type, rich in iron and aluminium commonly considered
formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are of rusty-red coloration due to high iron
oxide content. They develop by intensive and prolonged weathering of the underlying parent rock.

5. Conglomerate: It is a coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock that is composed of a substantial

fraction of rounded to sub-angular gravel-sized clasts larger than 2 mm (0.079 in) in diameter.
E.g., Granules, Pebbles, Cobbles and Boulders.

ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF SEDIMENATARY ROCKS

➢ Sandstones are the biggest source of construction materials like building stones, pavement stones,
road aggregate and aggregate for making concrete. Sandstone can also provide silica for glass
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 production.
➢ Mined sandstone can be cut, polished and carved for use as ornamental rocks for buildings,
monuments, grave stones, tiles etc.
➢ Shale is used to manufacture bricks and tiles. Also, the sources of alumina, paraffin and oil.
➢ Limestones are the primary source of lime for cements. Also used as flux in metallurgical industry.
➢ Gypsum used in the manufacture of plaster of paris.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Meta means change; morph means form or character. These are formed when pre-existing rocks
are influenced under in increased temperature, pressure and action of chemically active fluids. During
metamorphism the minerals will recrystallize to form new mineral and new textures.

The agents bring metamorphism process on pre-existing rocks are as follows:-

i. Physical agents - they influence heat & uniform pressure on pre-existing rocks.
ii. Chemical agents – these are inclusions of chemically active water & gases (CO2) through cracks
and joints of pre-existing rocks.
The physical changes produce new textures whereas the chemical changes cause the formation of
new minerals.
Metamorphism: It is the process of transforming the existing rocks into new metamorphic rocks
under the influence of temperature, pressure or both is called as metamorphism.

Following are the 3 types of metamorphism

1. Contact metamorphism: It is the process of formation of metamorphic rocks in which temperature
is the dominating factor with negligible changes in pressure resulting in re-crystallization of the rocks
and new minerals are formed.

2. Dynamic metamorphism: It is the process of formation of metamorphic rocks in which pressure is

the dominating factor with negligible changes in temperature. This results in deformation of the rocks
and the particle gets compacted and cemented to form new minerals.

3. Thermo-dynamic metamorphism: It is also called dyno-thermal metamorphism which is a process

of formation of metamorphic rocks in which both heat & pressure are the dominating factors. This
results in crystallization and deformation of the rocks and forms a new mineral.

Classification of metamorphic rocks based on foliation

The rocks that can split up into thin sheets are known as foliated rocks.
E.g., Slate, Schist, Gneiss.
Those who cannot split up into thin sheets are known as non-foliated rocks.
E.g., Marble.

Examples of metamorphic rocks from metamorphism as follows:

Metamorphic rocks have been variously classified on the basis of texture of rocks, structure of rocks,
degree of metamorphism, mode of origin, mineralogical composition and foliation of rocks.
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 i. Granite (Igneous rock) Gneiss
ii. Basalt (Igneous rock) Schist
iii. Sandstone (Sedimentary rock) Quartzite
iv. Limestone (Sedimentary rock) Marble
v. Shale (Sedimentary rock) Slate
vi. Coal (Sedimentary rock) Graphite
vii. Clay Shale Slate

STRUCTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

1. Slaty structures: Slaty

structures are also called as slaty
cleavage which has unique
property of splitting into thin
sheets.

2. Schistose structures: It is
formed by parallel arrangement of
flat, tabular, flaky minerals and
tendency to split readily into
flakes.
Description of metamorphic rocks
3. Gneissose structures:
structures exhibit alternate
light and dark color minerals
as bands.

4. Granular structures: The structure has

produced due to predominance of
equigranularity minerals and producing a
rough fracture surface.

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1. Gneiss: It is a coarse-grained foliated rock formed by dynamic metamorphism of sandstone, granite
and conglomerates showing great variety of colors. The essential minerals are quartz, feldspar,
mica and chlorite. Hard variety of gneiss is used as road metals and concrete aggregates.

2. Slate: they are produced by metamorphism of shale having very fine-grained rocks which splits
into thin smooth plates. They are composed of fine-grained mixture of quartz, calcite and feldspar.
Metamorphic rocks are extensively used as building stones. Foliated metamorphic rocks like slate,
gneiss and schist are used as roofing materials, table top and others. The non-foliated rocks are used as
building stones and road metals. The most important non- foliated rock is marble which are extensively
used in construction of buildings for decorative purposes.

3. Muscovite & Biotite schist: It belongs to metamorphic groups of rocks formed by the dynamic
metamorphism of shale. It is composed on minerals like muscovite, biotite, augite, hornblende, chlorite
etc. depending upon presence of dominating minerals in a rock.

4. Marble: It is crystallized metamorphic rock formed by contact metamorphism of limestone shows

various colors like white, green, grey, blue, yellow mainly composed of calcite mineral. It also contains
few inclusions of olivine and garnet. It is a hard and can take a fine polish for building stones specially
for floors, decorative purposes. The coarse-grained marbles is used for all types of important
monumental & architectural works.
e.g., Taj mahal made up of white marble.

5. Quartzite: It’s a hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock which was originally formed by pure quartz
sandstone. Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related to tectonic
compression within orogenic belts.

ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

➢ Marble is commonly used as decorative building stone, monuments and statues. Eg. Taj Mahal.

➢ Slate used as roof tiles, floor tiles, pool tables, blackboards etc.
➢ Augen-gneiss make very attractive building materials and exteriors of office building when
polished.
➢ Talc used in paints, rubber, paper, asphalt and cosmetics.
➢ Many economic deposits of gold, copper, tungsten and iron occur in metamorphic rocks.

APPREHENSION OF INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

Index properties of rocks are generally determined in the laboratory or in the field to provide an initial
quantitative description of the rocks. They can be used to estimate the mechanical and hydraulic
properties of the rocks.
1. Porosity: Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of pore space or voids in a total volume of rock.

Vv = Volume of voids/ pores; V = Total volume of rock mass

It is expressed as a decimal fraction or as a percentage. In a 5% pores/ voids are considered as low
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 porosity; 10% as average and 15% of pores or more is high. Many igneous and high-grade metamorphic
rocks have very tiny cracks or micro fractures which are not interconnected.

2. Permeability: It is the measure of easy flow of fluids through a rock. It is related to the hydraulic
conductivity which evaluates the relative interconnection of pore spaces. Shale is porous but not
permeable; whereas sandstone both porous and permeable. This activity of fluid movement in the
sandstone rocks make more effective in hydrological studies.

3. Density: It is calculated by mass per unit volume. Building stones must be heavy and denser. Any
rock having more than 2.4 of specific gravity will only consider for building constructions.
Density = M/V
Porosity of rock can be considered as parameter for weight density. Specific gravity of the rocks can
be calculated as the weighted average of solid specific gravities of component grains and crystal.

4. Durability: Resistance to weathering and chemical action. The rocks must be durable, unaffected by
environmental factors such as temperature change, wind abrasion, frost action immune to acid rains
and fumes.
SELECTION OF ROCKS AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

FOUNDATION
Properties and Requirements:
1. Strength and Soundness: A satisfactory building stone must be strong with crushing strength more
than 1000kg/cm2, hard, compact, tough & sound. The rock should bear all the stresses imposed upon it
by the structure for many years.
2. Durability: Resistance to weathering and chemical action. The rocks must be durable, unaffected
by environmental factors such as temperature change, wind abrasion, frost action immune to acid rains
and fumes.
3. Permeability: It must be impermeable to moisture and rains or have low porosity and adsorption
in order to prevent chemical decay, frost action, discoloration and formation of ugly stains.
4. Volume change: It should allow minimum volume change if any.
5. Workability: It must have favorable interlocking texture and grains for easy sawing, dressing,
planning and machining.
6. It should be free from micro joints, cracks, fractures and cavities.
7. Scratch with a penknife should leave no mark on it.
8. Rock should sufficiently tough (crushing strength).
9. Rock should possess more than 2.6 of specific gravity.
10. Rock which absorbs more than 5% of water should be avoided.
11. Important building stone are granite, sandstone, slate, limestone, marble, laterite, charnockite etc.

DECORATIVE
1. Color, appearance, workability, polishing are important factors for any design and statue making.
E.g., Marble rocks have beautiful & pleasing colors and ability to take polish.
2. Artistically attractive with pleasing color, texture and appearance.
3. Easily worked-cut split and planned, curved with chisel and other cutting carving and shaping
tools.
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 4. Capable of taking high polish and preserve low absorption and resistance to chemical abrasion.
5. Iron pyrites quickly decomposes liberating iron oxides and hydrates. These produce undesirable
dark ugly patches and streaks.

FLOORING STONE
1. Resistance to abrasion becomes very important for flooring purposes.
2. Rock should possess durable, comfortable, pleasing, walking and relaxing surface.
3. These are well implemented in residential buildings, office, schools, hospitals, factories and
garden stones.
4. Limestone and slate are used as black and white slabs like a chessboard for flooring.

ROOFING STONES
1. Limestone and slate also provide good roofing material which protect roof from sun rains.
2. Durability becomes important for roofing stones or tiles.
3. Should provide structural support to the place.
4. Should be weather resistant such as controlling rainwater, air and heat flow
5. Should be of very heavyweight roof structure to make them stormproof.

PAVING STONES
1. Large flat squares stone on level surface for easy walking.
2. It should provide a durable and non-slippery walking surface laid on footpaths and sidewalks.
3. The stones should be hard, strong and granular.
4. Do not alter or crush soon.

ROAD METAL
1. The evenly graded crushed or broken stone used in a construction of roads as top course for
surfacing macadamized roads.
2. Good binding and hydrophobic properties become important for using rocks as road aggregates.
3. To provide a sound base and durable skid resistant.
4. To provide a good long wearing or non-slippery road surface.
5. Heavy and fast vehicular traffic develops potholes and corrugations.
6. Rock should be quite tough and hard.
7. All minerals constituents should be equal hardness.
8. The rock should be preferably crystalline durable and strong.
9. Should have interlocking textures like equi-granular and ophitic textures.
10. Should be tough in order to resist sudden impact of moving wheel loads.

RAILWAY BALLAST
1. Good bearing capacity and should not get crushed under the moving loads.
2. It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.
3. Tough and wear resistant, Good drainage property.
4. Non-porous and should not absorb water.
5. Should resist attrition (rubbed by friction) and abrasion (wearing down by friction).
6. Should not disintegrate under adverse weather conditions
7. Should be cheap and economical.

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 CONCRETE AGGREGATES
1. It’s an admixture of stone, sand, water and Portland cement which hardens like rock mass.
Concrete aggregate is of two kinds
a. Coarse aggregate: Angular and sub angular fragments of dia 5 cm across which may be
natural gravel or manufactured by crushing and grading quarried natural rock.
b. Fine aggregate: Most natural sand is composed of 60 to 90% of quartz grains that are either
angular, sub angular or rounded.
2. Good in strength and chemically stable.
3. Compact and hard, break into cubical angular or sub angular fragments.
4. Not flaky, splintery, scaly, foliated.
5. Impervious and of low absorption.
6. Free from organic and other harmful impurities.
7. Have a good bond with cement.

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES THAT INFLUENCE THE STRENGTH, DURABILITY AND

BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE

a. Strength, hardness and durability: High strength of aggregates is beneficial to concrete subjected
to stress. Compressibility of aggregate influences the shrinkage of concrete during drying. As cement
paste shrinks the aggregate is compressed. If the aggregate is strong and the cement bond is good,
shrinkage is restrained.

b. Shape and surface texture: Shape of aggregate influences workability. The recognized shapes of
aggregates are rounded, irregular angular and flaky. Rounded aggregate contributes to smooth and
workable mix but the bond with cement becomes limited. Irregular and angular fragments make harsh
concrete but good bond with cement, and require more water. Flaky and elongated fragments pack
poorly, crush soon, decrease workability and tend to orient themselves. This prevents percolation and
accumulation of water between them thereby prevent good bond with cement. Elongated and flaky
fragments are obtained from banded, laminated or schistose rocks or from crushing.

c. Surface texture: The roughness and pore characteristics of the surface of aggregate fragments are
called surface texture. Surface texture of aggregate governs the bond with cement and affects the
strength of concrete. The important surface textures are
a) Crystalline, b) Rough and pitted c) Glassy or smooth d) Honey combed
A rough textured surface bonds better with cement that a smooth surface. Weathered surface, adversely
affect the reinforced cement concrete. Pitted and honey combed surfaces to some extent are
advantageous in getting a good bond with cement.
d. Thermal properties: Highly siliceous aggregates like granite, quartzite and other are liable to spalling
and in some cases to shattering at high temperature around 5700C due to dehydration of quartz or
component minerals or inversion of quartz from one form to another.

e. Organic matter: Organic matter includes bark, peat, coal, shells and other vegetable and animal
matter and soil humus. Natural, gravel and sands are commonly contaminated with these. These
interfere with an effective bond with cement and with the functioning of air entraining agents.
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