The term “transformation” in translation studies is used to show the relationship

between the source and target language expressions, the substitution in the process of
translation of one form of expression by another, a substitution that we figuratively call
conversion or transformation. The main purpose of the translation is to achieve adequacy.
The main task of an interpreter at achieving adequacy is to skillfully produce various
translation transformations so that the text of the translation as accurately as possible
conveys all the information contained in the original text while observing the appropriate
norms of the target language. The adequacy of the translation is always connected with
the skills of a competent statement of the translation problem and the ability to make the
necessary transformational translation.
The basis of the transformation theory of translation is the activity of an
interpreter, which consists in converting or transforming the source text into a translated
(output) text. The emergence of this theory with the thoughts of linguistic teaching,
which many people know as “transformational grammar.” She explores the rules for
creating syntactic structures that can be characterized as a set of lexemes and logical-
syntactic links.
At the sentence level, the most common transformations every translator makes are 1)
omission, 2) addition, 3) transposition, 4) change of grammatical forms, 5) loss
compensation, 6) concretization, 7) generalization 8) antonymic translation, 9) meaning
extension, 10) metonymic translation, 11) sentence integration, and 12) sentence
fragmentation. These transformations are caused by differences in the grammar and
vocabulary of the source language (SL) and target language (TL). In order to avoid an
inadequate, word-for-word translation (grammatical “over-literal rendering”) it is
necessary to apply translating grammatical transformations. As a result a literal
translation is adapted to the standards of the language of translation and becomes
adequate. Under grammar transformation one envisages a change of the grammatical
characteristics of a word, word combination or a sentence in a translation.
These aspects of translation refer to the 'nuts and bolts' of the translation craft and
business, yet in translation studies scholars often use respective terms indiscriminately,
especially often mixing levels of transformations and techniques of translation. Suffice it
to mention that even well known classifications of textual modifications confuse
transformations proper and techniques of translation. The term operations of translation is
reserved by us to those cases when a translator makes use of ready dictionary
correspondences to translate a given unit by merely replacing it.
Besides, there is one more aspect of translation transformations which is
connected with the understanding of the mechanism of transformations. This problem
initially linked with lexical transformations gave rise to a heated discussion that revealed
its principal significance in understanding the nature of any transformations.
[Link] argues that lexical transformations should be understood as
substitutions of some lexical units (words and stable word combinations) in a SLT by
lexical units in TL which are not their dictionary equivalents , that is such units which
taken outside the given context possess a different referential meaning . ( Barkhudarov L.
S: 6)
The supporters of the other approach to lexical transformations believe that there
are no absolute equivalents in any two languages and since translation itself is regarded
as a kind of transformation which presupposes the retention of semantic invariant of a
source text content rather than its surface structure, i.e. the form of expressing this
content, is liable to change, cf. school leavers.
In a systematic way translation transformations were considered and classified by
prof. Ya.I. Retsker in close connection with the theory of regular correspondences, which
distinguished between adequate substitutions (later named 'lexical transformations') and
equivalent, variant and contextual correspondences. Transformations are classified by the
author into lexical (comprising differentiation, concretizing, generalization оf meaning,
sense development, antonymic translation, entire phrase modification, compensation for
losses), grammatical (full - with complete sentence restructuring and partial with partial
restructuring) and stylistic (expressive-emotional concretizing due to the necessity to
follow the principle of expressive-stylistic compatibility (in the terminology of V.G. Gak)
and expressive-pragmatic concretizing).
 In our classification of translation transformations from the point of view of the
level on which they are made we proceed from the understanding of the object of
translation which has been defined above as speech units, i.e. texts. Accordingly, a
translator resorts to various modifications either of fragments (segments) of a text or a
whole text. Transformations involving segments of a text may refer to the elements of the
semantic, lexical, morphological, syntactical (with two sublevels - that of a phrase and
that of a sentence) levels, whereas textual transformations are active on the level of a text
as an entity. All the above mentioned levels of transformations with the exception of the
semantic level may involve changes on two planes: content and form. Correspondingly,
in real practice of translation various transformations overlap affecting various aspects of
a speech unit: semantic, syntactic and pragmatic.
Techniques of translation relate to a translator's concrete actions and particular
ways of translation which bring about a certain modification or transformation of a SLT.
L.S. Barkhudarov described his transformations in terms of four basic techniques: (a)
restructuring (or transpositions), (b) substitutions, (c) additions and (d) omissions (or
deletions) . In his opinion, all the major classifications of translator's techniques boil
down to those four. (Barkhudarov 1975:240)
The authors point out that the technical ways and means of translation are limited
and can be exhaustively described in terms of those seven above which are enumerated
according to the degree of difficulties of translation. In the classification they refer the
first three techniques of translation to direct (or literal) translation thanks to structural
or/and metalinguistic (notional) parallelism in the two languages. The remaining four
techniques are associated by the authors with non-direct translation and are due to either
structural or metalinguistic discrepancies or 'empty cells'.
Thus, we can take for a basis L.S. Barkhudarov's classification and supplement it
with one more type, namely entire message modification ('целостное преобразование').
This system of techniques of translation comprising five types underlies various
translation transformations on all tin levels discussed above, used alone or in various
combinations. (Barkhudarov,1975)
1.2 Lexical Transformations
According to Ya. I. Retsker there are the following types of word transformations: a)
differentiation of meaning, b) concretization of meaning, c) generalization of meaning, d)
semantic development, e) antonym translation, f) complete transformation, g)
compensation. (Retsker,2007:13, 46-59)
1. Differentiation and concretization usually come together. In differentiation, it is
possible without concretization, when a word with a broad meaning must be
translated with the same general, broad-meaning word. For example, in general
drink means ըմպելիք, something liquid to drink - coffee, tea, juice, milk, or
alcoholic beverages. Depending on the context, the word "ըմպելիք" in
Armenian, which means non-alcoholic beverage, or "խմիչք", which is usually an
alcoholic beverage, may correspond to this in Armenian.
2. Concretization is impossible without differentiation. Same the word drink can be
translated into assorted words, depending on the context: whiskey, vodka, brandy,
gin etc. Alternatively, the English word cousin (first cousin) are the children of an
aunt or uncle, in a more general sense, the children of the relatives. While
translating into Armenian, concretization may be used – հորաքրոջ
տղա/աղջիկ, մորաքրոջ տղա/աղջիկ.
3. Generalization is the opposite of concretization. Sometimes the word in a specific
sense may not correspond, and the translator has no choice but to generalize. For
example, Armenians does not have the appropriate range of words for different
types of shoes: boots, derbies, ballet flats, boots, boots, slippers, grinders, uggies,
loafers. When the specific meaning is not relevant in the context, or it is
understood from the context, the translator can replace the word term with the
word gender. However, the context can force you to translate with just a word. In
this case, a descriptive translation may be required, which is usually accompanied
by a transliteration.
 4. The development of meaning is a translational skill, which according to Retsker
can have the following options: 1) process is replaced by consequence, 2) process
is replaced by cause, 3) cause is replaced by process, 4) cause is replaced by
consequence, 5) consequence is replaced by cause, 6) consequence is replaced by
process. For example. “He has not returned from work yet.” (literally, «Նա դեռ
աշխատանքից չի վերադարձել») – Նա տանը չէ:
5. Antonym translation is a rather common transformation. In this case, not only
the word of the original is replaced by an antonym, but also the structure of the
sentence can be transformed, positive, negative or vice versa.
For example. “I don’t want you to leave.” – Ուզում եմ՝ մնաս:
6. Complete transformation. When not individual units in a sentence are
transformed, but whole word combinations, sometimes the whole sentence. For
example, in Armenian the fairy-tales starts with «Լինում է-չի լինում»,
«Ժուկով-ժամանակով», «Կար-չկար», in English “once upon a time”.
And when translating from one language to another, these formulas are subject to
complete transformations due to extra-linguistic factors, in this case, the tradition
of the language of translation. Idiomatic expressions are also translated owing to
complete transformation.
7. Compensation is one of the most commonly used types of transformation, when
in the translation this or that missing information of the original text is
supplemented in another place, by other means. For example, the text uses high-
style words, archaisms, which are a way of making the word solemn in the text,
and in the language of translation the specific words do not have a corresponding
stylistic equivalent. The translator can use the compensation method by using the
opportunity of the Armenian language and translate them with the help of bookish
words, classical Armenian grammatical forms and inversion.
1.3 Grammatical transformations
In grammatical transformations, Retsker singles out: a) changes in the order of words in a
sentence, b) word-substitutions and substitutions of sentence members, c) partial or
complete changes in the structure of a sentence.
1. Inversion can have linguistic or non-linguistic reasons. For example, the usual
syntax of Eastern Armenian is mainly SVO (subject-verb-object). It can also be
SOV, English: SVO, in Arabic - VSO, due to which the inversion is inevitable.
The most common transformations at the etymological level are:
a) Transformations of nouns: noun-pronoun, noun-adjective, noun-verb, adverb-
adjective, adverb-pronoun, adjective – pronoun etc.
English teacher (adj.) – անգլերենի (n.) ուսուցիչ
English literature (adj.) – անգլիական (n.) գրականություն
b) Transformations of grammatical categories (number, acquisition, consonant,
weather, time, verb gender).
Transformations of grammatical number: Singular-plural, nouns, which are always
in plural -singular or always singular nouns - plural.
What is expressed in the plural in English and in Russian can be expressed in the
singular in Armenian or vice versa.
Physics, Maths (words do not have singular forms/Pluralia tantum) – ֆիզիկա,
մաթեմատիկա (always in singular)
2. Articles: In Armenian, there are both definite (ը/ն) and indefinite (zero) articles
as in English (a/an, the, zero article), but they do not always coincide.
For example, in Armenian, personal names can get a certain article, and in
English, no (except when there is a need to specify which person in particular).
John is coming. - Ջոնը գալիս է:
Grammatical case: Grammatical case is one of the means of expressing the syntactic
dependence of the word, mainly noun and pronoun. In Armenian, the prepositions have
the same way role of connections. In both the same and different languages, the same
grammatical meaning can be expressed in different grammatical cases, prepositions or
conjunctions, and in languages that do not have grammatical case, it can be expressed
in prepositions or through syntax.
 According to R. Jaghatspanyan there are the following types of lexical
transformations: 1) Transliteration and Transcription 2)Addition 3) Omission
(Reduction) 4) Calque 5) Lexical-Semantic transformations (with its subtypes) 5.1)
Specification 5.2) Generalization 5.3) Modulation. (Jaghatspanyan, R., 2014: 10-30p)
1. Transliteration and Transcription are techniques of rewriting or converting
of the characters of a text from one writing system to another writing system. It is about
converting written characters into a different script. These are means of translation in
which the form of a word unit of the source language is reproduced by the letter of the
target language, for example sultan-սուլթան. (Jaghatspanyan, R., 2014: 10-30p)
2. Addition is the process, when additional words are entered in the translation
text that are missing in the source text, for example I can't look at it again- Ես նորից
չեմ կարող տեսնել այդ տեսարանը, or when the abbreviated name of an
institution, place, publication is replaced by their full name in the translated text, for
example I live in Armenia - Ես ապրում եմ Հայաստանի
Հանրապետությունում: (Jaghatspanyan, R., 2014: 10-30p)
3. Omission is the opposite of expansion. In this process translator usually takes
out some unnecessary words, in case when their meanings are already clear in the
context. In the case of omission, the volume of the text is reduced without significant loss
of the meaning. For example, destiny and fate – ճակատագիր: (Jaghatspanyan, R.,
2014: 10-30p)
4. Calque is actually the translation of a word or phrase by parts. For example:
velvet revolution – թավշյա հեղափոխություն. This is the literal translation of a
phrase from one language into another, coining a new term in the target language. In
other words, this is the literal translation of a borrowed word. (Jaghatspanyan, R., 2014:
10-30p)
5. Lexical-Semantic transformations are situations in which linguistic units are
used in the process of translation, concepts of which do not coincide with the meaning of
the corresponding units of the original text, but are still logically connected to the text:
(Jaghatspanyan, R., 2014: 10-30p)
5.1. Specification is a technique during which words with a wider meaning are
replaced by terms with narrower meaning. For example, “they run a loose shop” –
«Նրանք աշխատացնում են մի անփույթ գործարան»: (Jaghatspanyan, R.,
2014: 10-30p)
5.2) Generalization is the opposite of specification. Sometimes the word in a
specific sense may not correspond, and the translator has no choice but to generalize. For
example, Armenians do not have the appropriate range of words for different types of
shoes: boots, derbies, ballet flats, boots, slippers, grinders, uggies, loafers.
When the specific meaning is not relevant in the context, or it is understood from
the context, the translator can replace the word term with the word gender. So it is
substituting words of a narrower meaning with those of a wider meaning. For example:
“Ominous” – «Սա վատ նշան էր»: (Jaghatspanyan, R., 2014: 10-30p)
5.3) Modulation is a technique in which the ST message is reproduced wholly in
TL in accordance with current TL standards. For example: Forget it – Չարժե հիշել:
(Jaghatspanyan, R., 2014: 10-30p)