Engineering Geology (BCV303)
MODULE-1
Definition of Geology: It is a Greek word “Geo” meaning Earth and “logos” meaning study. It is the
science dealing with the study of physical features of Earth and atmosphere.
Engineering Geology: Is the scientific study of rocks, minerals, metals, ores used for industries, civil
engineering structures such as dams, airports, stadiums, National Highways, State Highways, multistoried
buildings, tunnels, bridges etc.
Branches of Geology
1. Physical geology: The branch of geology deals with earth’s composition, structural change and
geological activities.
Eg:- Earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, climate change etc.
2. Structural geology: Branch of geology deals with the structure of rocks which have deformed
continuously due to the tectonic forces. Eg:- Folds, faults & joints.
3. Historical geology: The principles of geology to reconstruct the geological time-scale and to
understanding the geological history of earth. It includes the evolution of single cell organisms, plants,
animals and humans during geological time-scale.
Eg:- Evolution of earth.
4. Mineralogy: The scientific study of minerals - their chemistry, crystal structure and physical properties
to discriminate their specific use in particular industry.
Eg:- Quartz, Biotite, Galena.
5. Petrology: (Greek word “Petro”- rocks; “logos”- study). The branch of geology deals with the study of
rocks, its structure, formation, texture, composition and origin.
Eg:- Gneiss, granite, marble.
6. Mining geology: The Science and Technology deals with the extraction of minerals and ores from the
earth.
Eg:- Iron, manganese, limestone, pyrite and copper.
7. Geomorphology: Branch of geology deals with the study of physical features of the earth’s surface
with their relation to geological structures.
Eg:- Mountains, valleys, desert, oceans etc.
8. Paleontology: Branch of geology deals with ancient life of animals and plants.
Eg:- Fossil wood, dinosaur, gastropods, ostracods etc.
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9. Environmental geology: Deals with the relation between humans and their environment which helps
to solve land use problems in civil engineering projects.
Eg:- Land use, mitigation of natural hazards.
10. Engineering Geology: Branch of geology deals with the planning, design, site suitability and
maintaining the quality of civil structures.
Eg:- Roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, airports and other similar structures.
APPLICATION OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICES
1. Geology provides systematic knowledge of construction materials, occurrences, composition &
durability for safe, stable and economic designs of major infrastructures.
2. Natural geological agent such as erosion, transportation and deposition will solve expensive
problems of river control, coastal, harbor work and soil conservation.
3. Surface & sub-surface water mapping determines the volume of total runoff, drainage basin, silting
depth and erosion potential before planning any hydraulic structures.
4. Geology mitigates natural disasters and provides preparedness for future sustainability such as
Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Floods, and Landslides.
5. Planning of Dams, Airports, Stadiums, Highways, Multi-storied buildings are directly concerned
with the underlying geology of the area.
6. Geological nature and structure of rocks are very necessary for tunneling and bridge constructions.
7. Geological structures of folds, faults, joints can be determined through drilled borehole data,
trenches and pits to interpret earthquake conditions for site suitability.
8. Mapping of larger area through Aerial Photographs, Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS data will reduce
the time and cost.
9. Extraction of hard rocks, economic minerals, ores and metals can be planned based on geological
exploration techniques.
10. Slope stability analyses the landslide hazards in hilly terrains through amount of rainfall, rock
characteristics and slope categories concerned with their physical environment.
11. Determining the stability of road cuts, slopes and rock structures is very much necessary in
tunneling, canals and constructing roads in hilly terrains.
12. Determines public works such as drainage system, power plants, water treatment plants, canal,
reservoir, railroads and parks, mine reclamation and dumping areas through RS and GIS techniques.
UNDERSTANDING THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
Our Planet occupies third position from the sun with an approximate distance of 14,96,68,992 kms
(93,000,000 miles). The light rays take 8 min & 21 sec to reach the earth surface. Rotation of earth in its
own axis causes plates movements and its collision causing earthquakes. 72% of the earth is covered by
water (ocean and sea) while only 28% is covered by land mass. The Polar diameter of the earth is about
12,755 kms; whereas the equator diameter covers about 12,713km.
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The planet Earth is made up of layered of spherical shells and its structure & composition were
made based on the
i. Observation of surface rocks and minerals followed by laboratory experiments.
ii. Earthquakes flow of heat, magnetic field and gravity.
iii. Comparison of the earth with other planets such as the sun, stars and meteorites.
The average density of earth is 5.5 g/cm3; while the surface rock measures about 2.85 g/cm3.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
The major structural components separated by sharp discontinuities are the CRUST, MANTLE and CORE.
1. Crust: It forms a very thin surface layers which is divided into continental (land) and oceanic (water)
crust. The average temperature of crust ranges from 5000C - 9000C.
Continental crust: It measures about 35-40 km in thickness with an average density of 2.7 g/cm3 mainly
composed of SiAl (Felsic composition). e.g., Granite.
Oceanic crust: This measures about 7-10 km in thickness with an average density of 3.0 g/cm3 mainly
composed on SiMg (Mafic composition). e.g., Basalt.
Mohorovicic discontinuity is the boundary between crust and mantle observed based on the increase in
velocity of earthquake due to chemical differentiation.
2. Mantle: It is the thick shell that extends half the radius down into the earth. Mantle measures about 2,900
km in thickness with an average density of 4.5 g/cm3. This mainly composed of ultramafic rocks such as
Mg, K, Na, Ca and Ni. Temperature ranges from 10000C-40000C. e.g., Eclogites, peridotites.
Wichert Gutenberg’s discontinuity: The boundary between mantle and core observed due to difference in
velocities of solid mantle and molten outer core.
3. Core: It is the central part of the earth mainly composed of Iron and Nickel. It is divided into outer liquid
core and inner solid core. The outer core measures about 2221 km in thickness with an average density
of 10-12 g/cm3 and the temperature ranges about 44000C-55000C. The solid inner core measures about 123 20 km in
thickness with an average density of 13 g/cm3 and temperature ranges from 60000C.
Fig.2. Interior of the Earth
EARTHQUAKE
It is a sudden and rapid shaking of the ground occurs due to rapid release of energy. Earthquake
occurs occasionally but the destruction causes loss of life and property. FOCUS is the exact spot
underneath the earth surface at which an earthquake originates
(Hypocenter), while the point on the earth surface lying above the
focus is defined as EPICENTER.
Earthquake focus is described based on the depth as follows,
i. Shallow: - It is less than 70 km below ground surface.
ii. Intermediate: Between 70 to 300 km.
iii. Deep: Below 300 to 700 km.
Causes of Earthquakes: - broadly classified based on the following categories
1. Surface (or) dynamic causes: - This occurs due to the collision of waves along sea shore, working of
heavy machinery and heavy blasting in mines. Flowing of huge river water in steep slopes, railway tracks
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along hill slopes. These activities trigger the earthquake of low intensity and few of them are strong enough
to be perceptible and some of them can destructive effects.
2. Volcanic eruptions: - During volcanic outburst the earth trembles. It is still uncertain geological
problems that volcanoes lead to vibration to the earth or earthquakes lead eruption of lava.
3. Folding and faulting activity: - Folding and faulting occurs when the earth crust undergoes stress
conditions. When stress accumulating in one direction, the rocks is subjected to fracturing and fractured
blocks may even suffer relative displacement giving rise to fault. Continent-continent collision implies
the folding and faulting of huge rock masses into Himalayas and other mountains.
EFFECTS
It’s a complex manner which moves up and down as well as from side by side and depends upon
the following
➢ Intensity and duration of earthquake
➢ Distance of place from the Epicenter
➢ Nature of groundmass.
Sl No. Intensity Acceleration produced cm/ sec Effects
1. Instrumental <1 cm Record by sensitive instrument
2. Very feeble >1 cm Noted by few people
3. Feeble 2.5 cm Felt by people at rest
4. Moderate 5 cm Felt by people in motion
5. Fairly strong 10 cm Disturbance of furnishers
6. Strong 25 cm Slight damage of building
7. Very strong 50 cm Cracks in walls
8. Destructive 100 cm Chimneys falls
9. Ruinous 250 cm Damage of wall, pipeline
10. Disastrous 500 cm Many buildings destroyed
11. Very disastrous 750 cm Few structures left standing
12. Catastropic 980 cm Total destruction
Safety measures in seismic areas: - It is impossible to stop the earthquake and the effects depends from
place to place. All earthquakes can create great damage to life, buildings, natural ecosystem etc. However,
it is possible to minimize the impact by predicting through Seismograph instrument.
SIESMIC WAVES: - The focus releases strain energy in several types of wave motions called as seismic
or earthquake waves. These waves travel in all directions in different paths, modes and speeds pro5portional
to the densities of the materials through which they travel. The speed increases with density
when they reach the ground surface and spread out in ever widening circles around the epicenter like water
waves from a point of impact in a pond and because that a portion of the ground to shake.
Study of Earthquake
Different types of scales that measures the Intensity of earthquake in different countries as follows
➢ Old gram scale of India
➢ Omari scale of Japan
➢ Rossiforel scale of Italy
➢ Richter’s scale of France
Richter’s is the standard scale among the above-mentioned scales. In the year 1935, C.F. Richter’s
developed different types of logarithmic scales for comparing the magnitude of California earthquake.
Seismograph: - Sensitive instrument that records the vibration
of earthquakes using Pen, Rotating drum, Spring/ wire, Weight
rod, Damping magnet and Metallic frame. A simple
seismograph consists of rigid metallic frame fixed firmly to the
ground by a metallic frame.
A heavy weighted rod with attached pen is made
oscillate freely through a wire on the rotating drum mounted
with photosensitive graph paper. Minute oscillations occur
inside the earth waves are recorded in zig zag pattern called
seismograph.
Seismogram: - Vibrations detected by seismograph are
commonly recorded on a photographic paper as a series of zig
zag line called seismogram. Seismogram records the different
kinds of earthquake waves namely P-waves, S-waves and L-
waves.
P-waves (Primary or push and pull waves):- These are
the 1st recorded in recoding station as compressive type of
push and pull waves, like sound waves. These waves can
penetrate through solid, liquid and gaseous media and
travel at a speed of about 5.4 km/sec.
S-waves (Secondary or shake waves): - These are
vibrations caused by the shake of the earthquake such as
light waves which travels at a speed of about 3.5 km/sec.
This can penetrate only through solid media.
L-waves (Long or surface waves): - These are the waves produced by reflections and refractions of P
and S waves in the immediate neighborhood of the epicenter. These travel with a rotary movement in the
vertical plane, like sea waves. They travel at a speed of 1km/sec only along the ocean floor. 6
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE: -
Indian continent is divided into different zones
based on the intensity of earthquake such as
Zone Of Maximum Intensity: - It covers the
North-Eastern regions especially the folded
chains of Himalayas. Geographically, it covers
the important states of Jammu & Kashmir,
Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Uttar
Pradesh etc.
Zone of Intermediate Intensity: - It covers the
important regions of Indo-Gangetic basin
covering an area of Punjab, West Bengal, Bihar
etc.
Zone of Minimum Intensity: - This covers the
important states in South India such as
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala.
Important criteria to build Earthquake resisting structures as follows: -
➢ Light and elastic constructions.
➢ Heavy and rigid constructions with uniform depth of foundation.
➢ One should strictly utilize the best quality materials according to the standard specifications.
➢ The size of the doors and windows should be minimized.
➢ Height of the building should be kept to single floor only.
➢ Seismic waves should be recorded using Seismograph before selecting a site for construction.
➢ Making reinforce structural columns should be maintained to distribute the load on each column.
➢ Use of polymer and lightweight materials.
➢ Avoid stone cladding and stone pillars.
➢ Bridges with screw pile foundation stand better to the shocks.
➢ The wall should be continuous in nature, the long walls and cross walls be created
simultaneously without any joints.
➢ Strongly designed steel framed or reinforced ferro-concrete structures posses’ high degree of
resistance should be well utilized.
TSUNAMI: - It is derived from Japanese word meaning very tall tidal waves (or) Harbor waves. The
Intensity of Tsunami is measured by the speed and height of water waves on land. The run-off of water
on land is related to the magnitude of the earthquake and may exceed 30mts (1000 ft) for the largest
Tsunami. Tsunami occurred many times in history. Huge mass of rising water rushed at a tremendous
speed destroying and devastating whatever came in its way. Tsunami caused a wide spread damage and
destruction to life and property in coastal areas of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand etc.
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• The first Tsunami in India struck in 1874 near Bhola, a small town in Bengal killing 12 lakh
people.
• The second Tsunami hit Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India on 26th June 1941 and recorded a
magnitude of 8.5 in Ritcher’s scale.
• The latest Tsunami is occurred on 26th Dec 2004 in Indian Ocean with magnitude of 8.9 in
Richter scale killing thousands of people in Chennai.
Fig. Section of Sea basin
SECTION OF SEA BASIN: Depth of earth crust about 35 km exist below the continents, a thickness of
hardly 6 km if earth crust exist below an ocean and bottom of the ocean basin is about 5 km below the sea
water level. The depth of ocean basin is not achieved abruptly and steeply from shoreline, but it is achieved
gradually from the shore to the deep interior as shown in figure. Starting from the shore towards the deep
sea, the following four may be recognized in an ocean basin.
i. Littoral zone: - The littoral zone is the near shore area of 5 to 10 mts depth where sunlight penetrates
all the way to the sediment and allows aquatic plants (macrophytes) to grow. In coastal environments
the littoral zone extends from the high water marks that is permanently submerged. This zone indicates
the area between the high tide and low tide levels. The sediments found are the coarse fragments of
the rock waste and bare sands zone make beautiful beaches.
i. Continental shelf: - The maximum depth in this zone is about 180 to 200 mts and showing gentle
slopes. The continental shelf starts below the low tide level and may extend upto 300 km in distance.
The sediments deposited are well sorted with coarse particles in initial shallower zone, and finer
particle towards the deeper portions. The upper portion is liable to be affected by the sunlight, seasonal
temperature changes, and current wave action. A major part of sea plant life and animals like molasses
grow. Lower part shows little penetration of sunlight and it is characterized by the deposition of only
fine sediments like mud & sea animals like corals. 8
i. Continental slope: - This zone is represented by a suddenly increased slope as shown in figure. The
depth variation in this zone from sea level may be from 200 m to as much as 3000 m and so on. It is
characterized low temperature and deposition of fine colored muds & micro-organisms in this zone.
iv. Abyssal zone/ deep sea: - This is the deepest zone of the sea basin situated at the depth of 4000 to
6000 mts marking the deep sea/ ocean floor and it is characterized by deposition of finest muds of
oozes and red clays. The red color of the fine clays of this zone is primarily due to iron oxidation.
CAUSES
1. Tsunamis are caused by sudden movements of the earth that happens under the sea. Often the most
destructive Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes but causes can also include volcanic eruptions,
landslides or even a comet hitting the sea.
2. Landslides cause tsunamis when the debris falls into the water. This has the same effect of dropping
a large stone into a pool - big ripples are created. But when this happens in the sea and it is thousands
of tonnes of rock and earth falling into the sea a very large ripple, more like a tidal wave is created.
This travels across the sea until it comes into contact with land and a tsunami is formed.
3. Volcanoes cause tsunamis when there is an eruption. The volcano can either be on land or under the
sea, in which case it is known as a submarine volcano. If the volcanic eruption happens on land, the
tsunami is caused by debris and lava from the volcano flowing into the sea, which once again causes
a bug ripple.
If the eruption happens under water, the enormous power of the eruption sends shudders through
the earth and disrupts the water. The water in the sea then breaks into waves which travel across the ocean
until they come into contact with a coast. Here, a tsunami is formed.
EFFECTS
1. Loss of Life: People living in coastal regions, towns and villages have no time to escape. Since 1850
alone, tsunamis have been responsible for the loss of more than 430,000 lives. As Tsunami hits the land
it leaves very little to time to escape. This results in instant death by drowning, building collapsing,
electrocution and others.
2. Disease: Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease to spread in the tsunami hit
areas. Illnesses such as malaria arise when water is stagnant and contaminated. Under these conditions
it is difficult for people to stay healthy and for diseases to be treated, so infections and illnesses can
spread very quickly, causing more death.
3. Environmental impacts: It uproots trees and plants and destroys animal habitats such as nesting sites
for birds. Land animals are killed by drowning and sea animals are killed by pollution if dangerous
chemicals are washed away into the sea, thus poisoning the marine life. Solid waste and disaster debris
are the most critical environmental problem faced by a tsunami-hit country.
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4. Cost: Massive costs hit communities and nations when a tsunami happens. The total financial cost of
the tsunami could be millions or even billions of dollars of damage to coastal structures and habitats.
Reconstruction and clean up after a tsunami is a huge cost problem. Infrastructure must be replaced,
unsafe buildings demolished and rubbish cleared.
5. Psychological effects: Victims of tsunami events often suffer psychological problems which can last
for days, years or an entire lifetime. Survivors of the Sri Lankan tsunami of December 2004 were found
to have PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) when examined by the World Health Organization
(WHO): 14% to 39% of these were children, 40% of adolescents and 20% of mothers of these
adolescents were found to have PTSD 4 months after the tsunami.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
It is an outpour of thick lava and ash into
the earth when magma rises through cracks or
weak-spots. Magma forms when a part of earth’s
upper mantle or lower crust melts. Mixture of
melted rock and dissolved gases which
accumulated below the earth crust is called as
magma; whereas the magma material which
pours out of the surface through volcanic
eruptions is called as lava.
As an average, one volcano erupts in
every 12 hours and 1,500 volcanoes have been active in the last 10,000 years. A violently erupting
volcano that has produced ash fall, ash flow and volcanic mudflows is likely to do the same in the future.
CAUSES
i. Plate Tectonics: Movement of tectonic plates pushes under the other plate causing the magma chamber
to burst out. This kind of eruption produces sticky, thick lava at temperatures from 8000 to 1,0000C.
ii. The buoyancy of the magma: The volume of overlying magma will increase due to increase in
temperature causing buoyancy. This lighter overlying magma then rises toward the surface by virtue of
its buoyancy and erupts.
iii. The pressure from the gases in the magma: Water, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide are the volatiles
occur in magma with zero atmospheric pressure. These increase their volume due to rise in pressure
conditions.
iv. Forceful injection of new magma into the magma chamber will move up and erupt to the surface.
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EFFECTS
i. Tephra: During powerful explosion the old lava at the top will blasts into tiny pieces and will hurled
into the air.
ii. Lahars: These are mixtures of water, rock, ash, sand and mud that originates from the slopes of a
volcano occurs due to heavy rainfall.
iii. Landslides: Heat from cooling magma can cause hydrothermal alteration of the rocks turning them
into clay. This weakens the rocks and increases the risk of slope failures.
iv. Flooding: Explosive eruptions can change the surface areas around a volcano and disrupt drainage
patterns leading to long-term flooding.
v. Volcanic eruption will also impact on Food, Water Supply interruption, Homelessness, Businesses
forced to close, Cost of insurance claims, Unemployment, Long-term issues with the tourism industry.
LANDSLIDES
The surface movements of the materials from its original position
either by suddenly or extremely slow motion on the hill slope, valley,
reservoir etc. Such movements of the rock mass which may be minor or
major; may involve consolidated rocks or loose material which may take
in any direction are popularly known as landslides.
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Classification of Landslides: - Mass failure is divided into four major groups on the basis of type of
failure. Each, group is further subdivided into classes on the basis of rate of movement, nature of the mass
and degree of saturation.
Sl Flowage Sliding Subsidence
No Slow flowage Rapid flowage
1. Rock creep Earth flow Slump Sinking of the mass
2. Soil creep Mud flow Rock slides
3. Soilfluction Rock fall
Debris slides
Debris fall
Flowage: - It is a downgrade movement of mass of invariably
loose packed by natural process of decay. Flowage is further
divided into slow and rapid flowage. Slow flowages will move
down about few cms a year; while rapid flowages are visible and
may travel a few meters a day or even more.
Sliding: - An unstable rock mass fails and move along the slopes
due to underneath soft soil or rock of curved surface. In loose
rock mass and weathered top surfaces failures mostly noticed
along curved surfaces.
Subsidence: - It is the sinking of the ground in almost vertically
downward direction, which may occur due to removal of the
support from the underground and overlying mass.
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES: - Many factors are causing a mass of material to slide or flow. Some of
them play a direct role and are easily understand whereas others are indirectly responsible for the
instability of the landmass. All such factors that facilities land sliding in one way or another is generally
grouped under two headings.
INTERNAL FACTORS
a. The nature of slope: - Great majority of mass failure indicates
that the slopes are directly responsible. In some cases, steep to very
steep slopes are stable, but in some other cases, even gentle slopes
show unstable conditions.
b. Water content: - Water act in a number of ways to reduce the
shearing strength of the rock or soil mass. Presence of water in the
rocks pore spaces affect all the strength properties adversely, when water flow around the grains. This
flow of water around grains and planes of weaknesses creates lubricating action which is of greater
importance.
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c. Composition and compaction of the mass: - Compaction plays
as important part in stability of the masses. Sandstone exhibits a great
variation in chemical composition. Siliceous sandstones would be
highly stable even during intensive rains and at steep slopes; whereas
clayey or calcareous may suffer repeated failure under same
conditions. Texture of rocks also plays an important part indicating
the degree & packing of grains. Porosity and
permeability are the two important factors influencing the percolation of water through the mass.
d. Geological structures: Of all the geological structure the inclination (dip), joints, fault zones of the
rock beds, presence or deposition of shear and other planes of weakness are important in defining their
stability.
I. EXTERNAL FACTORS: - Rock mass failure occurs due to earthquakes and blasting around mines
nearby.
a. Soil creep: - It is a type of slow flowage of soil take place under the
vegetation cover commonly in cold humid slopes. Frost (ice) action favors soil
creep in particular when water seeping in pores and expands due to freezing.
This repeated expansion and contraction or drying and wetting may result in
breaking the soil to loosen grains that can be moved downward under
the pull of the gravity.
b. Soilfluction: - It is also a slow flowage type of mass movement and is
similar to soil creep in the rate of downward. It is the slow movement of
blankets of soil or rock fragments occurs even in very gentle slopes after
rainfall. It differs from soil creep in water content and that it is
comparatively faster.
c. Earth and Mud flow: - These are rapid type of clays; silts type of
mass movements takes place usually after heavy rains or heavy melting
of snow and ice. Clay on becoming wet rendered plastic and start
almost slipping under its own load in the presence of water. In
mudflows the quantity of the water is very high so that the whole mass
is reduced to slush or mud.
d. Rock slides: - It’s a type of compact rock fails due to the pull of
gravity which starts moving downward without rolling action. This
failure surface may be curved or planar in nature. It’s a very complex
phenomenon occurs due to either natural or artificial frictional forces
offered by the mass against gravity. Rocks containing layers of clay with
dipping towards valley are likely to cause rockslides.
f. Rock falls: - This occurs when the slopes are extremely high or rock
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surface is highly fractured or jointed so that the falling mass is made up
of numerous small or large blocks. These blocks slide for some
distances and then start rolling down when the slope is very steep.
REMEDIAL MEASURES OF LANDSLIDES
Many methods for controlling the slides are available and choice of many methods will depend of factors
like nature of slide, the underlying cause for it, the nature and amount of material involved and the
economical consideration, of such method most important are.
1. Providing adequate drainage: - It involves the removal of moisture
from the rocks as well as preventing any further moisture to approach
the material to sliding. This may be achieved either by surface drainage
or by subsurface drainage, construction of interpretation ditches,
waterway, trenches and drainage tunnels may become necessary.
Grouting the joints and other fractures may also prove helpful.
2. Construction of retaining walls: - All such devices like
construction of retaining wall are aimed to stop the moving mass
by force and their success is always doubtful. Construction of
retaining wall requires an accurate assessment of the forces, which
the wall has to withstand. Retaining walls may prove
exceptionally, successful where,
i) The ground is neither too fine nor too plastic
ii) The sliding mass is likely to remain dry
iii) The movement is of shallow nature
3. Slope treatment: - When the material is soil and
situation is a slope the failure is attributed to a loss of
stability. In such cases the treatment involves stability
for the particular type of soil and slope and if such
computation indicates that a given slope of soil will
not be stable, then the solution lies in either.
i) Flattening the slope
ii) Decreasing the load
iii) Increasing the shearing resistant of the soil by decreasing its water content with help of drains
and evaporation
iv) Afforestation that is growth of vegetation cover with intricate and interwoven root
system has also been found useful in stabilizing the barren slopes.
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Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth’s outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over the mantle,
the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like hard and rigid shells compared to Earth’s mantle.
This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere. The earth’s lithosphere is composed of seven or eight
major plates and many minor plates. The lithosphere is a rigid outermost shell of the earth and is broken up
into tectonic plates. When these plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary like
convergent, divergent, or transform.
Volcanic activity, earthquakes, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate
boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.
How do plate tectonics affect humans?
Plate tectonics affects humans in several important ways.
• It causes earthquakes
• It causes volcanism
• It induces the recycling of elements within the biosphere and between the geosphere and biosphere
• It causes mountain-building
Types of plate boundaries:
Plate Boundaries mainly consist of three types (the fourth is a mixed type), formed in the manner the plates
shift in relative to each other. These are collectively referred to as surface phenomena of different types.
Plate boundaries are of different types, namely:
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Divergent Boundaries
Convergent Boundaries
Transform Boundaries
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Transform boundaries:
These boundaries happen where two lithospheric plates move apart, or maybe further precisely, collide
away from one other despite the transform faults, where plates are neither created nor destroyed. These
boundaries happen when natural or human-made structures that cross a transform boundary are offset—split
into pieces and carried in opposite directions.
Divergent boundaries:
These boundaries happen when both plates move apart from one another.
Convergent boundaries:
These boundaries happen when both plates move towards one other to form a zone of subduction or a
continental collision.
Plate boundary zones:
These boundaries happen where the effects of the interactions are unclear, and the boundaries usually occur
along a broad belt.
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