1.
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
DIFFERENT TYPES OF EMISSION:
1. Thermionic emission: When a cathode is heated indirectly or directly and if
there is emission of electron is called thermionic emission
2. Photoelectric emission: When light of suitable frequency is made to fall on
a metal surface and if there is emission of photoelectrons then it is called
photoelectric emission
3. Field emission: When a metal plate is subjected to strong electric field
(108 𝑒𝑉) and if the e is emission of electron then it is called field emission.
4. Secondary emission: When a fast moving electrons collide with an atom
and if there is emission of electron then it is called secondary emission.
DEFINE WORK FUNCTION: It is the minimum energy of incident light on a
metal, which is required to emit a photoelectron without imparting any
KE [𝑊₀ 𝑜𝑟 𝜑₀ ] 𝑊₀ = ℎ 𝜈 ₀.
Work function depends on a )properties of the metal b) the nature of its surface.
The work function for 𝑝𝑡 is high 5.65𝑒 𝑉 and cesium has lowest value of 2.14𝑒𝑉
Threshold frequency (𝝂₀): It is the minimum frequency of incident light above
which there is emission of a photo electron from the metal surface without imparting
any 𝐾𝐸 to the electron.
Threshold wavelength (𝝀₀): It is maximum wavelength of incident light incident
on a metal surface below which there is an emission of photoelectron. 𝑊₀ = ℎ 𝑐 ⁄𝜆₀
One electron volt [𝒆𝑽]: Is the energy acquired by an electron when it has been
accelerated by a pd of 1 volt. 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 ∗ 10−19 𝐽
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: It is the phenomenon of the emission of
photoelectrons from the metal surface when light of suitable frequency is falling on a
metal surface.
The photoelectric effect involves conversion of light energy into
electrical energy. The metal like zinc, cadmium and Mg will respond to 𝑈𝑉 light
only. Some alkali metal such as sodium, potassium, cesium and rubidium are sensitive
to even visible light.
1
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:-
It consists of evacuated glass or quartz tube have photo sensitive plate 𝐶 and another
plate 𝐴. A monochromatic light of suitable frequency falls on the metal plate 𝐶. The
photo electrons are emitted form the plate 𝐶, which reaches the plate 𝐴 when
positive potential is applied to plate 𝐴 with respect to 𝐶. A photo electric current is
flowing which is measured by 𝜇 Ammeter.
HERTZ’ S OBSERVATIONS:
He discovered the phenomenon of photo electric emission during his 𝐸𝑀𝑊
experiments. High voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the
emitter plate was illuminated by 𝑈𝑉 light from arc lamp. Light shining on the metal
surface, some electron near the surface abosorb enough energy from the Incident
radiation to overcome attraction of the positive ions in the metal surface. After
gaining sufficient energy escape from the surface of the metal into the surrounding
space.
HALLWACHS AND LEONARD’S OBSERVATION:
He observed that when UV light was allowed to fall on the emitter plate on a
evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes, current flows in the circuit. As soon as
the UV radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped. These observations
indicate that when UV radiations fall on the emitter plate C, electrons are ejected
2
from it, which are attracted towards the positive collector plate A by the electric field.
The electron flows through the evacuated glass tube, resulting current flow. They
studied about the variation of PE current with collector potential and intensity of
light.
Hallwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope and observed
that the zinc plate was lost its charge when it was illuminated by UV light. Further a
charged zinc plate became positively charged and it was irradiated by UV light positive
charge on a positively charged zinc plate was found to be further enhanced when it
was illuminated by UV light. From these observations he concluded that the
negatively charge particle were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of UV
light.
Hallwachs and Leonard’s also observed that when UV light fell on the emitted plate no
electrons were emitted at all when the frequency of incident light was smaller than
certain minimum value called the threshold frequency. This minimum frequency
depends on the nature of the material of the emitter plate.
Certain metal like zinc, cadmium, Mg etc responded only to UV light having short
wavelength to cause electron emission from the surface. However some alkali metals
metals such as Li, Na, K caesium, Rubidium were sensitive even to visible light. All the
photosensitive substances emit the electrons when they are illuminated by light.
[Alkali metal havelowworkfunction]
EFFECT OF POTENTIAL ON PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT:
Keeping intensity of light and frequency of light constant, the plate A is maintained
some positive potential with respect to C. Some current flows in the external circuit.
When the potential is increased then the number of photo electrons reaching the
plate A increases. This will continue until a stage reaches when the photo electric
current attains saturation i.e. for the increase of the potential of A the photoelectric
current does not increase. This maximum current is called saturation current i.e. all
the photoelectrons emitted reach the plate A.
When the plate A is given negative potential with respect to C, the photo electric
current decreases because some fast moving electrons only can reach the plate A.
When the negative potential increases, Photo electric current decreases because few
electrons can reach the plate A since electrons are repelled by plate A. At particular
potential all electrons stops in reaching the plate A, i.e. Photo electric current
becomes zero. This potential is called stopping potential 𝑉0.
Stopping potential is the minimum retarding potential given to plate A with
respect to plate C such that even the fast moving electrons are stopped in reaching
the plate A i.e. Photo electric current becomes zero.
𝒆𝑽𝟎 = 𝟏/𝟐𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒙
If the intensity of the incident light increases, the number of photon in the radiation
increases, the number of photoelectrons emitted increases so the saturation current
increases. But the stopping potential does not change.
3
Stopping potential independent of the intensity of light.
INFERENCE:
a) If the intensity of the incident light increases, the saturation current increases
since number of electrons emitted is proportional to intensity of light.
EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF LIGHT ON PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
In this, the intensity is kept constant, for various
frequencies, the variation of Photo electric current with voltage is studied. For
particular frequency, as the applied plate A voltage is increased, the Photo electric
current also increases until saturation current is attained. We obtain the retarding
potential by applying retarding potential.
If the frequencies of incident radiation increases 𝜈1 < 𝜈2 < 𝜈3 , the 𝐾𝐸 max of photo
electrons increases so the stopping potential increases. 𝑉01 < 𝑉02 < 𝑉03. But the
saturation current remains the same i.e. saturation current is independent of
frequency. The graph shows that
4
a) The stopping potential 𝑉0 varies linearly with the frequency of incident
radiation for a given photo sensitive metal.
b) There exits a certain minimum cut off frequency 𝜈0 for which stopping
potential is zero.
The observation produces two important results:
1) The KE max of the photoelectron varies linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation but is independent of its intensity.
2) For a frequency 𝜈 of incident radiation lower than the cut off frequency 𝜈0 , no
Photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large enough.
EFFECT OF INTENSITY ON PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
Keeping frequency constant (𝜈 > 𝜈0 ), if the intensity of the incident light increases,
number of photon in the radiation increases, more electrons are emitted from the
plate C and are attracted by the plate A, when the positive potential is given to the
plate A. As the intensity increases, saturated (photoelectric) current increases. If the
positive potential kept constant and if the intensity increases, the Photoelectric
current is found to increase linearly.
But the stopping potential remains the same. It is independent of intensity.
Draw Stopping potential 𝑽𝑺 frequency graph and how will you find the
Planck’s constant form the graph.
5
According Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
ℎ𝜈1 − ℎ𝜈0 = 1/2𝑚𝜈 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉02 → (1)
ℎ𝜈2 − ℎ𝜈0 = 1/2𝑚𝜈 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉01 → (2)
Equ (2) − (1)
h(2 − 1 ) = e(V02 − V02 )
ℎ ∆ 𝑣 = 𝑒 ∆ 𝑉0 ; ℎ = 𝑒 ∗ ∆ 𝑉0⁄∆ 𝑣
𝑖. 𝑒. ℎ = 𝑒 ∗ Slope of the graph where slope = 𝐴𝐶 ⁄𝐵𝐶
The intercept of the line in X axis given the threshold frequency and the intercept of
the line in Y axis gives work function is volt. (𝑊0⁄𝑒). The 𝑉0 𝑉𝑆 𝑣 graph is
independent of the nature of the material.
The successful explanation of PE effect using hypothesis of light quanta and the
experimental values of h and 𝑊0 , in agreement with values obtained from the other
experiments led to the acceptance of Einstein’s picture of PE effect.
STATE LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
1) For a given photoelectric metal, there exit certain minimum cut off frequency
above Which there is emission of photoelectrons and below which there is no
emission of photoelectrons whatever may be the intensity of light. It is called
threshold frequency
2) Above νo as the frequency increases, stopping potential also increase. But is
independent of intensity
3) For a given photo sensitive material and constant frequency of incident light,
as the Intensity of incident light increases, saturation photo electric current
also increases linearly, where as stopping potential is independent of intensity
of light.
4) Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process without any apparent time
𝑙𝑒𝑔(10−9 𝑠), even when the incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.
STATE EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION:
6
Photoelectric emission was explained successfully by Plank’s quantum theory.
According to this theory, light radiation consists of tiny pockets of energy called
quanta or photon, which travels with the speed of light. The energy is 𝐸 = ℎ 𝑣 where
h is Plank’s constant and V is the frequency of the incident light.
He assumed that one photon of suitably high – energy releases only one electron
from the metal surface. One electrons absorbs one photon completely, in which a)
part of the energy is used to liberating the electron from the metal surface which
equal to work function b) the rest of the energy is converted into KE of the electrons.
If v is the frequency of the incident light and 𝑊0 is the work function of the metal and
the velocity of the photoelectron v then
E-𝑊0 = 𝑘𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝐸 is the energy of the incident radiation and KEmax is the maximum
KE of the emitted photoelectron.
ℎ 𝑣 − ℎ 𝑣 0 = 1⁄2 𝑚 𝑉 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 where h is the Planck’s constant.
ℎ 𝑣 − ℎ 𝑣 0 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑉 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑉0 is the stopping potential.
This is the Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
ℎ𝑐(1⁄𝜆 − 1⁄𝜆0) = 1⁄2 𝑚 𝑉 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑉0
Explanation of the laws of the photoelectric emission on the basis of
Einstein’s photoelectric equation
ℎ(𝑉 − 𝑉0 ) = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑉 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑉0
1) If the frequency of the incident radiation is greater than the threshold
frequency of the metal, then there is emission of photoelectron. If 𝑣 < 𝑣0, the
KE becomes negative, which is not possible.
2) If the frequency of the incident radiation increases (𝑣 > 𝑣0 ), the KE max of
the Photoelectron increases and the corresponding stopping potential also
increases.
3) If the intensity of the incident radiation increases, the number of
photoelectrons increases, photo electric current increases but KE of the
photoelectrons does not get affected and hence stopping potential.
4) Absorption of energy of photon by the electron, which involves transfer of
energy from at once without any time lag. Due to this, photoelectric emission
takes place without any time lag.
Failure Of Wave Theory Of Light to explain The Photoelectric Effect
Wave theory explains successfully the phenomenon interference, diffraction and
polarization but could not explain photoelectric effect. According to this theory, light
is a electro magnetic wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields with continuous
distribution of energy over the region of space over which the wave is extended.
a) According to the wave picture of photoelectric emission, the free electrons at
the surface of metal absorbs radiation and the amplitudes of EMW and energy
density increases. If the intensity of the incident radiation increases, the
absorption of energy increases. I.e. the maximum KE of the electrons
increases. If the intensity of incident radiation increases the KE of
photoelectrons increases and hence gets released from the metal surface
7
irrespective of the frequency of the incident radiation. So threshold frequency
does not exist. But experimentally we found that if the frequency of incident
radiation is lesser than the frequency of the threshold frequency then what
ever may be intensity of light there is no emission of photoelectrons.
b) In wave theory, the absorption of energy by electron takes place continuously
over the entire wave front of the radiation. Since large number of electrons
shares the available energy, each electron absorbs less amount of energy only.
To get the required amount of energy, for the electron, to get emitted from
the metal surface, the metal surface should be exposed for the longer time. So
the time taken for the ejection of electrons, after gaining enough energy to
overcome work function, is very large. But experimentally we found that time
lag between the incident radiation and the emission of electrons is about 10−9
sec. Thus wave picture fails to explain the photoelectric effect.
PHOTON: Photons are the packets of energy or energy particles, which are emitted
by the source of radiation. They travel in a straight line.
Main features of photons:
1) According to Planck’s quantum theory, a source of radiation emits energy in
the form of photons, which travels in the straight line. In interaction of
radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called
photons.
2) Energy of photon is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 and 𝑃 = ℎ/𝜆 where 𝜈 is the frequency of incident
radiation whatever the intensity may be. If the intensity increases, the number
of photons increases,
3) All the photons emitted from the source will travel with the same speed in the
same medium.
4) The energy of the radiation does not change when it travels into the second
medium.
5) There is change in velocity of photon when the photon travels from one
medium into another medium due to change in wavelength.
6) 𝑚0 = 𝑚√[1 − (𝑉 2 /𝐶 2 )] If 𝑣 = 𝑐 for photon, 𝑚0 = 0, so the photon can not
exist at rest.
Photon has zero rest mass.
7) Photons are electrically neutral and it has momentum 𝑃 = ℎ/𝜆 and 𝐸/𝑐 and
energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈. In a photon – particle collision, the total energy and total
momentum are conserved. However, the number of photons may not be
conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be
created.
8) If the intensity of incident light increases, number of photons increases,
number of photo electron emitted increases saturated photo electric current
increases.
9) If frequency of incident light increases, energy of each photon increases, KE
max increases, stopping potential increases.
8
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION:
The phenomenon of interference, diffraction and polarization of light could be
explained by radiation of the wave nature and photoelectric effect and Compton
effect are explained by the radiation of particle. So radiation has dual nature.
Photoelectric cell
It is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy. It is also called an
electric eye. Photoelectric cells are of three types, namely
Photo emissive cell, photovoltaic cell, photoconductive cell
Photo emissive cell (also called photo tube)
It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube. Inside the tube, there is a semi-
cylindrical photo-sensitive metal plate C and a wire loop A which serve as cathode and
anode respectively. The tube is provided with insulating base on which metallic pins
are connected to these pins and through these pins, photocell is fitted into a socket
and is connected to the external circuit having a battery (B), and micro ammeter (𝜇𝐴),
and a load resistance R in the circuit.
WORKING:
When light of suitable frequency is allowed to fall on the cathode, photoelectrons
are emitted. These are attracted by anode, which is kept at positive potential w.r.t
cathode. So a current starts flowing in the circuit. Due to it, micro-ammeter shows a
deflection. The photoelectric current is very small, so it is to be amplified first before
it is used for some useful purpose. When the light is cut off, no photoelectrons are
ejected from the cathode and hence there is no current in the external circuit.
APPLICATIONS OF PHOTO ELECTRIC CELLS:
1) Photoelectric cells are used in television camera for telecasting scenes and in
photography.
2) Photocells are used for the reproduction of sound recorded on films along
with pictures in the movie theatre.
3) Photocells are used in counting devices, which records every interception on
the light beam caused by a person passing across the beam provided they
9
come one by one. Invisible light is continuously made to fall on the photocell
installed at the doorway. A person entering the door interrupts the beam
falling on the photocell. The abrupt change in photocurrent is used to start an
electric bell ringing.
4) Photocells are also used in burglar alarm and fire alarms. A number of
photocells are installed at suitable places in a building. In the event of breaking
of fire, light radiation fall upon the photocell. This complete the electric circuit
through an electric bell or a siren which starts operating as a warning signal.
5) Photocells are also used to measure the temperature of stars and to study the
spectrum of heavenly bodies.
6) They are used to switch on and off the street lighting system at dusk and
dawn, without any manual attention.
7) They are used in photometry to compare the illuminating powers of two
sources.
8) They are used in industries for locating minor flaws or holes in metallic sheets.
9) They are used as photoelectric sorters to sort out the materials of different
shades.
10) They are used to determine the opacity of solids and liquids.
11) They are used to control the temperature and chemical reactions.
12) They are used for the determination of Planck’s constant.
DE BROGLIE DUALISTIC HYPOTHESIS
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER.
Since radiation has dual nature i.e. it possesses properties of both wave and particle
and universe is composed of radiation and matter, therefore de Broglie concluded
that the matter must also possess dual nature, since nature loves symmetry.
De-Broglie hypothesis
According to de-Broglie a moving material particle sometimes acts as a wave and
sometimes acts as a particle or a wave is associated with moving material particle,
which controls the particle in every respect. The wave associated with moving
particle is called matter wave or de-broglie wave whose wavelength called de-
broglie wavelength, is given by
𝝀 = 𝒉/𝒎𝝂
where 𝑚 and 𝜈 are the mass and velocity of the particle and ℎ is a Planck’s constant.
Derivation of de-broglie wavelength
According to Planck’s quantum theory, the energy of photon of a radiation of
frequency 𝜐 and wavelength 𝜆 is
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 → (1) Where ℎ is a Planck’s constant. If photon is considered to be a
particle of mass 𝑚, the energy associated with it, according to Einstein mass energy
relation, is given by 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 → (2)
From (1) and (2) we get, ℎ𝜐 = 𝑚𝑐 2 or ℎ𝑐/𝜆 = 𝑚𝐶 2 ; 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑚𝐶
Since each photon moves with the same velocity 𝑐, therefore momentum of photon,
𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝 = ℎ/𝑚𝑣………(4)
10
This is de-broglie wave equation for material particle
From de-broglie hypothesis, we conclude the following
(i) 𝑣 = 0, 𝜆 =infinity, and if 𝑣 =infinity then 𝜆 = 0
It means the waves are associated with the material particles only if they are in
motion. The material particle may be charged or uncharged but when it is in motion;
the waves are associated, which are independent of charge. It means de-broglie
waves cannot be electro-magnetic in nature because electro-magnetic waves are
produced by motion of charged particles.
Since the position of wave cannot be located exactly, therefore, the wave nature of
material particle introduces the problem of particle location. It means the wavelength
of a wave associated with moving particle defines a region of uncertainty, within
which the whereabouts of particle are unknown.
De-Broglie Wavelength Of An Electron:
Consider an electron of mass 𝑚 and charge 𝑒. Let 𝜈 be the velocity of the electron
where accelerated from rest through a 𝑝𝑑 of 𝑉 volt, then
Gain in KE of electron = 1/2 𝑚𝑣 2 ; WD on the electron = 𝑒𝑉
1/2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉; 𝑣 = √(2𝑒𝑉/𝑚)
If 𝜆 is the wavelength associated with the electron, then 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑚𝑣 = ℎ/√(2𝑚𝑒𝑉);
𝜆 =[6.63*10−34/√(2*9.1*10−31*1.6*10−19*V)]= 12.27 𝐴° /√𝑉
11