BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Syllabus
1.0 Introduction to Control system
1.1 Scope of Control System Engineer
1.2 Classification of Control System
1.3 Historical development of Control system
1.4 Analogues systems
1.5 Transfer function of Systems
1.6 Block diagram representation
1.7 Signal Flow Graph(SFG)
2.0 Feedback Characteristics of Control systems and sensitivity measures

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2.1 The Concept of Feedback and Closed loop control
2.2 Merits of using Feedback control system
2.3 Regenerative Feedback
3.0Control System Components
3.1 Potentiometers
3.2 DC and AC Servomotors
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3.3 Tachometers
3.4 Amplidyne
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3.5 Hydralulic systems
3.6 Pneumatic systems
3.7 Stepper Motors
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4.0 Time Domain Performance Analysis of Linear Control Systems

4.1 Standard Test Signals
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4.2 Time response of 1st order Systems

4.3 Unit step response of a prototype 2nd order system
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4.4 Unit Ramp response of a second order system

4.4 Performance Specification of Linear System in Time domain
4.5 The Steady State Errors and Error Constants
4.6 Effect of P, PI, PD and PID Controller
4.7 Effect of Adding a zero to a system
4.8 Performance Indices(ISE,ITSE,IAE, ITAE)
4.9 Approximations of Higher order Systems by Lower order Problems
5.0 The Stability of Linear Control Systems
5.1 The Concept of Stability
5.2 The Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion
5.3 Relative stability analysis

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6.0 Root Locus Technique

6.1 Angle and Magnitude Criterion
6.2 Properties of Root Loci
6.3 Step by Step Procedure to Draw Root Locus Diagram
6.4 Closed Loop Transfer Function and Time Domain response
6.5 Determination of Damping ratio, Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Root Locus
6.6 Root Locus for System with transportation Lag.
6.7 Sensitivity of Roots of the Characteristic Equation.
7.0 Frequency Domain Analysis.
7.1 Correlation between Time and frequency response
7.2 Frequency Domain Specifications

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7.3 Polar Plots and inverse Polar plots
7.4 Bode Diagrams
7.4.1 Principal factors of Transfer function
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7.4.2 Procedure for manual plotting of Bode Diagram
7.4.3 Relative stability Analysis
7.4.4 Minimum Phase, Non-minimum phase and All pass systems
7.5 Log Magnitude vs Phase plots.
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7.6 Nyquist Criterion
7.6.1 Mapping Contour and Principle of Argument
7.6.2 Nyquist path and Nyquist Plot
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7.6.3 Nyquist stability criterion

7.6.4 Relative Stability: Gain Margin, and Phase Margin
7.7 Closed Loop Frequency Response
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7.7.1 Gain Phase Plot

[Link] Constant Gain(M)-circles
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[Link] Constant Phase (N) Circles

[Link] Nichols Chart
7.8 Sensitivity Analysis in Frequency Domain

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MODULE#1

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CHAPTER#1
1. Basic Concept of Control System
Control Engineering is concerned with techniques that are used to solve the following six
problems in the most efficient manner possible.

(a)The identification problem :to measure the variables and convert data for analysis.

(b)The representation problem:to describe a system by an analytical form or mathematical model

(c)The solution problem:to determine the above system model response.

(d)The stability problem:general qualitative analysis of the system

(e)The design problem: modification of an existing system or develop a new one

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(f)The optimization problem: from a variety of design to choose the best.

The two basic approaches to solve these six problems are conventional and modern approach. The
electrical oriented conventional approach is based on complex function theory. The modern
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approach has mechanical orientation and based on the state variable theory.

Therefore, control engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally
applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil and electrical engineering.
For example, a control system often includes electrical, mechanical and chemical components.
Furthermore, as the understanding of the dynamics of business, social and political systems
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increases; the ability to control these systems will also increase.
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1.1. Basic terminologies in control system

System: A combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components to form
a whole unit such that that combining unit performs to achieve a certain goal.
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Control: The action to command, direct or regulate a system.

Plant or process: The part or component of a system that is required to be controlled.
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Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.

Output: It is the actual response obtained from the control system.
Controller: The part or component of a system that controls the plant.
Disturbances: The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control system.
Control system: A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another system to
achieve a certain goal.
Automation: The control of a process by automatic means

Control System: An interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will

provide a desired response.

Actuator: It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the device that
provides the motive power to the process.

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Design: The process of conceiving or inventing the forms, parts, and details of system to
achieve a specified purpose.
Simulation: A model of a system that is used to investigate the behavior of a system by
utilizing actual input signals.

Optimization: The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favorable or

advantageous design.

Feedback Signal: A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control the
system.

Negative feedback: The output signal is feedback so that it subtracts from the input signal.

Block diagrams: Unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the transfer functions of
the elements of the system.

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Signal Flow Graph (SFG): A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several directed
branches and that is a graphical representation of a set of linear relations.

Specifications: Statements that explicitly state what the device or product is to be and to do.
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It is also defined as a set of prescribed performance criteria.

Open-loop control system: A system that utilizes a device to control the process without
using feedback. Thus the output has no effect upon the signal to the process.

Closed-loop feedback control system: A system that uses a measurement of the output and
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compares it with the desired output.

Regulator: The control system where the desired values of the controlled outputs are more or
less fixed and the main problem is to reject disturbance effects.
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Servo system: The control system where the outputs are mechanical quantities like
acceleration, velocity or position.
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Stability: It is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input
command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be unstable if its output is out of
control or increases without bound.
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Multivariable Control System: A system with more than one input variable or more than
one output variable.

Trade-off: The result of making a judgment about how much compromise must be made
between conflicting criteria.

1.2. Classification
1.2.1. Natural control system and Man-made control system:
Natural control system: It is a control system that is created by nature, i.e. solar
system, digestive system of any animal, etc.
Man-made control system: It is a control system that is created by humans, i.e.
automobile, power plants etc.
1.2.2. Automatic control system and Combinational control system:

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Automatic control system: It is a control system that is made by using basic theories
from mathematics and engineering. This system mainly has sensors, actuators and
responders.
Combinational control system: It is a control system that is a combination of natural
and man-made control systems, i.e. driving a car etc.
1.2.3. Time-variant control system and Time-invariant control system:
Time-variant control system: It is a control system where any one or more
parameters of the control system vary with time i.e. driving a vehicle.
Time-invariant control system: It is a control system where none of its parameters
vary with time i.e. control system made up of inductors, capacitors and resistors only.
1.2.4. Linear control system and Non-linear control system:
Linear control system: It is a control system that satisfies properties of homogeneity
and additive.

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Homogeneous property: f x y f x f y
Additive property: f x f x

Non-linear control system: It is a control system that does not satisfy properties of

1.2.5.
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homogeneity and additive, i.e. f x x3

Continuous-Time control system and Discrete-Time control system:

Continuous-Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all
of its parameters are function of time, i.e. armature type speed control of motor.
Discrete -Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of
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its parameters are function of discrete time i.e. microprocessor type speed control of
motor.
1.2.6. Deterministic control system and Stochastic control system:
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Deterministic control system: It is a control system where its output is predictable

or repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.
Stochastic control system:It is a control system where its output is unpredictable or
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non-repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.

1.2.7. Lumped-parameter control system and Distributed-parameter control system:
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Lumped-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical

model is represented by ordinary differential equations.
Distributed-parameter control system:It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by an electrical network that is a combination of resistors,
inductors and capacitors.
1.2.8. Single-input-single-output (SISO) control system and Multi-input-multi-output
(MIMO) control system:
SISO control system: It is a control system that has only one input and one output.
MIMO control system:It is a control system that has only more than one input and
more than one output.
1.2.9. Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system:
Open-loop control system: It is a control system where its control action only
depends on input signal and does not depend on its output response.

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Closed-loop control system:It is a control system where its control action depends
on both of its input signal and output response.

1.3. Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system

1.3.1. Open-loop control system:
It is a control system where its control action only depends on input signal and does
not depend on its output response as shown in Fig.1.1.

Fig.1.1. An open-loop system

Examples: traffic signal, washing machine, bread toaster, etc.

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Advantages:
Simple design and easy to construct
Economical
Easy for maintenance
Highly stable operation
Dis-advantages:
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Not accurate and reliable when input or system parameters are variable in
nature
Recalibration of the parameters are required time to time
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1.3.2. Closed-loop control system:
It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input signal and
output response as shown in Fig.1.2.
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Fig.1.2. A closed-loop system

Examples: automatic electric iron, missile launcher, speed control of DC motor, etc.
Advantages:
More accurate operation than that of open-loop control system
Can operate efficiently when input or system parameters are variable in
nature
Less nonlinearity effect of these systems on output response
High bandwidth of operation
There is facility of automation
Time to time recalibration of the parameters are not required
Dis-advantages:
Complex design and difficult to construct

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Expensive than that of open-loop control system

Complicate for maintenance
Less stable operation than that of open-loop control system
1.3.3. Comparison between Open-loop and Closed-loop control systems:
It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input signal and
output response.
Sl.
No. Open-loop control systems Closed-loop control systems
1 No feedback is given to the control system A feedback is given to the control system
2 Cannot be intelligent Intelligent controlling action
Closed loop control introduces the
There is no possibility of undesirable
3 possibility of undesirable system
system oscillation(hunting)
oscillation(hunting)
The output will not very for a constant In the system the output may vary for a

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4 input, provided the system parameters constant input, depending upon the
remain unaltered feedback
System output variation due to variation in
System output variation due to variation in
5 parameters of the system is greater and the
parameters of the system is less.
output very in an uncontrolled way
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7
8
9
Small bandwidth
More stable
Affected by non-linearities
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Error detection is not present Error detection is present
Large bandwidth
Less stable or prone to instability
Not affected by non-linearities
10 Very sensitive in nature Less sensitive to disturbances
11 Simple design Complex design
12 Cheap Costly
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1.4. Servomechanism
It is the feedback unit used in a control system. In this system, the control variable is
a mechanical signal such as position, velocity or acceleration. Here, the output signal
is directly fed to the comparator as the feedback signal, b(t) of the closed-loop control
system. This type of system is used where both the command and output signals are
mechanical in nature. A position control system as shown in Fig.1.3 is a simple
example of this type mechanism. The block diagram of the servomechanism of an
automatic steering system is shown in Fig.1.4.

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Fig.1.3. Schematic diagram of a servomechanism

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Fig.1.4. Block diagram of a servomechanism

Examples:

Missile launcher
Machine tool position control
Power steering for an automobile
Roll stabilization in ships, etc.
1.5. Regulators
It is also a feedback unit used in a control system like servomechanism. But, the
output is kept constant at its desired value. The schematic diagram of a regulating

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system is shown in Fig.1.5. Its corresponding simplified block diagram model is

shown in Fig.1.6.

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Fig.1.5. Schematic diagram of a regulating system
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Fig.1.6. Block diagram of a regulating system

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Examples:

Temperature regulator
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Speed governor
Frequency regulators, etc.

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CHAPTER#2
2. Control System Dynamics
2.1. Definition: It is the study of characteristics behaviour of dynamic system, i.e.
(a) Differential equation
i. First-order systems
ii. Second-order systems
(b) System transfer function: Laplace transform
2.2. Laplace Transform: Laplace transforms convert differential equations into algebraic
equations. They are related to frequency response.

L x t X s x(t )e st dt (2.1)
0

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L x t X s x(t )e st dt (2.2)
0

No. Function
Time-domain

x(t)=
Laplace domain

X(s)= {x(t)}
GA 7 Sine
s2 2

-1
{X(s)} 8 Cosine s
2 2
1 Delay - e - s
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2 Unit impulse 1 9 Hyperbolic
sine
s2 2

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3 Unit step u(t)
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s 10 Hyperbolic s
cosine
1 s2 2

4 Ramp t
s2
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11 Exponentiall e t
sin t
Exponential 1 y decaying (s )2 2
-
5 e sine wave
decay s
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12 Exponentiall e t
cos t s
Exponential y decaying
6 1 e t (s )2 2
approach s(s ) cosine wave

2.3. Solution of system dynamics in Laplace form: Laplace transforms can be solved using
partial fraction method.
A system is usually represented by following dynamic equation.

A s
N s (2.3)
B s

The factor of denominator, B(s) is represented by following forms,

i. Unrepeated factors

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ii. Repeated factors

iii. Unrepeated complex factors

(i) Unrepeated factors

N (s) A B
( s a )( s b) s a s b
(2.4)
A( s b ) B ( s a )
( s a )( s b)

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example 2.1:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.
2s

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Y (s )
( s 1)(s 2)
Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.
2s A B
( s 1)( s 2) ( s 1) ( s 2)
2s A( s 2) B( s 1)
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( s 1)( s 2) ( s 1)( s 2)
By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A 2, B 4 . Therefore,
2 4
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Y ( s)
(s 1) (s 2)
Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,
t 2t
y (t ) 2e 4e
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(ii) Unrepeated factors

N (s) A B A B(s a)
(2.5)
( s a)2 (s a )2 (s a) ( s a )2
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By equating both sides, determine A and B.

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Example 2.2:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.
2s
Y ( s)
(s 1) 2 (s 2)
Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.
2s A B C
( s 1) 2 ( s 2) ( s 1) 2 (s 1) (s 2)
By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A 2, B 4 . Therefore,
2 4 4
Y ( s)
(s 1) 2 (s 1) ( s 2)
Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,
t t 2t
y( t ) 2te 4e 4e

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(iii) Complex factors: They contain conjugate pairs in the denominator.

N ( s) As B
(2.6)
( s a)( s a ) (s )2 2

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example 2.3:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.
2s 1
Y ( s)
( s 1 j)( s 1 j )
Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.

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2s 1
Y ( s)
(s 1) 1 (s 1)2 1
2

Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

y(t ) 2e t cos t e t sin t

2.4. Initial value theorem:

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lim sY (s) (2.7)
lim t 0
y (t )
s
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Example 2.4:
Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of the following equation using the
initial-value theorem.
2s 1
Y ( s)
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(s 1 j )(s 1 j )
Solution:
Solution of above equation,
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y(t ) 2e t cos t e t sin t

Applying initial value theorem,
s (2s 1)
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lim ( s
s 1 j )( s 1 j)
2

2.5. Final value theorem:

lim y (t ) lim sY (s) (2.8)
t
s 0

Example 2.5:
Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of the following equation using the
initial-value theorem.
2s
Y ( s)
(s 1) 2 (s 2)
Solution:
Solution of above equation,

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t t 2t
y( t ) 2te 4e 4e
Applying final value theorem,
s (2s 1)
lim ( s
s 1 j )( s 1 j)
2

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CHAPTER#3
3. Transfer Function
3.1. Definition: It is the ratio of Laplace transform of output signal to Laplace transform of input
signal assuming all the initial conditions to be zero, i.e.
Let, there is a given system with input r(t) and output c(t) as shown in Fig.3.1 (a), then its
Laplace domain is shown in Fig.3.1 (b). Here, input and output are R(s) and C(s) respectively.

(a) (b)

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(c)
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Fig.3.1. (a) A system in time domain, (b) a system in frequency domainand (c) transfer function with differential
operator

G(s) is the transfer function of the system. It can be mathematically represented as follows.

C s
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G s Equation Section (Next)(3.1)
R s zero initial condition

Example 3.1: Determine the transfer function of the system shown inFig.3.2.
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Fig.3.2. a system in time domain

Solution:
Fig.3.1 is redrawn in frequency domain as shown in Fig.3.2.

Fig.3.2. a system in frequency domain

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Applying KVL to loop-1 of the Fig.3.2

1
Vi s R Ls I s (3.2)
Cs

Applying KVL to loop-2 of the Fig.3.2

1
Vo s I s (3.3)
Cs

From eq (2.12),

1
I s Vo s / CsVo s (3.4)
Cs

Now, using eq (2.13) in eq (2.10),

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1
Vi s R Ls CsVo s
Cs
Vo s 1 1 (3.5)
1 2
Vi s GA LCs RCs 1
R Ls Cs
Cs

Then transfer function of the given system is

1
G s 2
(3.6)
LCs RCs 1
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3.2. General Form of Transfer Function
m
s zi
K s z1 s z2 ... s zm
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i 1
G s K n
(3.7)
s p1 s p2 ... s pn
s zj
i 1
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Where, z1 , z2 ...zm are called zeros and p1 , p2 ... pn are called poles.
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Number of poles n will always be greater than the number of zeros m

Example 3.2:
Obtain the pole-zero map of the following transfer function.
( s 2)( s 2 j 4)( s 2 j 4)
G (s )
( s 3)( s 4)( s 5)( s 1 j 5)( s 1 j 5)
Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.

Zeros Poles

s=2 s=3

s=-2-j4 s=4

s=-2+j4 s=5

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s=-1-j5

s=-1+j5

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Fig.3.3. pole-zero map

3.3. Properties of Transfer function:

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Zero initial condition
It is same as Laplace transform of its impulse response
d
Replacing ‘s’ by in the transfer function, the differential equation can be obtained
dt
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Poles and zeros can be obtained from the transfer function

Stability can be known
Can be applicable to linear system only
3.4. Advantages of Transfer function:
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It is a mathematical model and gain of the system

d
Replacing ‘s’ by in the transfer function, the differential equation can be obtained
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dt
Poles and zeros can be obtained from the transfer function
Stability can be known
Impulse response can be found
3.5. Disadvantages of Transfer function:
Applicable only to linear system
Not applicable if initial condition cannot be neglected
It gives no information about the actual structure of a physical system

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CHAPTER#4
4. Description of physical system
4.1. Components of a mechanical system: Mechanical systems are of two types, i.e. (i)
translational mechanical system and (ii) rotational mechanical system.
4.1.1. Translational mechanical system
There are three basic elements in a translational mechanical system, i.e. (a) mass, (b)
spring and (c) damper.
(a) Mass: A mass is denoted by M. If a force f is applied on it and it displays
d 2x
distance x, then f M 2 as shown in Fig.4.1.
dt

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Fig.4.1. Force applied on a mass with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a massM and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
d 2 x1 d 2 x2
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distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f M as shown in Fig.4.2.
dt 2 dt 2

X2 X1
M

M f
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Fig.4.2. Force applied on a mass with displacement two directions

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(b) Spring: A spring is denoted by K. If a force f is applied on it and it displays

distance x, then f Kx as shown in Fig.4.3.

Fig.4.3. Force applied on a spring with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a springK and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f K x1 x2 as shown in Fig.4.4.

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Fig.4.4. Force applied on a spring with displacement in two directions

(c) Damper: A damper is denoted by D. If a force f is applied on it and it displays

dx
distance x, then f D as shown in Fig.4.5.
dt

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Fig.4.5. Force applied on a damper with displacement in one direction
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If a force f is applied on a damperD and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
dx1 dx2
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f D as shown in Fig.4.6.
dt dt
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Fig.4.6. Force applied on a damper with displacement in two directions

4.1.2. Rotational mechanical system

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There are three basic elements in a Rotational mechanical system, i.e. (a) inertia, (b)
spring and (c) damper.
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(a) Inertia: A body with aninertia is denoted by J. If a torqueT is applied on it and it

d2
displays distance , then T J 2 . If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia
dt
J and it displays distance 1 in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite
d2 1 d2 2
direction, then T J .
dt 2 dt 2
(b) Spring: A spring is denoted by K. If a torqueT is applied on it and it displays
distance , then T K . If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia J and it
displays distance 1 in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite
direction, then T K 1 2 .
(c) Damper: A damper is denoted by D. If a torqueT is applied on it and it displays
d
distance , then T D . If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia J and it
dt

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displays distance 1 in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite

d 1 d 2
direction, then T D .
dt dt
4.2. Components of an electrical system: There are three basic elements in an electrical system,
i.e. (a) resistor (R), (b) inductor(L) and (c) capacitor (C). Electrical systems are of two types,
i.e. (i) voltage source electrical system and (ii) current source electrical system.
4.2.1. Voltage source electrical system: If i is the current through a resistor(Fig.4.7) and v
is the voltage drop in it, then v Ri .
If i is the current through an inductor (Fig.4.7) and v is the voltage developed in it,
di
then v L .
dt
If i is the current through a capacitor(Fig.4.7) and v is the voltage developed in it,
1
then v idt .
C

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Fig.4.7. Current and voltage shown in resistor, inductor and capacitor
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4.2.2. Current source electrical system:
v
If i is the current through a resistor and v is the voltage drop in it, then i .
R
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If i is the current through an inductor and v is the voltage developed in it, then
1
i vdt .
L
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If i is the current through a capacitor and v is the voltage developed in it, then
dv
i C .
dt
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4.2.3. Work out problems:

Q.4.1. Find system transfer function betweenvoltage drop across the capacitanceand
input voltage in the followingRC circuit as shown in Fig.4.8.

Fig.4.8.

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Solution
Voltage across resistance, eR (t ) i (t ) R
1
Voltage across capacitance, eC (t ) i(t ) dt
C
1
Total voltage drop, ei eR eC i (t ) R i(t ) dt
C
1
Laplace transform of above equation, Ei ( s) I ( s) R
Cs
System transfer function betweenvoltage drop across the capacitanceand input
EC (s ) 1 1
voltage,

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Ei ( s ) RCs 1 s 1
where, RC is the time-constant

GA
Q.4.2. Find system transfer function betweenfunction between the inductance
currentto the source currentin the followingRL circuit as shown in Fig.4.9.
&
M

Fig.4.9.
A
BE

e( t )
Voltage across the Resistance, e (t ) iR R iR
R
diL 1
Voltage across the Inductance, e(t ) L iL e(t ) dt
dt L
e (t ) 1
Total current, ia iR iL e(t ) dt
R L
Laplace transform of the current source,
1 1 E
Ia (s) E (s) and I L ( s )
R Ls Ls
Transfer function between the inductance current to the source current,
I L (s ) 1 1
I a (s) L s 1
s 1
R

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

L
where is the time-constant
R

Q.4.3. Find system transfer function betweenfunction between the capacitance

voltageto the source voltage in the followingRLC circuit as shown in Fig.4.10.

IN
Fig.4.10.

Voltage across the Resistance, eR (t ) iR

Voltage across the Inductance, eL (t ) L

Voltage across thecapacitance, eC (t )

1
GA
di
dt
idt
C
di 1
Total voltage, e t iR L idt
dt C
&
1
Laplace transform of the voltage source, E ( s) I ( s) R Ls
Cs
Transfer function between capacitance voltage and source voltage
M

2
EC ( s ) 1 n

E (s)
Cs R Ls
1 s2 2 n s 2
n
Cs
A

1 R
where n and
LC L
2
BE

C
[Link] the transfer function of the following Spring-mass-damperas shown
in Fig.4.11.

Fig.4.11.

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Solution
X (s ) 1 1
2 2 2
F ( s) ms cs k m s 2 n s n

4.3. Analogous system: Fig.4.12 shows a translational mechanical system, a rotational control
system and a voltage-source electrical system.

IN
(a)

GA
(b)
&
A M
BE

(c)
Fig.4.12. (a) a voltage-source electrical system,(b) a translational mechanical system and (c) a rotational control
system

From Fig4.12 (a), (b) and (c), we have

d 2q dq 1
L 2
R q v t
dt dt C
d2 d
J 2 D K T Equation Chapter 8 Section 0(4.1)
dt dt
d2x dx
M 2 D Kx f
dt dt

Where,

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

q idt (4.2)

The solutions for all the above three equations given by eq (4.2) are same. Therefore, the
above shown three figures are analogous to each other. There are two important types of
analogous systems, i.e. force-voltage (f-v) analogy and force-current analogy. From eq (4.2),
f-v analogy can be drawn as follows.

Translational Rotational Electrical

Force (f) Torque (T) Voltage (v)
Mass (M) Inertia (J) Inductance (L)
Damper (D) Damper (D) Resistance (R)
Spring (K) Spring (K) Elastance (1/C)
Displacement (x) Displacement ( Charge (q)
Velocity (u) = x Velocity (u) = Current (i) = q

IN
Similarly, f-i analogy that can be obtainedfrom eq (4.1), can be drawn as follows.

Translational Rotational Electrical

Force (f)
Mass (M)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
GA
Torque (T)
Inertia (J)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Current (i)
Capacitance (C)
Conductance (1/R)
Reciprocal of Inductance (1/L)
Displacement (x) Displacement (
Velocity (u) = x Velocity (u) = Voltage (v) =
&
4.4. Mathematical model of armature controlled DC motor: The armature control type speed
control system of a DC motor is shown in Fig.4.6. The following components are used in this
system.
M

Ra=resistance of armature

La=inductance of armature winding

A

ia=armature current
BE

If=field current

Ea=applied armature voltage

Eb=back emf

Tm=torque developed by motor

=angular displacement of motor shaft

J=equivalent moment of inertia and load referred to motor shaft

f=equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Fig.4.6. Schematic diagram of armature control type speed control system of a DC motor

IN
The air-gap flux is proportional of the field current i.e.

KfIf (4.3)
GA
The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of armature current and
air gap flux i.e.

Tm = k1 K f I f ia (4.4)
&
In armature-controlled D.C. motor,the field current is kept constant,so that eq(4.4) can be
written as follows.

Tm =K t ia (4.5)
M

The motor back emf being proportional to speed is given as follows.

d
Eb =K b (4.6)
dt
A

The differential equation of the armature circuit is

BE

dia
La Ra ia Eb Ea (4.7)
dt

The torque equation is

d2 d
J f Tm Kt Ia (4.8)
dt 2 dt

Taking the Laplace transforms of equations (4.6), (4.7) and (4.8), assuming zero initial
conditions, we get

Eb s =sK b s (4.9)

sLa +Ra I a s Ea s Eb s (4.10)

(s 2 J sf ) ( s ) Tm ( s ) Kt Ia (4.11)

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

From eq(4.9) to (4.11) the transfer function of the system is obtained as,

(s ) Kt
G s (4.12)
Ea ( s ) s Ra sLa sJ f Kt K b

Eq(4.12) can be rewritten as

Kt
(s) Ra sLa sJ f 1
G s (4.13)
Ea ( s ) Kt Kb s
1
Ra sLa sJ f

The block diagram that is constructed from eq (4.13) is shown in Fig.4.7.

1 1 1 s

IN
sLa
R a
sJ f s s

GA
Fig.4.7. Block diagram of armature control type speed control system of a DC motor

The armature circuit inductance La is usually negligible. Therefore, eq(4.13) can be

simplifiedas follows.
&

(s ) Kt Kt Kb
s2 J s f (4.14)
Ea ( s) Ra Ra
M

Kt Kb
The term f indicates that the back emf of the motor effectively increases the
Ra
viscous friction of the system. Let,
A

K t Kb
f f (4.15)
BE

Ra

Where f be the effective viscous friction coefficient. The transfer function given by eq(4.15)
may be written in the following form.

s Km
(4.16)
Ea s s s 1

Kt J
Here K m = = motor gain constant, and = motor time [Link], the motor
Ra f f
torque and back emf constant Kt, Kb are interrelated.

4.5. Mathematical model of field controlled DC motor: The field control type speed control
system of a DC motor is shown in Fig.4.8. The following components are used in this system.
Rf=Field winding resistance

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Lf=inductance of field winding

If=field current

ef=field control voltage

Tm=torque developed by motor

=angular displacement of motor shaft

J=equivalent moment of inertia and load referred to motor shaft

f=equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft

IN
Ia
Rf (constant)

Lf Tm
ef
If GA M
&
Fig.4.8. Block diagram of field control type speed control system of a DC motor
M

In field control motor the armature current is fed from a constant current [Link] air-gap
.
A

Kf If (4.17)

The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of armature current and
BE

air gap flux i.e.

Tm =k1K f I f I a Kt I f (4.18)

The equation for the field circuit is

dI f
Lf Rf I f Ef (4.19)
dt
The torque equation is

d2 d
J f Tm Kt I f (4.20)
dt 2 dt

Taking the Laplace transforms of equations (4.19) and (4.20) assuming zero initial conditions,
we get the following equations

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Lf s Rf I f s Ef s (4.21)

and

Js 2 fs s Tm s Kt I f s (4.22)

From eq(4.21) and (4.22) the transfer function of the system is obtained as

s Kt
G s (4.23)
Ef s s Rf sL f Js f

The transfer function given by eq(4.23) may be written in the following form.

s Kt Km
(4.24)

IN
Ea s s Lf s Rf Js f s s 1 s 1

Kt Lf J
Here K m = motor gain constant, and = time constant of field circuit and
Rf f Rf f
GA
= mechanical time [Link] small size motors field control is [Link] block
diagram that is constructed from eq (4.24) is shown in Fig.4.9.

1 K
&
t
Ef(s) (s)
sL f
R f
s sJ f

Fig.4.9. Block diagram of field control type speed control system of a DC motor
A M
BE

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

CHAPTER#5
5. Block Diagram Algebra
5.1. Basic Definition in Block Diagram model:
Block diagram: It is the pictorial representation of the cause-and-response relationship
between input and output of a physical system.

(a) (b)
Fig.5.1. (a) A block diagram representation of a system and (b) A block diagram representation with gain of a
system

IN
Output: The value of input multiplied by the gain of the system.
C s G s R s (5.1)
GA
Summing point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which two or more signals
can be added or subtracted. In Fig.15, inputs R(s) and B(s) have been given to a summing
point and its output signal is E(s). Here,
E s R s B s (5.2)
&
A M
BE

Fig.5.2. A block diagram representation of a systemshowing its different components

Take-off point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which a signal can be taken
directly and supplied to one or more points as shown in Fig.5.2.
Forward path: It is the direction of signal flow from input towards output.
Feedback path: It is the direction of signal flow from output towards input.
5.2. Developing Block Diagram model from mathematical model:
Let’s discuss this concept with the following example.
Example: A system is described by following mathematical equations. Find its corresponding
block diagram model.
x1 3x1 2 x2 5 x3 (5.3)

x2 x1 4 x2 3 x3 (5.4)

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

x3 2 x1 x2 x3 (5.5)

Example: Eq (5.3), (5.4) and (5.5) are combiningly results in the following block diagram
model.

x3(s)
5

x 1(s) + x s x 1(s)
3 ++ 1
1/s

x2(s)
2

x2(s) x s
++ 2 x2(s)
4 1/s
+

IN
x3(s)
3

GA x3(s)

x2(s) + x s
++ 3
1/s
x3(s)

x1(s)
&
2
M

Fig.5.3. A block diagram representation of the above example

A
BE

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 BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

5.3. Rules for reduction of Block Diagram model:

Sl. Rule
Configuration Equivalent Name
No. No.

1 Rule 1 Cascade

2 Rule 2 Parallel

G(s)
3 Rule 3
1 G s H s
Loop

IN
Associative
4 Rule 4
Law
GA
Move take-
5 Rule 5 off point
after a block
&

Move take-
off point
6 Rule 6
M

before a
block
A

Move
summing-
7 Rule 7
BE

point point
after a block

Move
summing-
8 Rule 8 point point
before a
block

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Move take-
off point
9 Rule 9 after a
summing-
point

Move take-
off point
10 Rule 10 before a
summing-
point

IN
Fig.5.4. Rules for reduction of Block Diagram model

5.4. Procedure for reduction of Block Diagram model:

Step 1: Reduce the cascade blocks.
Step 2: Reduce the parallel blocks.
GA
Step 3: Reduce the internal feedback loops.
Step 4: Shift take-off points towards right and summing points towards left.
Step 5: Repeat step 1 to step 4 until the simple form is obtained.
&
C s
Step 6: Find transfer function of whole system as .
R s
M

5.5. Procedure for finding output of Block Diagram model with multiple inputs:
Step 1: Consider one input taking rest of the inputs zero, find output using the procedure
described in section 4.3.
A

Step 2: Follow step 1 for each inputs of the given Block Diagram model and find their
corresponding outputs.
BE

Step 3: Find the resultant output by adding all individual outputs.

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

CHAPTER#6
6. Signal Flow Graphs (SFGs)
It is a pictorial representation of a system that graphically displays the signal transmission in it.

6.1. Basic Definitions in SFGs:

Input or source node: It is a node that has only outgoing branches i.e. node ‘r’ in Fig.6.1.
Output or sink node: It is a node that has only incoming branches i.e. node ‘c’ in Fig.6.1.
Chain node: It is a node that has both incoming and outgoing branches i.e. nodes ‘x1’,
‘x2’,‘x3’,‘x4’,‘x5 ’and ‘x6’ in Fig.6.1.
Gain or transmittance: It is the relationship between variables denoted by two nodes or
value of a branch. In Fig.6.1, transmittances are ‘t1’, ‘t2’,‘t3’,‘t4’,‘t5’and ‘t6’.
Forward path: It is a path from input node to output node without repeating any of the nodes

IN
in between them. In Fig.6.1, there are two forward paths, i.e. path-1:‘r-x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6-c’ and
path-2:‘r-x1-x3-x4-x5-x6 -c’.
Feedback path: It is a path from output node or a node near output node to a node near input
node without repeating any of the nodes in between them (Fig.6.1).
GA
Loop: It is a closed path that starts from one node and reaches the same node after trading
through other nodes. In Fig.6.1, there are four loops, i.e. loop-1:‘x2 -x3-x4-x1’, loop-2:‘x5-x6-
x5’, loop-3:‘x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6 -x1’ and loop-4:‘x1-x3-x4-x5 -x6-x1’.
Self Loop: It is a loop that starts from one node and reaches the same node without trading
through other nodes i.e. loop in node ‘x4’ with transmittance ‘t55’ in Fig.6.1.
&
Path gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a forward path. In
Fig.6.1, the path gains are P1 = t1t2t3 t4t5 (for path-1) and P2 = t9t3t4t5 (for path-2).
Loop gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a loop In Fig.6.1,
there are four loops, i.e. L1 = -t2t3t6, L 2 = -t5t7, L 3 = -t1t2t3t4t5t8, and L4 = -t9t3t4t5t8 .
M

Dummy node: If the first node is not an input node and/or the last node is not an output node
than a node is connected before the existing first node and a node is connected after the
existing last node with unity transmittances. These nodes are called dummy nodes. In Fig.6.1,
A

‘r’ and ‘c’ are the dummy nodes.

Non-touching Loops: Two or more loops are non-touching loops if they don’t have any
common nodes between them. In Fig.6.1, L1 and L2 are non-touching loops
BE

Example:

Fig.6.1. Example of a SFG model

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

6.2. Properties SFGs:

Applied to linear system
Arrow indicates signal flow
Nodes represent variables, summing points and take-off points
Algebraic sum of all incoming signals and outgoing nodes is zero
SFG of a system is not unique
Overall gain of an SFG can be determined by using Mason’s gain formula

6.3. SFG from block diagram model:

Let’s find the SFG of following block diagram model shown in Fig.6.2.

IN
+ 1 1 (s) 1 s
Ea(s) KT
sL R sJ f s s
- a a

E b(s)
GA Kb

Fig.6.2. Armature type speed control of a DC motor

&

Step-1: All variables and signals are replaced by nodes.

M

Step-2: Connect all nodes according to their signal flow.

Step-3: Each ofgains is replaced by transmittances of the branches connected between two nodes
A

of the forward paths.

Step-4: Each ofgains is replaced by transmittances multiplied with (-1) of the branches connected
BE

between two nodes of the forward paths.

1 1 1 s
sL a
R a
sJ f s s

(a)

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

1 1 1
sL a
R
a
sJ f s

(b)

Fig.6.3. Armature type speed control of a DC motor

IN
6.4. Mason’s gain formula:
Transfer function of a system=

G s
GA
C s
N

k 1
Pk k
(6.1)
R s

Where,
&
N= total number of forward paths

Pk= path gain of kth forward path

M

=1-( possible
two non-touching loops) - ( -touching
loops) + …
A

th
k= value of forward path
BE

Example:
Find the overall transfer function of the system given in Fig.6.1 using Mason’s gain
formula.

Solution:
In Fig.6.1,

No. of forward paths: N 2

Path gain of forward paths: P1 t1t2 t3t4 t5 and P2 t6 t3t4 t5

Loop gain of individual loops: L1 t 2t3t6 , L2 t5t7 , L3 t1t2 t3t4 t5t8 and L4 t9t3t 4t5t8

No. of two non-touching loops = 2 i.e. L1 and L2

No. of more than two non-touching loops = 0

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

1 L1 L2 L3 L4 L1 L2 0 1 L1 L2 L3 L4 L1L2

1 1 0 1and 2 1 0 1

P1 1 P2 2
G s

t1t2t3t 4t5 1 t6t3t 4t5 1

G s
1 t 2 t 3t 6 t5 t7 t1t2t3t 4t5t8 t9t3t 4t5t8 t 2 t 3t 5t 6 t 7

t1t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t3 t4 t5
G s
1 t 2 t 3t 6 t5 t7 t1t2 t3t 4t5 t8 t9 t3t 4t5 t8 t 2 t3 t5 t6 t7

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

CHAPTER#7
7. Feedback Characteristics of Control System
7.1. Feedback and Non-feedback Control systems
Non-feedback control system: It is a control system that does not have any feedback paths.
It is also known as open-loop control system. It is shown in Fig.7.1 (a) and (b).
Feedback control system: It is a control system that has at least one feedback path. It is also
known as closed-loop control system. It is shown in Fig.7.2 (a) and (b).

(a)
(b)

IN
Fig.7.1. (a) Block diagram of a non-feedback control system and (b) SFG of a non-feedback control system

(a)
GA (b)

Fig.7.2. (a) Block diagram of a feedback control system and (b) SFG of a feedback control system
&

7.2. Types of Feedback in a Control system

7.2.1. Degenerative feedback control system: It is a control system where the feedback
signal opposes the input signal. Here,
M

Error or actuating signal = (Input signal) – (Feedback signal).

Referring Fig.7.3,
A

E s R s B s (7.1)

and
BE

G s
T1 s (7.2)
1 G s H s

Fig.7.3. (a) Block diagram of a degenerative feedback control system

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

7.2.2. Regenerative feedback control system: It is a control system where the feedback
signal supports or adds the input signal. Here,
Error or actuating signal = (Input signal) + (Feedback signal).
Referring Fig.7.4,
E s R s B s (7.3)

and

G s
T2 s (7.4)
1 G s H s

IN
GA
Fig.7.4. Block diagram of a regenerative feedback control system

7.3. Effect of parameter variation on overall gain of a degenerative Feedback Control system
&
The overall gain or transfer function of a degenerative feedback control system depends upon
these parameters i.e. (i) variation in parameters of plant, and (ii) variation in parameter of
feedback system and (ii) disturbance signals.

The term sensitivity is a measure of the effectiveness of feedback on reducing the influence of
M

any of the above described parameters. For an example, it is used to describe the relative
variations in the overall Transfer function of a system T(s) due to variation in G(s).
A

( )
=
( )
BE

7.3.1. Effect of variation in G(s) on T(s) of a degenerative Feedback Control system

In an open-loop system,

C s G s R s

Let, due to parameter variation in plant G(s) changes to [G(s) +

|G(s)| >> | -loop system then changes to

C s C s G s G s R s
C s C s G s R s G s R s

C s G s R s (7.5)

In an closed-loop system,

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

G s
C s R s
1 G s H s

Let, due to parameter variation in plant G(s) changes to [G(s) +

|G(s)| >> | -loop system then changes to

G s G s
C s C s R s
1 G s G s H s
G s G s
C s C s R s
1 G s H s G s H s

Since, |G(s)| >> | G s H s G s H s . Therefore, G s H s is

neglected. Now,

IN
G s G s
C s C s R s
1 G s H s
G s G s

Or
C s C s GA
1 G s H s
R s
1 G s H s
R s

G s
C s R s (7.6)
&
1 G s H s

Comparing eq (42 and (43), it is clear that ( ) = (1 + ) ( )

This concept can be reproved using sensitivity. Sensitivity on T(s) due to variation in G(s) is
M

given by

T T T G
SGT (7.7)
A

GG G T

For open-loop system,

BE

T T G G
SGT 1 (7.8)
GG G G

For closed-loop system,

T T 1 GH GH G 1
SGT 2
(7.9)
GG 1 GH G 1 GH 1 GH

Therefore, it is proved that ( ) = (1 + ) ( ). Hence, the effect of

parameter variation in case of closed loop system is reduced by a factor of .
( )

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

7.3.2. Effect of variation in H(s) on T(s) of a degenerative Feedback Control system

This concept can be reproved using sensitivity. Sensitivity on T(s) due to variation in H(s) is
given by

T T T H
SHT (7.10)
H H H T

For closed-loop system,

T H G H GH
S HT G 2
(7.11)
H T 1 GH G 1 GH 1 GH

For higher value of GH, sensitivity approaches unity. Therefore, change in H affects
directly the system output.

IN
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

GA
&
A M
BE

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
MODULE#2
GA
&
A M
BE

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

CHAPTER#8

8. Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems

8.1. Time response
Time response c(t)is the variation of output with respect to time. The part of time response
that goes to zero after large interval of time is called transient response ctr(t). The part of time
response that remains after transient response is called steady-state response css(t).

IN
GA
&
M

Fig.7.1. Time response of a system

A
BE

8.2. System dynamics

System dynamics is the study of characteristic and behaviour of dynamic systems

i.e.

i. Differential equations: First-order systems and Second-order systems,

ii. Laplace transforms,
iii. System transfer function,
iv. Transient response: Unit impulse, Step and Ramp

Laplace transforms convert differential equations into algebraic equations. They are related to
frequency response

L x t X s x (t )e st dt (8.1)
0

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

No. Function Time-domain Laplace domain

-1
x(t)= {X(s)} X(s)= {x(t)}

1 Delay - e-

2 Unit impulse 1

3 Unit step u(t) 1

s

4 Ramp t 1
s2

IN
5 Exponential decay e- 1
s
6 Exponential approach 1 e t

7 Sine
GA s (s )

s2 2

8 Cosine s
&
2 2
s
9 Hyperbolic sine
s2 2

10 Hyperbolic cosine s
M

2 2
s
11 Exponentially decaying sine e t
sin t
wave (s )2 2
A

12 Exponentially decaying cosine e t

cos t s
wave
(s )2 2
BE

8.3. Forced response

K ( s z1 )( s z2 ) ( s zm )
C ( s) G ( s) R( s) R(s) (8.2)
( s p1 )( s p2 ) ( s pn )

R(s) input excitation

8.4. Standard test signals

8.4.1. Impulse Signal:
undefined ; t 0
t (8.3)
0 ;t 0

Laplace transform of impulse signal is

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

s 1 (8.4)

Fig.7.2. Impulse signal

IN
Dirac delta function
x (t ) xi (t a ) (8.5)

GA
Integral property of Dirac delta function
&
(t ) (t to )dt (to ) (8.6)

Laplace transform of an impulse input

M

st sa
X (s ) e xi (t a) dt xi e (8.7)
0

8.4.2. Step Signal: A step signal u(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

A

0 ;t 0
u t (8.8)
BE

K ;t 0

Laplace transform of step signal is

K
U s (8.9)
s

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Fig.7.2. Step signal

8.4.3. Ramp Signal: A step signal r(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

0 ;t 0
r t (8.10)
Kt ; t 0

Laplace transform of ramp signal is

K
R s (8.11)
s2

IN
GA
Fig.7.3. Ramp signal
&
8.4.4. Parabolic Signal A step signal a(t) is mathematically defined as follows.
0
;t 0
a t Kt 2 (8.12)
M

;t 0
2

Laplace transform of parabolic signal is

A

K
A s (8.13)
s3
BE

Fig.7.4. Parabolic signal

8.4.5. Sinusoidal Signal A sinusoidal x(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

x t sin t (8.14)

Laplace transform of sinusoidal signal is

st
X s e sin t dt (8.15)
0
s2 2

IN
GA
Fig.7.4. Sinusoidal signal

8.5. Steady-state error:

A simple closed-loop control system with negative feedback is shown as follows.
&
A M

Fig.7.5. A simple closed-loop control system with negative feedback

Here,
BE

E s R s B s (8.16)

B s C s H s (8.17)

C s E s G s (8.18)

Applying (1) in (9),

E s R s C s H s (8.19)

Using (11) in (12),

E s R s E s G s H s (8.20)

1 G s H s E s R s (8.21)

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

R s
E s (8.22)
1 G s H s

Steady-state error,
ess lim e t lim sE s (8.23)
t s 0

Using (15) in (16),

sR s
ess lim sE s lim (8.24)
s 0 s 01 G s H s

Therefore, steady-state error depends on two factors, i.e.

(a) type and magnitude of R(s)
(b) open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s)

IN
8.6. Types of input and Steady-state error:
8.6.1. Step Input

GA A
R s (8.25)
s
Using (18) in (17),
A
s
s A
ess lim lim (8.26)
&
s 01 G s H s s 01 G s H s

A A
ess (8.27)
1 lim G s H s 1 KP
s 0
M

Where,
KP lim G s H s (8.28)
A

s 0
BE

8.6.2. Ramp Input

A
R s (8.29)
s2

Using (18) in (17),

A
s
s2 A
ess lim lim
s 01 G s H s s 0 s 1 G s H s
A
ess lim (8.30)
s 0 s sG s H s
A A
ess
lim sG s H s KV
s 0

Where,

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

KV lim sG s H s (8.31)
s 0

8.6.3. Parabolic Input

A
R s (8.32)
s3
Using (18) in (17),
A
s
s3 A
ess lim lim 2
s 01 G s H s s 0 s 1 G s H s
A
ess lim 2 2
(8.33)
s 0 s s G s H s

IN
A A
ess
lim s 2G s H s KA
s 0

Where,

KA
s
GA
lim s 2G s H s
0
(8.34)

Types of input and steady-state error are summarized as follows.

&
Error Constant Equation Steady-state error (ess)
Position Error Constant (KP) KP lim G s H s A
s 0 ess
1 KP
M

Velocity Error Constant (KV) KV lim sG s H s A

s 0 ess
KV
Acceleration Error Constant (KA) KA lim s 2G s H s A
A

s 0 ess
KA
BE

8.7. Types of open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s)and Steady-state error:

8.7.1. Static Error coefficient Method
The general form of G(s)H(s) is
K 1 T1s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s
G s H s (8.35)
s j 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

Here, j = no. of poles at origin (s = 0)

or, type of the system given by eq (28) is j.
[Link]. Type 0
K 1 T1 s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s
G s H s (8.36)
1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

Here,

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

KP lim G s H s K (8.37)
s 0

Therefore,

A
ess (8.38)
1 K

[Link]. Type 1
K 1 T1 s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s
G s H s (8.39)
s 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

Here,

KV lim sG s H s K (8.40)
s 0

IN
Therefore,

A
ess (8.41)
K

[Link]. Type 2
GA
K 1 T1s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s
G s H s (8.42)
s 2 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

Here,
&

KA lim s 2G s H s K (8.43)
s 0

Therefore,
M

A
ess (8.44)
K
A

Steady-state error and error constant for different types of input are summarized as follows.
BE

Step input Ramp input Parabolic input

Type
KP ess KV ess KA ess
A
Type 0 K 0 0
1 K
A
Type 1 0 K 0
K
A
Type 2 0 0 K
K

The static error coefficient method has following advantages:

Can provide time variation of error
Simple calculation

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

But, the static error coefficient method has following demerits:

Applicable only to stable system
Applicable only to three standard input signals
Cannot give exact value of error. It gives only mathematical value i.e. 0 or

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

8.7.2. Generalized Error coefficient Method

From eq (15),

1
E s R s
1 G s H s

So,
E s F1 s F2 s (8.45)

1
Where, F1 and F2 s R s
1 G s H s

Using convolution integral to eq (38)

t t
e t f1 f2 t d f1 r t d (8.46)

IN
0 0

Using Taylor’s series of expansion to r t ,

2 3

Now, applying eq (40) in eq (39),

r t r t r t GA 2!
r t
3!
r t ... (8.47)

t t t 2 t 3
e t f1 r t d r t f1 d r t f1 d r t f1 d ... (8.48)
2! 3!
&
0 0 0 0

Now, steady-state error, ess is

ess lim e t (8.49)
t
M

Therefore,
t t t 2 t 3
ess lim e t lim f1 r t d r t f1 d r t f1 d r t f1 d ...
A

t t
0 0 0
2! 0
3!
2 3
BE

ess f1 r t d r t f1 d r t f1 d r t f1 d ...
0 0 0
2! 0
3!
(8.50)
Eq (44) can be rewritten as
C2 C3
ess C0 r t C1r t r t r t ... (8.51)
2! 3!
Where, C0 , C1, C2, C3, etc. are dynamic error coefficients. These are given as

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

C0 f1 d lim F1 s
s 0
0

dF1 s
C1 f1 d lim
0
s 0 ds
, and so on… (8.52)
2
d 2 F1 s
C2 f1 d lim
0
2! s 0 ds 2
3
d 3 F1 s
C3 f1 d lim
0
3! s 0 ds 3

8.8. First-order system:

A Governing differential equation is given by

IN
y y Kx (t ) (8.53)

Where, Time constant, sec = ,

Static sensitivity (units depend on the input and output variables) = K ,
y(t) is response of the system and
x(t) is input excitation
The System transfer function is
GA
Y (s ) K
G (s) (8.54)
X (s) (1 s)
&
A M
BE

Pole-zero map of a first-order system

Normalized response
In this type of response

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Static components are taken out leaving only the dynamic component
The dynamic components converge to the same value for different physical systems of
the same type or order
Helps in recognizing typical factors of a system

8.8.1. Impulse input to a first-order system

Governing differential equation
y y Kxi (t ) (8.55)

Laplacian of the response

Kxi Kxi 1
Y (s ) (8.56)
(1 s) 1
s

IN
Time-domain response
t
Kxi
y (t ) e (8.57)

Impulse response function of a first-order system

GA
h (t )
K
e
t
(8.58)

By putting x =1 in the response

i
Response of a first-order system to any force excitation
&
t t
K
y (t ) e F (t )d (8.59)
0

The above equation is called Duhamel’s integral. Normalized response of a first-order system to
M

impulse input is shown below.

A
BE

y (t )
Kxi

t/

8.8.2. Step input to a first-order system

Governing differential equation
y y Kxiu (t ) (8.60)

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Laplacian of the response

Kxi Kxi Kxi
Y (s ) (8.61)
s (1 s ) s 1
s

Time-domain response
t
y (t ) Kxi 1 e (8.62)

Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

IN
y (t )
Kxi GA
&
t/
M

8.8.3. Ramp input to a first-order system

Governing differential equation
y y Kt (8.63)
A

Laplacian of the response

K 1
BE

Y (s) (8.64)
s 2 (1 s ) s2 s s
1

Time-domain response
t
y (t )
t e (8.65)
K
Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

y (t )
Kxi

t/

IN
8.8.4. Sinusoidal input to a first-order system
Governing differential equation

Laplacian of the response

y GA
y KA sin t (8.66)

K A s 1
Y ( s) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(8.67)
(1 s) s 1 s 1/ s s
&
Time-domain response
y (t ) t/ 1
2
e cos t sin t (8.68)
KA 1
M

Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

A
BE

8.9. Second-order system

A Governing differential equation is given by

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

my cy ky Kx (t ) (8.69)

Where, = Time constant, sec,

K = Static sensitivity (units depend on the input and output variables),
m = Mass (kg),
c = Damping coefficient (N-s/m),
k = Stiffness (N/m),
y(t) is response of the system and
x(t) is input excitation

The System transfer function is

Y (s) K
2 2
(8.70)
X ( s) m s 2 n s n

IN
GA
Pole-zero map

(a) >1 over damped

&
Poles are:

2
s1,2 n 1 (8.71)
M

Graphically, the poles of an over damped system is shown as follows.

A
BE

(b) =1 critically damped

Poles are:

s1,2 n (8.72)

Graphically, the poles of an critically damped system is shown as follows.

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

(c) <1 under damped

Poles are:

2
s1,2 n j 1
(8.73)

IN
s1,2 n j d

Where, d Damped natural frequency

2
d GA n 1

Graphically, the poles of an critically damped system is shown as follows.

(8.74)
&
A M
BE

Here, tan
2
1

(d) = 0 un-damped
Poles are:

s1,2 j n (8.75)

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Solved problems:
1. A single degree of freedom spring-mass-damper system has the following data: spring stiffness 20
kN/m; mass 0.05 kg; damping coefficient 20 N-s/m. Determine

IN
(a) undamped natural frequency in rad/s and Hz
(b) damping factor
(c) damped natural frequency n rad/s and Hz.
If the above system is given an initial displacement of 0.1 m, trace the phasor of the system for three
cycles of free vibration.
Solution:

k 20 103
GA
n 632.46 rad/s
m 0.05
632.46
&
n
fn 100.66 Hz
2 2
c 20
0.32
2 km 2 20 103 0.05
M

2
d n 1 632.46 1 0.322 600 rad/s
A

d 600
fd 95.37 Hz
2 2
BE

nt 0.32 632.46 t
y (t ) Ae 0.1e

2. A second-order system has a damping factor of 0.3 (underdamped system) and an un-damped
natural frequency of 10 rad/s. Keeping the damping factor the same, if the un-damped natural
frequency is changed to 20 rad/s, locate the new poles of the system? What can you say about the
response of the new system?
Solution:
Given, n1 10 rad/s and n2 20 rad/s
2
d1 n1 1 10 1 0.32 9.54 rad/s
2
d2 n2 1 20 1 0.32 19.08 rad/s

p1,2 n1 j d1 3 j 9.54

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

p3,4 n2 j d2 6 j19.08

0.3
tan 17.45o
2 2
1 1 0.3

IN
8.9.1. Second-order Time Response Specifications with Impulse input
(a) O
General equation

y 2 y
GA 2
y
Kxi
(t ) (8.76)
n n
m
Laplacian of the output
&
Kxi 1
Y (s)
m s2 2 n s 2
n
(8.77)
Kxi 1 1
M

2 2 2
2m n 1 (s n n 1) (s n n 1

Time-domain response
A

Kxi nt 2
y(t ) e sinh n 1 t (8.78)
2
m 1
BE

(b) Critically
General equation
2 Kxi
y n y (t ) (8.79)
m
Laplacian of the output
Kxi 1
Y (s) 2 2
(8.80)
m s n

Time-domain response
Kxi nt
y (t ) n te (8.81)
m n

(c) Under

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Poles are: s1,2 n j d

General equation
2 Kxi
y 2 n y n y (t ) (8.82)
m
Laplacian of the output
Kxi 1
Y (s ) (8.83)
m (s n j d )( s n j d )

Time-domain response

Kxi nt
y (t ) e sin d t (8.84)
m d

IN
Normalized impulse-response of a second-order system with different damping factors are shown
graphically as follows.

GA
&
M

Solved problems:
A

3. A second-order system has an un-damped natural frequency of 100 rad/s and a damping factor of
0.3. The value of the coefficient of the second time derivative (that is m) is 5. If the static
BE

sensitivity is 10, write down the response (do not solve) for a force excitation shown in the figure
in terms of the Duhamel’s integral for the following periods of time: 0<t<t1, t1<t<t2 and t>t2.

Solution:
n =100 rad/s

Damping factor =0.3

Coefficient of the second time derivative m=5

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Static sensitivity K=10

2
d n 1 100 1 0.32 95.39 rad/s

Here,
t
F (t ) F ;0 t t1
t1
F
F (t ) t2 t ; t1 t t2
t2 t1
t
K
y (t ) F (t )e n
sin d d
m d 0

IN
t
10F 0.3 100
y (t ) e sin 95.39 (t )d
5 95.39t1 0
t
;0 t t1 ,
0.057 F 30
e sin 95.39 (t )d

y (t )
t1 0

0.057 F 1
e
t
30
sin 95.39 (t )d
GA
t1 0
t
; t1 t t2 and
0.057 F 30
e sin 95.39 (t2 t )d
&
t2 t1 t1
t
0.057 F 1 30
y (t ) e sin 95.39 (t )d
t1 0
M

t
;t t2
0.057 F 2 30
e sin 95.39 (t2 t )d
t2 t1 t1
A

8.9.2. Second-order Time Response Specifications with step input

BE

Kxi 1
Y (s) (8.85)
m s( s n n
2
1)( s n n
2
1)

Kxi nt 2 2
y (t ) 1 e cosh n 1 t sinh n 1 t (8.86)
m n2 2
1

Kxi 1
Y (s ) (8.87)
m s (s n j d )(s n j d )

Kxi nt
y (t ) 1 e cos d t sin d t (8.88)
m n2 1 2

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
8.10. Time Response Specifications with step-input for under-damped case
For under-damped case, the step-response of a second-order is shown as follows
GA
&
A M
BE

nt
Kxi e
y (t ) 1 sin( d t ) (8.89)
m n2 1 2

2
1 1
tan (8.90)

For this case, different time-domain specifications are described below.

(i) Delay time, td

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

(ii) Rise time, t r

(iii) Peak time, tp
(iv) Peak overshoot, Mp
(v) Settling time

For unity step input,

(i)Delay time, td: It is the time required to reach 50% of output.
1 e n td
y td 1 sin( d td )
2 1 2
1 0.7
td (8.91)
wn

(ii) Rise time, tr:The time required by the system response to reach from 10% to 90% of the
final value for over-damped case, from 0% to 100% of the final value for under-damped case

IN
and from 5% to 95% of the critically value for over-damped case.
.
nt r
e
y tr 1 1 sin( d tr )
2
1
e
1
n tr GA
2
sin( d tr ) 0

d tr

tr (8.92)
wd
&
(iii) Peak time, tp:The time required by the system response to reach the first maximum value.
dy t p
0
dt
M

nt p
e
d 1 sin( dtp )
2
1
0
A

dt
nt p
e
d sin( dtp )
BE

2
1
0
dt
2
1 1
wd t p tan n ; where n 1, 2,3,...

For n=1,
wd t p n
n
tp (8.93)
wd

(iv) Peak overshoot, Mp: It is the time required to reach 50% of output.
y tp 1
M p % 100
1

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

n tr
e
Mp % 100 1 sin( d tr ) 1
2
1
n
nt p
e e d

Mp % 100 sin( dtp ) 100 sin( dtp )

2 2
1 1

2 2
1 1
e e
Mp % 100 sin( d ) 100 sin( )
2 2 2
1 1 1

2 2
1 1
e e 2
Mp % 100 sin 100 1
2 2
1 1

IN
2
1
Mp % 100 e (8.94)

or 5% its final value.

For 2% error band,
GA
(iv) Settling time, ts: It is the time taken by the system response to settle down and stay with in 2%

4
ts (8.95)
wn
&
For 5% error band,
3
ts (8.96)
wn
M

Time Specifications
Sl. No.
Type Formula
A

1 0.7
1 Delay time td
wn
BE

2 Rise time tr
wd

3 Peak time tp
wd

4 Maximum overshoot Mp % 100 e 1 2

4
5 Settling time ts
wn

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Solved Problems:
1. Consider the system shown in Figure 1. To improve the performance of the system a feedback is
added to this system, which results in Figure 2. Determine the value of K so that the damping
ratio of the new system is 0.4. Compare the overshoot, rise time, peak time and settling time and
the nominal value of the systems shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1 Figure 2

IN
Solution:
For Figure 1,
20
c s
R s
G(s)
1 G (s ) 1
s s 1
20
s s 1
s 2
20
s 20
GA
2
Here, n 20 and 2 n 1
&
1 1
n 20 rad/s and 0.112
2 n 2 20
For Figure 2,
M

20
c s G( s) s ( s 1 20 K ) 20
2
R s 1 G( s) 20 s 1 20 K s 20
A

1
s( s 1 20 K )
2
BE

Here, n 20 and 2 n 1 20K

n 20 rad/s
1 20 K 1 20 K
But, given that 0.4
2 n 2 20
K 0.128
Transient characteristics of Figures 1 and 2

CharacteristicS Figure 1 Figure 2

Overshoot, Mp 70% 25%
Rise time, tr, sec 0.38 0.48
Peak time, tp, sec 0.71 0.77
Settling time (2%), sec 8 2.24
Steady-state value, c 1.0 1.0

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Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

1.1. Transient Response using MATLAB
C s 3s 20
Program 1: Find the step response for the following system 2
R s s 5s 36
Solution:
>> num=[3 20]
num=
3 20
>> den=[1 5 36]
den=
1 5 36
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
3s+20
--------------------

IN
s^2+5s+36
>>step(sys)

C s 20
Program 2: Find the step response for the following system

Solution:
>> num=[20]
GA R s s2 4 s 25

num=
20
>> den=[1 425]
&
den=
1 4 25
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
20
M

--------------------
s^2+4s+25
>>step(sys)
A
BE

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

2. Stability
2.1. Concept of stability
Stability is a very important characteristic of the transient performance of a system. Any working
system is designed considering its stability. Therefore, all instruments are stable with in a boundary of
parameter variations.
A linear time invariant (LTI) system is stable if the following two conditions are satisfied.
(i) Notion-1: When the system is excited by a bounded input, output is also bounded.
Proof:
A SISO system is given by
C s b0 s m b1s m 1
... bm
G s (9.1)
R s a0 s n a1 s n 1
... an

So,

IN
1
c t G s R s (9.2)

Using convolution integral method

c t
0
GA
g r t d (9.3)

1
g G s = impulse response of the system
&
Taking absolute value in both sides,

c t g r t d (9.4)
M

Since, the absolute value of integral is not greater than the integral of absolute value of the integrand
A

c t g r t d
0
BE

c t g r t d (9.5)
0

c t g r t d
0

Let, r(t) and c(t) are bounded as follows.

r t M1
(9.6)
c t M2

Then,

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

c t M1 g d M2 (9.7)
0

Hence, first notion of stability is satisfied if g d is finite or integrable.

0

(ii) Notion-2: In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero irrespective of initial
conditions. This type of stability is called asymptotic stability.

2.2. Effect of location of poles on stability

Pole-zero map Normalized response

Over-damped close-loop poles

IN
GA
&

Critically damped close-loop poles

Pole-zero map Normalized response
A M
BE

Under-dampedclose-loop poles
Pole-zero map Normalized response

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Un-dampedclose-loop poles
Pole-zero map Normalized response

IN
GA
&
Negative Under-dampedclose-loop poles
Pole-zero map Normalized response
A M
BE

Negative Over-dampedclose-loop poles

Pole-zero map Normalized response

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

2.3. Closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis

IN
Closed-loop can be located by replace the denominator of the close-loop response with s=j .

Example:
1. Determine the close-loop poles on the imaginary axis of a system given below.
GA
K
G ( s)
s ( s 1)
Solution:
Characteristics equation, B ( s ) s2 s K 0
&
Replacing s jw

B( j ) ( j )2 ( j ) K 0
M

2
(K ) j 0
Comparing real and imaginary terms of L.H.S. with real and imaginary terms of R.H.S., we get
A

K and 0
Therefore, Closed-loop poles do not cross the imaginary axis.
BE

2. Determinetheclose the imaginary axis of a system given below.

B ( s ) s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0 .
Solution:
Characteristics equation,

B( j ) ( j )3 6( j )2 8 j K 0
(K 6 2 ) j(8 3
) 0
Comparing real and imaginary terms of L.H.S. with real and imaginary terms of R.H.S., we get
2
8 rad/s and K 6 48
Therefore, Close-loop poles cross the imaginary axis for K>48.

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2.4. Routh-Hurwitz’s Stability Criterion

General form of characteristics equation,
B(s) an sn an 1sn 1 a1s a0 0

(s r1)(s r2) (s rn) 0

Where, ri Roots of the characteristics equation

2.4.1. Necessary condition of stability:

Coefficients of the characteristic polynomial must be positive.

Example:
3. Consider a third order polynomial B ( s ) s 3 3s 2 16 s 130 . Although the coefficients of the
above polynomial are positive, determine the roots and hence prove that the rule about

IN
coefficients being positive is only a necessary condition for the roots to be in the left s-plane.

Solution:
Characteristics equation, B ( s ) s3 3s 2 16s 130 0
By using Newton-Raphson’s method r1
GA
5 and r2,3 1 j5

Therefore, from the above example, the condition that coefficients of a polynomial should be positive
for all its roots to be in the left s-plane is only a necessary condition.
&
2.4.2. Sufficient condition of stability:
[Link].Method I (using determinants)
The coefficients of the characteristics equation are represented by determinant form
as follows.
M

an 1 an 3 an 5

an an 2 an 4
(9.8)
A

n
0 an 1 an 3
BE

Here, the determinant decreases by two along the row by one down the
column. For stability, the following conditions must satisfy.
an 1 an 3 an 5
an 1 an 3
1 an 1 0, 2 0, 3 an an 2 an 4 0 (9.9)
an an 2
0 an 1 an 3

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[Link].Method II (using arrays)

The coefficients of the characteristics equation are represented by array form as
follows.

sn an an 2 an 4
n 1
s an 1 an 3 an 5
n 2
s bn 1 bn 3 bn 5
(9.10)
n 3
s cn 1 cn 3 cn 5

Where,
(an 1 )(an 2 ) an ( an 3 )
bn 1
an 1

IN
( an 1 )( an 4 ) an ( an 5 )
bn 3 (9.11)
an 1
(bn 1 )(an 3 ) an 1 (bn 3 )
cn 1 GA
bn 1

For stability, the following conditions must satisfy.

The number of roots of B(s) with positive real parts is equal to the number of sign
changes an, an-1, bn-1, cn-1, etc.
&
Example:
K
4. Find stability of the following system given by G ( s ) and H ( s) 1 using Routh-
s ( s 1)
M

Hurwitz stability criterion.

Solution:
A

K
G (s) s ( s 1) K
In the system, T s 2
1 G (s) H (s) K s s K
BE

1
s ( s 1)
Method-I,
Characteristics equation, B s s2 s K 0

1 1
Here, 1 0
2 K
1 K

1 0
For stability,
2 0
The system is always stable for K>0.
Method-II,

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Characteristics equation, B s s2 s K 0

Here, Routh array is

s2 1 K
s1 1 0
s0 K

There are no sign changes in first column elements of this [Link], the system is always stable
for K>0.
K
5. Find stability of the following system given by G ( s ) and H ( s ) 1 using
s( s 2)( s 4)
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion.
Solution:

IN
K
C (s ) G s s ( s 2)( s 4) K
In the system, 3 2
R s 1 G s H s K s 6s 8s K
1 GA
s ( s 2)( s 4)
Method-I,
General form of characteristics equation, B s a3 s 3 a2 s 2 a1s a0 0

And in this system, characteristics equation is B s s3 6s2 8s K 0

&
Here,sufficient condition of stability suggests

6 K
1 8 0, 2 48 K 0,
1 8
M

6 K 0
3 1 8 0 K 48 K 0
A

0 6 K
Therefore, the system is always stable for K 48 .
BE

Method-II,
Characteristics equation is B s s3 6s2 8s K 0

andRouth’s array

s3 1 8
6 K
s2
48 K
s1 0
6
s0 K

There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array if K 48 . Therefore, the system is
always stable for 0 K 48 .

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6. Find stability of the following system given by B s s3 5s 2 10 s 3 using Routh-Hurwitz

stability criterion.
Solution:
In this problem, given Characteristics equation is B s s 3 5s 2 10s 3 0 , andRouth’s array is

s3 1 10
2
s 5 3
1
s 9.4 0
s0 3

There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is always
stable.

IN
7. Find stability of the following system given by B s s3 2s2 3s 10 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.
Solution:

B s s 3 2 s 2 3s 10 0 and
GA
In this problem, given characteristics equation is

Routh’s array is

s3 1 3
&
s2 2 10
s1 2 0
s 100
M

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
8. Examine stability of the following system given by s5 2s4 4s3 8s2 3s 1 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.
A

Solution:
BE

In this problem, Routh’s array is

s5 1 4 3
s4 2 8 1
3
s 0 2.5
2
s
s1
s0

Here, the criterion fails. To remove the above difficulty, the following two methods can be used.
Method-1
(i) Replace 0 by very small number) and complete the array with .
(ii) Examine the sign change by taking 0
Now, Routh’s array becomes

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s5 1 4 3
4
s 2 8 1
s3 2.5 0
s2 5 8
1 0

5 8
s1 2.5
5 8

s0 1

Now putting 0 , Routh’s array becomes

s5 1 4 3

IN
4
s 2 8 1
s3 2.5 0
s2 5 8
1 0

s1 2.5
5 8

5 8
GA
s0 1
&
There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
Method-2
Replace s by 1 . The system characteristic equation s5 2s4 4s3 8s2 3s 1 0 becomes
M

Z
1 2 4 8 3
1 0
Z5 Z4 Z3 Z2 Z
A

Z5 3Z 4 8Z 3 4Z 2 2Z 1 0
Now, Routh’s array becomes
BE

s5 1 8 2
s4 3 4 1
s 3 6.67 1.67 0
s 2 3.25 1 0
s1 0.385 0 0
1 0 0
s0
There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
9. Examine stability of the following system given by s5 2s4 2s3 4s2 4s 8 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.
Solution:
In this problem, Routh’s array is

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s5 1 2 4
s4 2 4 8
s3 0 0 0
s2
s1
s0
Here, the criterion fails. To remove the above difficulty, the following two methods can be used.
The auxillary equation is
As 2s4 4s2 8
dA s
8s3 8s
ds
Now, the array is rewritten as follows.

IN
s5 1 2 4
s4 2 4 8
3
s 8 8 0
s2
s1
2 8 0
24 0
8
GA
s0
There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is
unstable.
&
10. Examine stability of the following system given by s4 5s3 2s2 3s 1 0 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion. Find the number of roots in the right half of the s-plane.
Solution:
M

In this problem, Routh’s array is

s4 1 2 2
3
s 5 3 0
A

2
s 1 .4 2
s1 4 .1 4 0
BE

s 0 2
There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
There are two poles in the right half of the s-plane.

2.4.3. Advantages of Routh-Hurwitz stability

(i) Stability can be judged without solving the characteristic equation
(ii) Less calculation time
(iii) The number of roots in RHP can be found in case of unstable condition
(iv) Range of value of K for system stability can be calculated
(v) Intersection point with the jw-axis can be calculated
(vi) Frequency of oscillation at steady-state is calculated

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2.4.4. Advantages of Routh-Hurwitz stability

(i) It is valid for only real coefficient of the characteristic equation
(ii) Unable to give exact locations of closed-loop poles
(iii) Does not suggest methods for stabilizing an unstable system
(iv) Applicable only to the linear system

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

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Equation Chapter 1 Section 1

IN
MODULE#3 GA
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1
&
A M
BE

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CHAPTER#10
10. Root locus
10.1. Definition:
The locus of all the closed-loop poles for various values of the open-loop gain K is called root locus.
The root-locus method is developed by W.R. Evans in 1954. It helps to visualize the various
possibilities of transient response of stable systems.
Closed-loop response function
C ( s) G ( s)
(10.1)
R(s) 1 G (s )H (s)

Characteristic equation

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
1 G (s) H (s) 1 0 (10.2)
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

IN
Vector from open-loop pole to the root-locus

GA
&

Vector from open-loop zero to the root-locus

A M
BE

Behaviors of closed-loop poles

Closed-loop poles negative Exponential decay Stable

and real
Closed-loop poles complex Decaying and oscillatory Stable
with negative real parts
Closed-loop poles positive and Exponential increase Unstable
real
Closed-loop poles complex Exponential and oscillatory Unstable
with positive real parts increase

10.2. BASIS for CONSTRUCTION

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10.2.1. Construction steps

1. Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
2. Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane
3. Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis
4. Determine breakaway and break-in points
5. Draw asymptotes to the root-locus
6. Determine angles of departure
7. Determine angles of arrival
8. Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
9. Obtain additional points and complete the root-locus

10.2.2. Starting points

Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
1 G (s) H (s) 1 0 (10.3)
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

IN
For K=0,

(s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0

(s p1 )( s
GA
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

p2 )...( s pn ) 0 (10.4)

Open-loop poles are also closed-loop poles for K=0. A root-locus starts from every open-loop pole.
&
10.2.3. Ending points
Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
1 G (s) H (s) 1 0 (10.5)
M

( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

For K=
A

K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s z m )
1
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
BE

(s z1 )( s z2 )...( s z m ) 0 (10.6)

Root-locus ends at an open-loop zero or at infinity.

10.2.4. Magnitude and angle criterion

1 G ( s ) H ( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s) (cos j sin ) 0 (10.7)

Angle criterion:
n m

i j 1800 360k (10.8)

i 1 j 1

Where, i angle in case of ith pole and j angle in case of jth zero
Magnitude criterion:

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G (s ) H ( s) 1 (10.9)

10.2.5. Determining gain at a root-locus point

Using the magnitude of vectors drawn from open-loop poles and zeros to the root-locus point, we get
n
(s pi )
i 1 | ( s p1 ) || ( s p2 ) | ... | ( s pn ) |
m
K (10.10)
| ( s z1 ) || s z 2 ) | ... | ( s zm ) |
(s z j )
j 1

Gain at a root-locuspoint is determinedusing synthetic division.

Example:
Determine K of the characteristic equation for the root s=-0.85.

Solution:

IN
S3 6s 2 8s K 0 (10.11)

1 6

-0.85
GA
8

-4.378
K

-3.079

1 5.15 3.622 K-3.079=0

&

10.2.6. Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

1. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an open-loop zero on the real axis.
M

2. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an infinite value on the real axis.
3. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
A

increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis and end at a
complex open-loop zero or infinity.
BE

4. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis. They may once
again enter the real axis and end at open-loop zeros or at a large value on the real axis.
5. Start from a pair of complex open-loop poles, enter the real axis and end at an open-
loop zero or an infinite value on the real axis. They could leave the real axis again and
end at a complex open-loop zero or infinity.

10.2.7. Angle contributions from complex poles

Complex poles and zeros do not contribute to the angle criterion on the real axis

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IN
GA
10.2.8. Determine breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus
&
A( s)
1 G ( s) H ( s) 1 K 0 (10.12)
B( s )

f (s) B ( s ) KA(s ) 0 (10.13)

M

B(s)
K (10.14)
As )
A

f (s ) (s s1 ) r ( s s 2 )...( s sn r 1) 0 (10.15)

df ( s )
BE

r ( s s1 ) r 1 ( s s2 )...( s sn r 1) ( s s1 ) r .( s s3 )..( s sn r 1) ... (10.16)

ds

df ( s )
0 (10.17)
ds s s1

f ' (s) B ' ( s ) KA' ( s ) 0 (10.18)

B ' ( s)
K (10.19)
A' ( s )

Therefore,

B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s ) 0 (10.20)

At breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus,

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dK B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s )
0 (10.21)
ds A2 ( s )

10.2.9. Draw asymptotes to the root-locus

IN
GA
Angle of asymptotes
1800 k 360
c where, k=0, 1, 2, 3..
(n m )
&

Location of asymptotes
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
K (10.22)
( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
M

s n ( p1 p2 ... pn ) s n 1
K (10.23)
s m ( z1 z 2 ...zm ) s m 1 ...
A

K sn m
[( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... zm )]s n m 1
... (10.24)
BE

s pi s c (10.25)

( s zi ) s c (10.26)
n
(s c)
K m
sn m
( n m) cs
n m 1
... (10.27)
(s c)

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm )
c (10.28)
(n m)

Angle of departure

d 180 ( 1 2) 1 (10.29)

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o
d=180 - angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from other open - loop poles
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from all open-loop zeros

IN
Angle of arrival

a 180 ( 1 3 ) ( 1 2 3 ) (10.30)

GA
&
A M

o
a=180- angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from other open- loop zeros
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from all open-loop poles
BE

Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

Re al[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0 (10.31)

imaginary[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0 (10.32)

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 1)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=2
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-1

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Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

IN
Test points in between the open-lop poles
GA
&
A M
BE

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s( s 1)
dK
2s 1 0
ds
=-0.5
b

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Gain at the breakaway point

K b | 0.5 0 || 0.5 ( 1) | 0.25

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:
1800 k 360 180 360k
c c
( n m) 2

IN
c 900 k 0
0
c 270 k 1
Centroid of asymptotes

c
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1
( n m)
z2 ... zm ) 0 1
2
GA
0.5
&
A M

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
BE

not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
1 GH 1 s2 s K 0
s ( s 1)
B( j ) ( j )2 ( j ) K (K 2
) j
2
K 0 j 0
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0

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Here,
1 1 4K
s
2

IN
GA
&
M

Problem-2: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 2)( s 4)
A

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
BE

Number of open-loop poles n=3

Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=-2 and s=-4
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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Test points in between the open-lop poles

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s ( s 2)( s 4)
dK
( s 2)( s 4) s ( s 4) s ( s 2) 0
ds
Breakaway point as b=-0.85 and –3.15
b = –3.15 is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point
Gain at the breakaway point

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K b | 0.85 0 || 0.855 ( 2) || 0.85 ( 4) | 3.079

1 6 8 K

-0.85 -4.378 -3.079

1 5.15 3.622 K-3.079=0

IN
Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus
Angle of asymptotes:

c
1800 k 360
( n m)
180 360 k
3
GA
c 600 k 0
0
c 180 k 1
&
0
c 300 k 2
Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...z m ) 0 2 4
c 2
M

( n m) 3
A
BE

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

K
1 GH 1 s 3 6s 2 8s K 0
s( s 2)( s 4)
B( j ) ( j )3 6( j ) 2 8 j K (K 6 2
) j (8 3
) 0

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When imaginary-part is zero, then 8 s j 8 and when real-part is zero,

2
then K 6 48 .
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>48.

1 6 8 48

+j2.828 -8+j16.97 -48

1 6+j2.828 J16.97 0

1 6+j2.828 J16.97

-j2.828 -j16.97

IN
1 6 0

Therefore, closed-loop pole on the real axis for K=48 at s 6

No.
Closed-loop pole
on the real axis
K
GA Second and third
closed- loop poles
Remarks

1 -4.309 3.07 -0.85,-0.85 Already computed

2 -4.50 5.625 -0.75 j0.829

&
3 -5.00 15 -0.5 j1.6583
4 -5.50 28.875 -0.25 j2.2776
5 -6.00 48 j2.8284 Already computed
M

6 -6.5 73.125 0.25 j3.448

A

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-4.5

K=|-4.5-(-4)||-4.5-(-2)||-4.5-0|= 5.625
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
BE

1 6 8 K

-4.5 -6.75 -5.625

1 1.5 1.25 K-5.625=0

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
s2,3 0.75 j 0.829

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IN
Problem-3: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K GA
by G ( s ) H ( s ) 2
s ( s 1)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=0 and s=-1
&
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane
A M
BE

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

s 2 ( s 1)

IN
Characteristic equation, K
dK
0
ds
2 s ( s 1) s 0
s 2s 3
Breakaway point as
b
0
b= -2/3and 0
GA
= -2/3is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point.
Therefore b= 0 and the two loci start from the origin and breakaway at the origin itself.

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

&
Angle of asymptotes:
1800 k 360 180 360 k
c
( n m) 3
600 k 0
M

c
0
c 180 k 1
c 3000 k 2
A

Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... z m ) 0 1 1
c
BE

( n m) 3 3

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed.

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Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B( s ) s 3 s 2 K
B ( j ) ( j )3 ( j ) 2 K ( K 2
) j 3
When imaginary-part is zero, then 0 s 0 and when real-part is zero,
2
then K 0.
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles

No. Closed-loop pole on the K Second and third

real axis closed- loop poles

1 -1.5 1.125 0.25±j0.82

2 -2.0 4 0.50±j1.32

IN
3 -2.5 9.375 0.75±j1.78

4 -3.0 18 1.00±j2.23

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-1.5

GA
K=|-1.5-(-1)||-1.5-(0)||-1.5-0|= 1.125
s 3 s 2 1.125 0
&
1 1 0 1.125
-1.5 0.75 -1.125
1 -0.5 0.75 0
M

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
A

s2,3 0.25 j 0.82

BE

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IN
Problem-4: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G ( s ) H ( s)

Solution:
s 4
5s 3
K
8s 2 6s
GA
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
s4 5s 3 8 s 2 6s s(s2 2 s 2)( s 3) (s 1 j )( s 1 j )( s 3) s
Number of open-loop poles n=4
&
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-3, s=-1+j and s=-1-j

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

A M
BE

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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IN
Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point
Characteristic equation, K ( s 4 5s 3 8 s 2 6 s )
dK
ds
0

4 s 3 15s 2 16s 6 0
GA
s 3 3.75s 2 4s 1.5 0
f ' ( s ) 3s 2 7.5 s 4
This equation is solved using Newton-Raphson’s method
&
f ( sn )
sn 1 sn
f ' ( sn )

No.
M

sn f ( sn ) f ' ( sn ) sn 1

1 -3.75 -13.5 18.0625 -3.0026

A

2 -3.0026 -3.7721 8.5273 -2.5602

3 -2.5602 -0.9421 4.4624 -2.3491

BE

4 -2.3491 -0.1658 2.9364 -2.2926

5 -2.2926 -0.0103 2.5737 -2.2886

-5
6 -2.2886
-5.03x10

Breakaway point as b= -2.3

Gain at the breakaway point, K | 2.3 ( 3) || 2.3 0 || 2.3 ( 1 j ) || 2.3 ( 1 j) | 4.33

1 5 8 6 K

-2.2886 -6.2053 -4.1073 -4.3316

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

1 2.7114 1.7947 1.8926 0

IN
Other closed-loop poles for K=4.3
GA
1 2.7114 1.7947 1.893
&
-2.2886 -0.9676 -1.893

1 0.4228 0.8270 0
M

s =-0.2114±j0.8814
3,4

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

A

Angle of asymptotes:
1800 k 360 180 360 k
c
( n m) 4
BE

c 450 k 0
0
c 135 k 1
c 2250 k 2
0
c 315 k 3

Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...z m ) 0 3 1 j 1 j
c 1.25
( n m) 4

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
&

Steps 6:Determine angles of departure

A M
BE

d 1800 (1350 26.560 900 ) 71.560 288.44 0

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Step 7: As there are no complex open-loop zeros, angle of arrival need not be computed.

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B(s) s 4 5s3 8s 2 6s K
B ( j ) ( j ) 4 5( j )3 8( j ) 2 6j K ( 4
8 2
K) j (6 5 3
)
6 6
When imaginary-part is zero, then s j and when real-part is zero,
5 5
2
6 6
then K 8 8.16 .
5 5
There are two closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles

No. S1 S2 S3,4 K

IN
1 -0.25 -2.9217 -0.9142±0.7969j 1.0742

2 -0.50 -2.8804 -0.8098±0.655j 1.5625

3
4
-0.75
-1.0
-2.8593
-2.8393
GA -0.6953±0.5938j
-0.5804±0.6063j
1.7930
2.0000

5 -1.25 -2.8055 -0.4722±0.6631j 2.3242

6 -1.75 -2.6562 -0.3763±0.7354j 2.8125

&
7 -2.0 -2.5214 -0.2393±0.8579j 4.0
A M
BE

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Additional Information from Root-Locus Plot

1. Gain Margin
K2
GM 20log (10.33)
K1

K1 is the gain of a feedback system at some point on the root-locus

K2 is the gain at which the system becomes unstable
2. Transient Characteristics

IN
GA
&
M

2
1 1
Where, tan

3. Percentage overshoot
A

/ tan
Mp e (10.34)
BE

4. Settling time
4
ts (10.35)
n

5. Steady-state error is also related to K.

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K s 2 10s 100
by G ( s ) H ( s ) ,H s 1
s 4 20 s 3 100 s 2 500 s 1500
(a) Determine the value of gain at which the system will be stable and as well have a maximum
overshoot of 5%.
(b) What is the gain margin at this point?
(c) What is the steady-state error for a unit step excitation at the above point?
Solution:

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 99

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

tan 1.0487
(a) ln M p
460
1
0.690 (10.36)
1 tan 2

IN
GA
&
A M

192.2
(b) GM 20 log 2.65dB
261
BE

(c) Position error

K ( s 2 10 s 100) 100 K
Ks lim s
s 0
4
20 s 3 100 s 2 500 s 1500 1500
Steady-state error,
1 1 1500
Se ( )
1 K s 1 100 K / 1500 1500 100 K
1500
Se ( ) 5.4%
1500 100 261

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Root locus

The locus of all the closed-loop poles for various values of the open-loop gain K is called root locus.
The root-locus method is developed by W.R. Evans in 1954. It helps to visualize the various
possibilities of transient response of stable systems.
Closed-loop response function
C ( s) G ( s)
(10.37)
R(s) 1 G (s )H (s)

Characteristic equation

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
1 G (s) H (s) 1 0 (10.38)
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

Vector from open-loop pole to the root-locus

IN
GA
&
Vector from open-loop zero to the root-locus
A M
BE

Behaviors of closed-loop poles

Closed-loop poles negative Exponential decay Stable

and real
Closed-loop poles complex Decaying and oscillatory Stable
with negative real parts
Closed-loop poles positive and Exponential increase Unstable
real
Closed-loop poles complex Exponential and oscillatory Unstable
with positive real parts increase

BASIS for CONSTRUCTION

Construction steps
10. Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

11. Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

12. Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis
13. Determine breakaway and break-in points
14. Draw asymptotes to the root-locus
15. Determine angles of departure
16. Determine angles of arrival
17. Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
18. Obtain additional points and complete the root-locus

Starting points
Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
1 G (s) H (s) 1 0 (10.39)
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

For K=0,

IN
(s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(s p1 )( s GA p2 )...( s pn ) 0

Open-loop poles are also closed-loop poles for K=0. A root-locus starts from every open-loop pole.
(10.40)

Ending points
Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system
&
K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
1 G (s) H (s) 1 0 (10.41)
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
M

For K=

K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s z m )
1
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
A

(s z1 )( s z2 )...( s z m ) 0 (10.42)
BE

Root-locus ends at an open-loop zero or at infinity.

Magnitude and angle criterion

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) (cos j sin ) 0 (10.43)

Angle criterion:
n m

i j 1800 360k (10.44)

i 1 j 1

Where, i angle in case of ith pole and j angle in case of jth zero
Magnitude criterion:
G ( s ) H ( s) 1 (10.45)

Determining gain at a root-locus point

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Using the magnitude of vectors drawn from open-loop poles and zeros to the root-locus point, we get
n
(s pi )
i 1 | ( s p1 ) || ( s p2 ) | ... | ( s pn ) |
m
K (10.46)
| ( s z1 ) || s z 2 ) | ... | ( s zm ) |
(s z j )
j 1

Gain at a root-locus point is determined using synthetic division.

Example:
Determine K of the characteristic equation for the root s=-0.85.

Solution:
S3 6s 2 8s K 0 (10.47)

IN
1 6 8 K

-0.85 -4.378 -3.079

1 5.15
GA
3.622 K-3.079=0

Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

6. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an open-loop zero on the real axis.
&
7. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an infinite value on the real axis.
8. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis and end at a
M

complex open-loop zero or infinity.

9. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis. They may once
A

again enter the real axis and end at open-loop zeros or at a large value on the real axis.
10. Start from a pair of complex open-loop poles, enter the real axis and end at an open-
loop zero or an infinite value on the real axis. They could leave the real axis again and
BE

end at a complex open-loop zero or infinity.

Angle contributions from complex poles

Complex poles and zeros do not contribute to the angle criterion on the real axis

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Determine breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus

A( s)
1 G ( s) H ( s) 1 K 0 (10.48)
B( s )

f (s) B ( s ) KA(s ) 0 (10.49)

IN
B(s)
K (10.50)
As )

df ( s )
ds
f (s )

r ( s s1 ) r 1 ( s
(s

s2 )...( s sn
GA
s1 ) r ( s s 2 )...( s

r 1)
sn r 1) 0

( s s1 ) r .( s s3 )..( s sn r 1) ...
(10.51)

(10.52)

df ( s )
0 (10.53)
&
ds s s1

f ' (s) B ' ( s ) KA' ( s ) 0 (10.54)

B ' ( s)
M

K (10.55)
A' ( s )

Therefore,
A

B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s ) 0 (10.56)

BE

At breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus,

dK B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s )
0 (10.57)
ds A2 ( s )

Draw asymptotes to the root-locus

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
Angle of asymptotes
1800 k 360
c where, k=0, 1, 2, 3..
(n m) GA
Location of asymptotes
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
K (10.58)
( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )

s n ( p1 p2 ... pn ) s n 1
&
K (10.59)
s m ( z1 z 2 ...zm ) s m 1 ...

K sn m
[( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... zm )]s n m 1
... (10.60)
M

s pi s c (10.61)

( s zi ) s c (10.62)
A

n
(s c)
K m
sn m
( n m) cs
n m 1
... (10.63)
BE

(s c)

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm )
c (10.64)
(n m)

Angle of departure

d 180 ( 1 2) 1 (10.65)

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

o
d=180 - angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from other open - loop poles
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from all open-loop zeros

IN
Angle of arrival

a 180 ( 1 3 ) ( 1 2 3 ) (10.66)

GA
&
A M

o
a=180- angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from other open- loop zeros
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from all open-loop poles
BE

Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

Re al[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0 (10.67)

imaginary[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0 (10.68)

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 1)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=2
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-1

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

IN
Test points in between the open-lop poles
GA
&
A M
BE

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s( s 1)
dK
2s 1 0
ds
=-0.5
b
Gain at the breakaway point

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

K b | 0.5 0 || 0.5 ( 1) | 0.25

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:
1800 k 360 180 360k
c c
( n m) 2

IN
c 900 k 0
0
c 270 k 1
Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... zm ) 0 1
c
( n m) 2
GA
0.5
&
A M

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
BE

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

K
1 GH 1 s2 s K 0
s ( s 1)
B( j ) ( j )2 (j ) K (K 2
) j
2
K 0 j 0
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Here,
1 1 4K
s
2

IN
GA
&

Problem-2: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
M

K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 2)( s 4)
Solution:
A

Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
BE

Open-loop poles: s=0, s=-2 and s=-4

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Test points in between the open-lop poles

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s ( s 2)( s 4)
dK
( s 2)( s 4) s ( s 4) s ( s 2) 0
ds
b=-0.85 and –3.15
b = –3.15 is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point
Gain at the breakaway point

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

K b | 0.85 0 || 0.855 ( 2) || 0.85 ( 4) | 3.079

1 6 8 K

-0.85 -4.378 -3.079

1 5.15 3.622 K-3.079=0

IN
Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus
Angle of asymptotes:

c
1800 k 360
(n m)
180 360 k
3
GA
c 600 k 0
1800 k 1
&
c

c 3000 k 2
Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z 2 ...z m ) 0 2 4
2
M

c
( n m) 3
A
BE

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

K
1 GH 1 s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
s ( s 2)( s 4)
B( j ) ( j ) 3 6( j ) 2 8 j K (K 6 2
) j (8 3
) 0

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

When imaginary-part is zero, then 8 s j 8 and when real-part is zero,

2
then K 6 48 .
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>48.

1 6 8 48

+j2.828 -8+j16.97 -48

1 6+j2.828 J16.97 0

1 6+j2.828 J16.97

-j2.828 -j16.97

IN
1 6 0

Therefore, closed-loop pole on the real axis for K=48 at s 6

No.
Closed-loop pole
on the real axis
K
GA Second and third
closed- loop poles
Remarks

1 -4.309 3.07 -0.85,-0.85 Already computed

2 -4.50 5.625 -0.75 j0.829

&
3 -5.00 15 -0.5 j1.6583
4 -5.50 28.875 -0.25 j2.2776
5 -6.00 48 j2.8284 Already computed
M

6 -6.5 73.125 0.25 j3.448

A

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-4.5

K=|-4.5-(-4)||-4.5-(-2)||-4.5-0|= 5.625
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
BE

1 6 8 K

-4.5 -6.75 -5.625

1 1.5 1.25 K-5.625=0

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
s2,3 0.75 j 0.829

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
Problem-3: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K GA
by G ( s ) H ( s ) 2
s ( s 1)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=0 and s=-1
&
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane
A M
BE

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

s 2 ( s 1)

IN
Characteristic equation, K
dK
0
ds
2 s ( s 1) s 0

b
s 2s 3 0
b= -2/3and 0
GA
= -2/3is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point.
Therefore b = 0 and the two loci start from the origin and breakaway at the origin itself.

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

&
Angle of asymptotes:
1800 k 360 180 360 k
c
(n m) 3
600 k 0
M

c
0
c 180 k 1
c 3000 k 2
A

Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... z m ) 0 1 1
c
BE

( n m) 3 3

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed.

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B( s ) s 3 s 2 K
B ( j ) ( j )3 ( j ) 2 K ( K 2
) j 3
When imaginary-part is zero, then 0 s 0 and when real-part is zero,
2
then K 0.
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles

No. Closed-loop pole on the K Second and third

real axis closed- loop poles

1 -1.5 1.125 0.25±j0.82

2 -2.0 4 0.50±j1.32

IN
3 -2.5 9.375 0.75±j1.78

4 -3.0 18 1.00±j2.23

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-1.5

GA
K=|-1.5-(-1)||-1.5-(0)||-1.5-0|= 1.125
s 3 s 2 1.125 0
&
1 1 0 1.125
-1.5 0.75 -1.125
1 -0.5 0.75 0
M

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
A

s2,3 0.25 j 0.82

BE

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
Problem-4: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G ( s ) H ( s)

Solution:
s 4
5s 3
K
8s 2 6s
GA
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
s4 5s 3 8 s 2 6s s(s2 2 s 2)( s 3) (s 1 j )( s 1 j )( s 3) s
Number of open-loop poles n=4
&
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-3, s=-1+j and s=-1-j

Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

A M
BE

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point
Characteristic equation, K ( s 4 5s 3 8 s 2 6 s )
dK
ds
0

4 s 3 15s 2 16s 6 0
GA
s 3 3.75s 2 4s 1.5 0
f ' ( s ) 3s 2 7.5s 4
This equation is solved using Newton-Raphson’s method
&
f ( sn )
sn 1 sn
f ' ( sn )

No.
M

sn f ( sn ) f ' ( sn ) sn 1

1 -3.75 -13.5 18.0625 -3.0026

A

2 -3.0026 -3.7721 8.5273 -2.5602

3 -2.5602 -0.9421 4.4624 -2.3491

BE

4 -2.3491 -0.1658 2.9364 -2.2926

5 -2.2926 -0.0103 2.5737 -2.2886

-5
6 -2.2886
-5.03x10

b= -2.3
Gain at the breakaway point, K | 2.3 ( 3) || 2.3 0 || 2.3 ( 1 j ) || 2.3 ( 1 j ) | 4.33

1 5 8 6 K

-2.2886 -6.2053 -4.1073 -4.3316

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

1 2.7114 1.7947 1.8926 0

Other closed-loop poles for K=4.3

IN
1 2.7114 1.7947 1.893
-2.2886 -0.9676 -1.893

s =-0.2114±j0.8814
1 0.4228
GA 0.8270 0

3,4

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

&
Angle of asymptotes:
1800 k 360 180 360 k
c
( n m) 4
450 k 0
M

c
0
c 135 k 1
c 2250 k 2
A

0
c 315 k 3
BE

Centroid of asymptotes
( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...z m ) 0 3 1 j 1 j
c 1.25
( n m) 4

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
&

Steps 6: Determine angles of departure

A M
BE

d 1800 (1350 26.560 900 ) 71.560 288.44 0

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Step 7: As there are no complex open-loop zeros, angle of arrival need not be computed.

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B(s) s 4 5s3 8s 2 6s K
B ( j ) ( j ) 4 5( j )3 8( j ) 2 6j K ( 4
8 2
K) j (6 5 3
)
6 6
When imaginary-part is zero, then s j and when real-part is zero,
5 5
2
6 6
then K 8 8.16 .
5 5
There are two closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles

No. S1 S2 S3,4 K

IN
1 -0.25 -2.9217 -0.9142±0.7969j 1.0742

2 -0.50 -2.8804 -0.8098±0.655j 1.5625

3
4
-0.75
-1.0
-2.8593
-2.8393
GA -0.6953±0.5938j
-0.5804±0.6063j
1.7930
2.0000

5 -1.25 -2.8055 -0.4722±0.6631j 2.3242

6 -1.75 -2.6562 -0.3763±0.7354j 2.8125

&
7 -2.0 -2.5214 -0.2393±0.8579j 4.0
A M
BE

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Additional Information from Root-Locus Plot

6. Gain Margin
K2
GM 20log (10.69)
K1

K1 is the gain of a feedback system at some point on the root-locus

K2 is the gain at which the system becomes unstable
7. Transient Characteristics

IN
GA
&
M

2
1 1
Where, tan

8. Percentage overshoot
A

/ tan
Mp e (10.70)
BE

9. Settling time
4
ts (10.71)
n

10. Steady-state error is also related to K.

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K s 2 10s 100
by G ( s ) H ( s ) ,H s 1
s 4 20 s 3 100 s 2 500 s 1500
(a) Determine the value of gain at which the system will be stable and as well have a maximum
overshoot of 5%.
(b) What is the gain margin at this point?
(c) What is the steady-state error for a unit step excitation at the above point?
Solution:

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

tan 1.0487
(b) ln M p
460
1
0.690 (10.72)
1 tan 2

IN
GA
&
A M

192.2
(b) GM 20 log 2.65dB
261
BE

(c) Position error

K ( s 2 10 s 100) 100 K
Ks lim s
s 0
4
20 s 3 100 s 2 500 s 1500 1500
Steady-state error,
1 1 1500
Se ( )
1 K s 1 100 K / 1500 1500 100 K
1500
Se ( ) 5.4%
1500 100 261
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1
a. Root Locus using MATLAB
C s K
Program 1:Draw the root locus for the following system
R s s 1 s 2 s 4 s 5
Solution:
>> num=[01]

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num=
0 1
>>q1=[1 1];
>> q2=[1 2];
>> q3=[1 3];
>> q4=[1 4];
>>den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
>> den=conv(den,q4);
den=
1 12 49 78 40
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
--------------------
s^4+12s^3+49s^2+78s+40

IN
>>rlocus(sys)

GA
&
A M
BE

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11. Frequency Response Analysis

11.1. Frequency Response
This is defined as the steady-state response of a system due to a sinusoidal input.

Here,

C s N s
G s (11.1)
R s s a s b s c ...

IN
N s R s
C s (11.2)
s a s b s c ...

Let, r t A sin t , then

R s
GA A
(11.3)
s2 2

Using eq (3) in eq (2),

&
N s A
C s 2 2
s a s b s c ... s
(11.4)
A1 A1 A1 B1 B2
M

C s ...
s a s b s c s j s j

In time domain, eq (5) becomes

A

at bt ct j t
c t A1e A2 e A3e ... B1e B2 e j t
(11.5)
BE

The term with Ai terms are decaying components. So, they tend to zero as time tends to infinity.
Then, eq (5) becomes

j t
Css t B1e B2e j t
(11.6)

Where,

A G s A j G j
B1 G j e
s j s j
2j
(11.7)
A G s A j G j
B2 G j e
s j s j
2j

Since, G j G j and G j G j

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A j t A j t
c t G j e G j e (11.8)
2j 2j

j t ej e j
c t AG j e (11.9)
2j

c t AG j sin t (11.10)

c t B sin t (11.11)

Where, B AG j

Therefore, the steady-state response of the system for a sinusoidal input of magnitude A and
frequency is a sinusoidal output with a magnitude B , frequency and phase shift .

IN
The following plots are used in frequency response.

Polar plot
Bode plot
Magnitude versus phase angle plot
11.2. Definition of frequency domain specifications
GA
&
A M
BE

(i) Resonant peak M r : Maximum value of M j when is varied from 0 to

(ii) Resonant frequency r : The frequency at which M r occurs
1
(iii) Cut-off frequency c : The frequency at which M j has a value . It is the frequency
2
at which the magnitude is 3dB below its zero frequency value
(iv) Band-width b : It is the range of frequencies in which the magnitude of a closed-loop
1
system is times of M r
2

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

(v) Phase cross-over frequency: The frequency at which phase plot crosses -1800
(vi) Gain margin (GM): It is the increase in open-loop gain in dB required to drive the closed-loop
system to the verge of instability
(vii) Gain cross-over frequency: The frequency at which gain or magnitude plot crosses 0dB line

(viii) Phase margin (PM): It is the increase in open-loop phase shift in degree required to
drive the closed-loop system to the verge of instability

11.3. Correlation between time and frequency response

For a second order system

2
C s n
2 2
(11.12)
R s s 2 ns n

IN
Putting s j

2
C j n
2 2
R j n j2 n

C j
R j
GA
1
2

2
1

j2
(11.13)

n n

Let, u , then
&
n

C j 1
2
(11.14)
R j 1 u j2 u
M

Now,
A

M j M j M j (11.15)

Where,
BE

1
M j
2 2
1 u2 2 u
(11.16)
1 2 u
tan
1 u2

Now,

1
Mr (11.17)
2
2 1

2
r n 1 2 (11.18)

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2 4 2
b n 1 2 4 4 2 (11.19)

PM 1800 (11.20)

1 2
Where, tan
2 2
4 1 2

11.4. Advantages
Good accuracy
Possible to test in lab
Can be used to obtain transfer function that is not possible with analytical techniques
Easy to design open-loop transfer function from closed-loop performance in frequency
domain

IN
It is very easy to visualize the effect of disturbance and parameter variations.
11.5. Disadvantages
Applied only to linear systems
Frequency response for existing system is possible to obtain if the time constant is up to few
minutes
Time consuming procedure
Old and back dated method
GA
Equation Chapter 12 Section 1
&
A M
BE

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12. Bode Plots

12.1. Magnitude plot and phase plot on a semi-log paper
Magnitude plot on a semi-log paper

IN
GA
M 20log | G ( j ) H ( j ) | dB
&
Phase plot on a semi-log paper
A M
BE

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12.2. Magnitude versus phase Bode plot Nichols plot

IN
GA
&

Table 12.1 Basic frequency response factors

M

No Laplace term Frequency response Type of factor

A

1 K K Constant

2 s j Derivative factor
BE

3 1/s 1/ j Integral factor

4 s+1 (1+ j ) First order derivative factor

5 1/( s+1) 1/(1+ j ) First order integral factor

6 s2 2 ns
2
n
2
n
2
j2 n Second order derivative factor

1 1
7 2 2 2 2 Second order integral factor
s 2 ns n n j2 n

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12.3. Derivative factor: magnitude

M 20 log j 20log dB (12.1)

j 900 (12.2)

2
M 20log 2 20log 1 20log dB/decade (12.3)
1

M 20log10 20 dB/decade (12.4)

M 20 log 2 6 dB/octave (12.5)

Table 12.2 Magnitude variation of a derivative factor for various multiples of the initial
frequency

IN
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1

M dB 0 6 10 12
GA 14 16 17 18 19 20
&
A M
BE

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12.4. Derivative Factor: (phase)

IN
GA
&
Table 15.3Derivative factor

Frequency, rad/s
M

0.1 1 10 30 100
Magnitude, dB -20 0 20 30 40
Phase, degrees 90 90 90 90 90
A
BE

12.5. Integral factor: magnitude

1
M 20log 20log dB (12.6)
j

j 270 0 (12.7)

2
M 20log 2 20log 1 20log dB/decade (12.8)
1

M 20log10 20 dB/decade (12.9)

M 20log 2 6 dB/octave (12.10)

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IN
GA
Table 12.4Magnitude variation of an integral factor for various multiples of the initial frequency

2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
&
M , dB 0 -6 -10 -12 -14 -16 -17 -18 -19 -20

12.6. Integral factor: phase

A M
BE

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Table 12.5Bode magnitude and phase of an integral factor

Frequency, rad/s

0.1 1 10 20 100

Magnitude, dB 20 0 -20 -26 -40

Phase, degrees 270 270 270 270 270

12.7. First-order derivative factor: magnitude

2
M 20 log 1 j 20log( 1 dB (12.11)

IN
For << , M
c
For >> ,
c

M 20log dB (12.12)

Here,
c
=1/ = corner frequency
GA c

For >
c

2
M 20log 2 20log 1 20log (12.13)
&
1

M 20log10 20 dB/decade (12.14)

M 20 log 2 6 dB/octave (12.15)

M

Table 12.6Magnitude variation of a first-order derivative factor for various multiples of the corner
frequency
A

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BE

M, 0 6 10 12 14 16 17 18 19 20
dB

12.8. First-order derivative factor: phase

1 j arctan (12.16)

wc
0 ;w
10
wc
450 1 log ; w 10 wc (12.17)
c 10
90 ; w 10 wc

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Table 12.7Phase angles of a first-order derivative factor around the corner frequency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c
, deg 45 59 66 72 76 80 83 86 88 90

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

c
, deg 0 2 4 7 10 14 18 24 31 45

12.9. First-order derivative factor

For 1
Table 15.8Bode magnitude and phase

Frequency, rad/s

IN
0.1 1 5 10 20 100

Magnitude, dB 0 3 14 20 26 40

Phase, degrees 0
GA
45 76 90 90 90

First-order derivative factor: magnitude (3 dB correction at the corner frequency)

&
A M
BE

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First-order derivative Factor: phase

IN
GA
&
12.10. First-order integral factor: magnitude

1 1
M 20log 20log 2
dB (12.18)
1 j 1
M

M 0, w wc
(12.19)
M 20log dB w wc
A

2
M 20log 20log 20log dB/decade (12.20)
BE

2 1
1

M 20log 2 6 dB/octave (12.21)

Table 12.9Magnitude variation of a first-order integral factor for various multiples of the corner
frequency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c

M,
0 -6 -10 -12 -14 -16 -17 -18 -19 -20
dB

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Table 12.10Phase angles of a first-order integral factor around the corner frequency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c
deg 315 301 294 288 284 280 277 274 272 270

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

c
deg 360 358 356 353 350 346 342 336 329 315

First-order integral factor: phase

=360, < c /10

360 450 1 log , c/10< <10 c

IN
c

360 450 1 log

c

=270, >10
GA
c

Table 12.11Bode magnitude and phase of a first-order integral factor

&
Frequency, rad/s

0.01 0.1 0.7 1 7 10 20 100

Magnitude, dB 0 0 -2 -3 -17 -20 -26 -40

M

Phase, degrees 360 360 322 315 277 270 270 270
A

First-order integral factor: magnitude

BE

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IN
First-order integral factor: phase

GA
&
A M
BE

12.12. Second-order derivative factor: magnitude

2 2
M 20 log | n j2 n |
2 2
2 (12.22)
2
20 log n 1 2
2
n n

M 40logwn , w wn
2
M 20log (2zwn ), w wn (12.23)
M 40 logw, w wn

For w wn

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

2
M 40log 2 40 log 1 40log dB/decade (12.24)
1

M 40log10 40 dB/decade (12.25)

M 40log 2 12 dB/octave (12.26)

Magnitude variation of a second-order derivative factor for various multiples of the resonant
frequency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
n

M dB 0 12 20 24 28 32 34 36 38 40

Second-order derivative factor: phase

IN
2
2 2 n
| n j2 n | arctan 2
(12.27)
1 2
n

00 ,
GA w
wn
10
900 , w wn (12.28)
0
180 , w 10 wn
&

Bode magnitude and phase

n
M

Frequency, rad/s 0.01 0.1 0.7 1 3 10 100

Magnitude, dB 0 0 -4 -4 18 40 80
A

Phase, degrees 0 0 39 90 167 180 180

BE

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
&
A M

Second-order integral factor

BE

1 1
M 20 log 2 2
dB 20 log dB (12.29)
n j2 n 2
2 2
2
n 1 2
2
n n

M - 40log n, << n

2
M=-20log (2 n ), = n

M= - 40 log , >> n

2
M 40log 2 40log 1 40log dB / decade (12.30)
1

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

M 40log10dB 40dB (12.31)

Magnitude variation of a second-order integral factor for various multiples of the resonant frequency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
n

M 0 -12 -20 -24 -28 -32 -34 -36 -38 -40

, dB

2
1 n
2 2
360 arctan 2
(12.32)
n j2 n
1 2
n

IN
=0, < n

=2700, = n

=1800, > GA
n

Bode magnitude and phase

Frequency, rad/s 0.01 0.1 0.7 1 3 10 100

&
Magnitude, dB 0 0 4 4 -18 -40 -80

Phase, degrees 360 360 321 270 193 180 180

M

Magnitude plot
A
BE

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IN
Phase plot
GA
&
A M
BE

Example 14.1
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?

1
G (s) H (s)
s( s 1)

Solution

Applying s j ,

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

1
G( j )H ( j )
j (j 1)

The above frequency response function has two factors: (1) Integral factor and (2) First order integral
factor with a corner frequency of 1 rad/s

Bode magnitude of the transfer function

Frequency, radians/s

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

1 40 20 0 -20 -40
20log dB
j

1 0 0 -3 -20 -40

IN
20log dB
j 1

Magnitude, dB 40 20 -3 -40 -80

p
= 100 rad/s
GA
&

Frequency, rad/s

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

M

1
degrees 270 270 270 270 270
j
A

1
degrees 360 360 315 270 270
BE

j 1

Bode phase, degrees 270 270 225 180 180

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

GM=80 dB

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

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Example 14.2
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?

1
G (s) H (s)
s ( s 2) s 4)
Solution
1
G( j )H ( j )
j j
8j 1 1
2 4
The corner frequencies corresponding to first order integral factors are 2 rad/s and 4 rad/s. Minimum
frequency is chosen as 0.01 rad/s and maximum frequency 100 rad/s.

Table 14.1 Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order

IN
1
term
2
x1 x2 x1 x10 x2 x1 x1 x2 x1 x10
Frequency, rad/s 2 4 2 20 20 10 20 40 10 100
Magnitude, dB 0 -6 0 -20 GA -20 -14

Table 14.2 Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order
-20 -26 -14 -34

1
term
4
x1 x10 x2 x1 x2 x1 x1 x10
&
Frequency, rad/s 4 40 40 20 20 10 10 100
Magnitude, dB 0 -20 -20 -14 -14 -8 -8 -28

Table 12.3 Bode magnitude

M

Frequency, rad/s

Factor 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.4 1 2 4 10 20 40 100

A

1 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18
20 log
8
BE

1 40 20 14 8 0 -6 -12 -20 -26 -32 -40

20 log
j

1 0 0 0 0 -1 -3 -6 -14 -20 -26 -34

20 log
j
1
2

1 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -3 -8 -14 -20 -28

20log
j
1
4

Bode 22 2 -4 -10 -18 -28 -39 -60 -78 -96 -120

magnitude,

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

dB

Bode magnitude

IN
GA
Bode phase
&
Frequency, rad/s

Factor 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.4 1 2 4 10 20 40 100

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
M

1 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270
A

j
BE

1 360 360 360 346 328 315 301 284 270 270 270
j
1
2

1 360 360 360 360 342 326 315 297 285 270 270
j
1
4

Phase 270 270 270 256 220 191 166 131 105 90 90
degrees

Phase plot

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

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Bode plot

IN
GA
&
Example 12.1
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?
M

1
G ( s) H ( s) 2
s ( s 1)
A

Solution
1
G ( j )H ( j )
BE

( j )( j )( j 1)
There are two integral factors and an integral first-order term with a corner frequency of 1 rad/s
Bode magnitude

Frequency, rad/s

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

1
20log dB 40 20 0 -20 -40
j

1
20log dB 40 20 0 -20 -40
j

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

1
20log dB 0 0 -3 -20 -40
j 1

Bode magnitude, dB 80 40 -3 -60 -120

Example 12.2
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?

1
G (s) H (s) 4 3
s 5s 8s 2 6s

Solution

IN
1
G (s )H (s) 2
s(s 2s 2)(s 3)
1
G( j )H ( j )
j ( j )2 2( j ) 2 (( j ) 3) GA
1
G( j )H ( j ) 3
2
j (2 1) ) j2 ) 2 ( j
3
Comparing the second order term with a standard second order term,
&
2 2
n j2 n

1
M

n 2 and .
2

For the first order integral factor, c=3 rad/s

A

For > 0.5, the response at resonance is less than theresponse at frequencies less than the resonant
frequencies
BE

Table Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral second-order term

x1 x10 x1 x2 x3 x1 x1 x10 x3 x1
Frequency, rad/s 1.4 14 14 30 30 10 10 100 30 3
- -
Magnitude, dB -6 -46 -46 -58 -38 -78 -58 -18
58 38

Table Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order term

x1 x3 x2 x1 x3 x1 x1 x10
Frequency, rad/s 3 30 30 14 30 10 10 100
Magnitude, dB 0 -20 -20 -14 -20 -10 -10 -30

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Bode magnitude

Frequency, rad/s

n c

0.01 0.1 0.14 0.3 1 2 3 10 14 30 100

1 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10
20 log
3

1 40 20 17 10 0 -3 -10 -20 -23 -30 -40

20log
j

1 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -9 -18 -38 -46 -58 -78

IN
20log 2
(2 ) j (2 )

1 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -3 -10 -14 -20 -30

20log
j
3
1 GA
Bode magnitude, dB 24 4 1 -6 -16 -23 -41 -78 -93 -118 -158
&
A M
BE

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Bode phase

Frequency, rad/s

n c

0.01 0.1 0.14 0.3 1 2 3 10 14 30 100

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3

1 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270
degrees
j

1 360 360 360 343 297 270 221 192 180 180 180

IN
2
(2 ) j (2 )
degrees

1 360 360 360 360 336 330 315 291 285 270 270

j
3
1
, degrees GA
Bode phase, degrees 270 270 250 253 183 150 86 33 15 0 0
&
A M
BE

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Nichols plot

IN
13. Polar Plots
GA
It is a graphical method of determining stability of feedback control systems by using the polar plot of
their open-loop transfer functions.

Example 13.1
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer functionfor
&
K
G (s) H ( s) (14.33)
s ( s 1)
Frequency response
M

K
G( j )H ( j ) (14.34)
j (j 1)

Magnitude
A

K
G( j )H ( ) (14.35)
2
1
BE

Angle
1
G( j ) H ( j ) tan (14.36)
2

270 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 180 0 (14.37)

Magnitude and phaseof the open-loopfrequency transfer function

Frequency, Phase,
No. Magnitude
rad/s degrees

1 0 270

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2 0.2 4.9029 259

3 0.4 2.3212 248

4 0.8 0.9761 231

5 1 0.7071 225

6 4 0.0606 194

7 10 0.01 186

8 50 0.0004 181

IN
9 100 0.0001 181

10 200

Polar plot of the transfer function

K
s s 1
GA
and K=1
&
M

=
A
BE

=0.2

Example 14.2
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer functionfor K=1, 10, 25, 55
K
GH
s ( s 2)( s 4)
Solution
Frequency response
K
G( j )H ( j )
j (j 2)( j 4)

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Magnitude
K
G( j )H ( j )
2 2
4 16
Angle
1 1
G( j ) H ( j ) tan tan
2 2 4
0
The lies in II and III quadrants as 90 270 0
G( j )H ( j )
Magnitude and phase of the open-loop frequencytransfer function (K=1)

No. Frequency, Magnitude Phase,

rad/s degrees
1 0.1 1.2481 266

2 0.2 0.6211 261

IN
4 0.4 0.3049 253

5 0.8 0.1423 237

7
1
4
GA0.1085
0.0099
229
162

8 10 0.0009 123

9 50 0 97
&
K
Polar plot of the transfer function GH for K=1, 10, 25, 55
s( s 2)( s 4)
A M
BE

Example 14.3
K
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer function G ( s ) H ( s ) 2
s ( s 1)

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Solution
Frequency response
K
G( j )H ( j )
( j )2 ( j 1)
Magnitude
K
G( j )H ( j )
2 2
1
Angle
G( j )H ( j ) 180 0 tan 1
The lies in II quadrant only as 90 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 180 0
Magnitude and phase of the open-loop frequency transfer function (K=1)

Frequency, Phase,
No. Magnitude

IN
rad/s degrees

1 0.4 5.803 158

4
0.5

0.8
GA 3.5777

1.2201
153

141

5 1 0.7071 135
&
6 2 0.1118 117

7 3 0.0351 108
M

8 4 0.0152 104

9 5 0.0078 101
A

K
Polar plot of the transfer function GH for K=1, 10, 25, 55
BE

s( s 2)( s 4)

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
&

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

Bode plot using MATLAB
M

C s 40
Program 1: Sketch the bode plot for the open loop transfer function .
R s s s 1 s 4
Determine the gain margin, phase margin, gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency.
A

Solution:
>> num=[0 40]
num=
BE

0 40
>> q1=[1 0];
>> q2=[1 1];
>> q3=[1 4];
>> den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
den=
1 9 24 16 0
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
--------------------
s^4+9s^3+24s^2+16s
>>bode(sys)
>>margin(sys)

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14. Nyquist plot

[Link]
Nyquist criterion is a graphical method of determining stability of feedback control systems
by using the Nyquist plot of their open-loop transfer functions.

[Link]
Feedback transfer function
C ( s) G ( s)
(14.1)
R(s) 1 G (s )H (s)

Poles and zeros of theopen-loop transfer function

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
G (s) H (s) (14.2)
( s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn )

(s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s zm )
1 G (s) H (s) (14.3)

IN
( s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn )

Number of closed-loop poles - Number of zeros of 1+GH = N umber of open-loop poles

(s zc1 )(s zc2 )( s z cn )

1 G ( s ) H ( s)

zc1 , zc2 ... zc = zeros of 1+G(s)H(s)

GA
(s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn )
(14.4)

These are also poles of the close-loop transfer function

Magnitude
&
s zc1 s zc2 ... s zcn
1 G( s) H (s ) (14.5)
(s p1 ) ( s p 2 ) ... ( s pn ) .

Angle
M

s zc1 s zc2 s zcn

1 G ( s ) H (s ) (14.6)
(s p1 ) ( s p 2 ) (s pn )
A

The s-plane to 1+GH plane mappingphase angle of the 1+G(s)H(s) vector, corresponding to a point on
the s-plane is the difference between the sum of the phase of all vectors drawn from zeros of
BE

1+GH(close loop poles) and open loops on the s plane. If this point s is moved along a closed contour
enclosing any or all of theabove zeros and poles, only the phase of the vector of each of the enclosed
zeros or open-loop poles will change by 3600. The directionwill be in the same sense of the contour
enclosing zeros and in the opposite sense for the contour enclosing open-loop poles.

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 156

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
&
M

[Link] of argument
A
BE

When a closed contour in the s-plane encloses a certain number of poles and zeros of 1+G(s)H(s) in
the clockwise direction, the number ofencirclements of the origin by the corresponding contour in the
G(s)H(s)plane will encircle the point (-1,0) a number of times given by thedifference between the
number of its zeros and poles of 1+G(s)H(s) it enclosed on the s-plane.

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 157

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

GH from the polar plot

Magnitude zero since n >m

GH from the mirror image of the

polar plot

IN
Modified contour on the s-plane forchecking the existence of closed-looppoles
s ej GA
&
A M
BE

Magnitude of GH remains the same alongthe contourPhase of changes from 270 to 90 degrees

[Link] Margin and Phase Margin

Phase crossover frequency p is the frequency at which the open-loop transfer function has a phase of
1800. The gain crossover frequency g is the frequency at whichthe open-loop transfer function has a
unit gain

Gain margin
M 20log G ( j p )H ( j p ) (14.7)

Phase margin
G( j g )H ( j g ) 180o (14.8)

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 158

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

[Link]
(1) Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane
(2) Draw the closed contour and avoid open-loop poles on the imaginary axis
(3) Count the number of open-loop poles enclosed in the above contour of step 2, say P
(4) Plot G(j )H(j ) and its reflection on the GH plane and map part of the small semi-circle
detour on the s-plane around poles (if any) on the imaginary axis.
(5) Once the entire s-plane contour is mapped on to the GH plane, count the number of
encirclements of the point (-1,0) and its direction. Clockwise encirclement is considered
positive, say N.
(6) The number of closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane is given by Z=N+P. if Z >0, the
system is unstable.
(7) Determine gain margin, phase margin, and critical value of open-loop gain.

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 159

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Example 14.1
Using Nyquist criterion, determine the stability of a feedback systemwhose open-loop transfer
function is given by
K
G (s) H ( s)
s ( s 1)
Solution
Step 1Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane. Open-loop poles are at s=0 and –1. Let K=1
Step 2 Draw the closed contour on the s-plane to check the existenceof closed-loop poles in the right-
half s-plane.
Open-loop poles and s-plane contour

IN
GA
&

1
M

G ( j )H ( )
2
1
1
G( j ) H ( j ) tan
2
A

No. Frequency, Magnitude Phase, , GH plane,

rad/s degrees , s-plane, deg deg
BE

1 0.2 Positive 4.9029 259 270 101

frequencies
2 0.4 2.3212 248 280 91
3 0.8 0.9761 231 290 80
4 1 0.7071 225 300 69
5 4 0.0606 194 310 58
6 10 0.01 186 320 46
7 50 0.0004 181 330 35
8 100 0.0001 181 340 23

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 160

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

9 200 0 180 350 12

10 -200 Negative 0 180 0 0
frequencies
11 -100 0.0001 179 10 348
12 -50 0.0004 179 20 337
13 -10 0.01 174 30 325
14 -4 0.0606 166 40 314
15 -1 0.7071 135 50 302
16 -0.8 0.9761 129 60 291

IN
17 -0.4 2.3212 112 70 280
18 -0.2 4.9029 101 80 269

GA
&
A M
BE

The above system is stable. Here, phase crossover frequency is very large (infinity) and gain
crossover frequency 0.786 rad/s. Phase angle corresponding to gain crossover frequency= 2320and
o
Phase margin is 52

Example 14.2.
Using Nyquist criterion, determine the stability of a feedback systemwhose open-loop transfer
function is given by
55
G( s) H ( s)
s ( s 2)(s 4)
Solution
Step 1Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane. Open-loop poles are at s=0, -2 and –4. Let K=1
Step 2 Draw the closed contour on the s-plane to check the existenceof closed-loop poles in the right-
half s-plane.
Open-loop poles and s-plane contour

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 161

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
The number of open-loop pole enclosed, P is zero

K
G( j )H ( j )
2 2
4 16
G( j ) H ( j )
2
tan 1

2
tan 1

4
GA
No. Phase, , s-plane,
Frequency Magnitude degrees deg
&
1 1.5 Positive 3.4332 213 270
frequencies
2 2 2.1741 198 280
3 2.5 1.4568 187 290
M

4 2.83 1.1446 180 300

5 3 1.017 177 310
A

6 3.5 0.7334 169 320

7 4.5 0.4122 156 330
BE

8 5 0.319 150 340

9 5.5 0.2513 146 350
10 6 0.201 142 0
11 7 0.1339 136 10
12 8 0.0932 131 20
13 9 0.0673 126 30
14 -9 Negative 0.0673 234 40
frequencies
15 -8 0.0932 229 50
16 -7 0.1339 224 60

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 162

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

17 -6 0.201 218 70
18 -5.5 0.2513 214 80
19 -5 0.319 210 90
20 -4.5 0.4122 204 0
21 -3.5 0.7334 191 343
22 -3 1.017 183 326
23 -2.83 1.1446 180 309
24 -2.5 1.4568 173 292

IN
25 -2 2.1741 162 276
26 -1.5 3.4332 147 259
GA
&
A M
BE

Here, Z=N+P=2.
Hence, the above system is unstable.
Again,
Phase crossover frequency 2.83 rad/s
The gain at which the system becomes marginally stable, K * 55 / 1.1446 48
Gain margin
M 20 log G ( j p )H ( j p )
20log 1.1446 1.17 dB
o
Gain crossover frequency =3 rad/s and the corresponding angle of GH=177
o
Phase margin=177-180=-3

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 163

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Nyquist plot using MATLAB

C s 40
Program 1:Sketch the nyquist plot for the open loop transfer function .
R s s s 1 s 4
Solution:
>> num=[040]
num=
0 40
>> q1=[1 0];
>> q2=[1 1];
>> q3=[1 4];
>> den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
den=
1 9 24 16 0
>>sys=tf(num,den)

IN
Transfer function:
1
--------------------
s^4+9s^3+24s^2+16s
>>nyquist(sys)
GA
&
A M
BE

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 164

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
MODULE#4 GA
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1
&
A M
BE

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 165

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

15. CLOSED LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE

15.1. Peak Magnitude

C( j )
Mr 20 log dB (16.1)
R( j )

3 dB is considered good

15.2. Constant M-circles for unity feedback systems

G( j )
M(j ) (16.2)
1 G( j )

G( j ) x jy (16.3)

x2 y2

IN
M(j ) (16.4)
(1 x) 2 y2

M 2 (1 x) 2 M 2 y2 x2 y2 (16.5)
GA
x 2 (1 M 2 ) (1 M 2 ) y 2

M2 M2
2M 2 x M2 (16.6)

x2 y2 2 x (16.7)
1 M2 1 M2
2
M2
&
Adding in both sides, we get
1 M2
2 2
M2 2 M
x y (16.8)
1 M2 1 M2
M

M2 M
The above equation represents a family of circles with its center at 2
,0 and radius .
1 M 1 M2
A

15.3. Family of M-circles

BE

Family of M-circles corresponding to the closeloop magnitudes (M) of aunit feedback system
Constant M-circles for unityfeedback systems

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 166

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
15.4. Constant N-circles
M
GA G( j )
1 G( j )
(16.9)

1 y 1 y
tan tan (16.10)
x 1 x
&
1 y 1 y
N tan tan tan (16.11)
x 1 x

tan A tan B
tan( A B ) (16.12)
M

1 tan A tan B

Here, tan( )=N

y
A

N 2
(16.13)
x x y2
2 2 2
BE

1 1 1 1
x y (16.14)
2 2N 4 2N

1 1
The above equation represents a family of circles with its center at ( , ) and radius
2 2N
2
1 1
4 2N

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 167

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
Example 15.1.
GA
Determine the closed-loop magnitude ratio and bandwidth of the feedback system whose forward
10
transfer function is given by G ( s ) and H(s)=1, by (1) direct computation and (2)
s ( s 2)( s 4)
&
using M and N circles.

Solution
A M
BE

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 168

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
Closed-loopmagnitude and phase values

Closed-loop
Frequency, Closed-loop
Magnitude
rad/s

0.1
GA
ratio
1.0
Phase angle, deg

355
0.5 1.1 335
0.8 1.2 316
&
0.9 1.2 308
1.0 1.2 300
1.1 1.3 290
M

1.2 1.3 280

1.3 1.2 269
A

1.4 1.2 258

1.5 1.1 248
BE

1.6 1.0 238

1.7 0.9 230
1.8 0.8 222
1.9 0.7 216
2.0 0.6 210

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 169

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

15.5. Nichols chart for closed-loop response

C( j ) G( j )
(16.15)
R( j ) 1 G( j )H ( j )

C( j )
Mr 20 log dB (16.16)
R( j )

C( j )
(16.17)
R( j )

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 170

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Closed-loopconstant magnitude (dB)and phase angle(degrees)lines of a unity feedbackfunction

IN
GA
&
A M

Example 15.2.
Determine the closed-loop magnitude ratio and bandwidth of the feedback system whose forward
BE

10
transfer function is given by G ( s ) and H(s)=1, by (1) direct computation and (2)
s ( s 2)( s 4)
using Nichols chart.

Solution

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 171

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
GA
Closed-loop magnitude and phase values

Closed-loop Magnitude Closed-loop Phase

&
Frequency, rad/s
ratio, dB angle, deg

0.1 0.02 355

M

0.2 0.10 351

0.3 0.22 346

A

0.4 0.38 341

BE

0.5 0.59 335

0.6 0.84 330

0.7 1.11 323

0.8 1.39 316

0.9 1.66 308

1.0 1.87 300

1.1 1.99 290

1.2 1.95 280

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 172

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

1.3 1.72 269

1.4 1.27 258

1.5 0.62 248

1.6 -0.19 238

1.7 -1.12 230

1.8 -2.11 222

1.9 -3.13 216

2.0 -4.15 210

IN
Open-loop magnitude and phase values

Frequency, open-loop open-loop phase

rad/s

0.1 22
GA
magnitude, dB angle, deg

266

0.2 16 261
&
0.3 12 257

0.4 10 253

0.5 8 249
M

0.6 6 245
A

0.7 4 241

0.8 3 237
BE

0.9 2 233

1.0 1 229

1.1 0 226

1.2 -1 222

1.3 -2 219

1.4 -3 216

1.5 -4 213

1.6 -5 210

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 173

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

1.7 -6 207

1.8 -7 204

1.9 -7 201

2.0 -8 198

2.1 -9 196

2.2 -10 193

2.3 -10 191

2.4 -11 189

IN
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

GA
&
A M
BE

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 174

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

16. Controllers
16.1. Basic Control Action and response of Control systems
An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output with the reference input
(desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a control signal that will reduce the
deviation to zero or to a small value. The manner in which the automatic controller produces the
control signal is called the control action. Fig.1 is a block diagram of an industrial control
system, which consists of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant and a sensor (measuring
element). The controller detects the actuating error signal, which is usually at a low power level,
and amplifies it to a sufficiently high level. The output of the controller is fed to an actuator
such as pneumatic motor or valve, hydraulic motor or electric motor. The actuator is the device
that produces the input to the plant according to the control signal so that the output signal will
approach the reference input signal.

The sensor or measuring element is device that converts the output variable into another

IN
suitable variable such as a displacement, pressure or voltage that can be used to compare the
output to the reference input signal. This element is in the feedback path of the closed-loop
system. The set point of the controller must be converted to a reference input with the same
units as feedback signal from sensor.
GA
Error Detector

Ref I/P Amplifier Actuator Plant Output

&

Sensor
M

Fig.16.1. Basic Control Action and response of Control systems

A
BE

16.2. APPLICATION OF CONTROL THEORY TO NON-ENGINEERING FIELDS

Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and forces of
nature for the benefit of human kind. Control system engineers are concerned with
understanding and controlling segments of their environment often termed SYSTEMS to
provide useful economic products for society. There has been considerable interest recently in
applying the feedback control concepts to processes prevalent in the social, economic and
political spheres. Some of the examples with block diagram models are discussed.

16.3. ECONOMIC INFLATION PROBLEM

A model of the vicious price-wage inflationary cycle, assuming simple relationship between
wages, product costs and cost living is shown in Fig.1. The economic system depicted in this
figure is found to be a positive feedback system.

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 175

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Present
wages
Product
Initial
Industry cost K2 Cost of
wages
K1 living

Wages
increment
Dissatisfactionf
actor

Fig.16.2. ECONOMIC INFLATION DYNAMICS

IN
16.4. POLLUTION CONTROL IN AUTO ENGINE
To meet the emission standards for automobiles, Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon monoxide (CO), and
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions can be controlled by employing a three way catalyst in conjunction
with a closed loop engine control system as shown in Fig.2. The exhaust gas sensor gives an
GA
indication of a rich or lean exhaust and compares it to a reference. The difference signal is processed
by the controller, and the output of the controller modulates the vacuum level in the carburetor to
achieve the best air-fuel ratio for proper operation of the catalytic converter.

+
&
Reference Controller Three
_ Carburetor Engine way Exhaust
catalytic
converter
Sensor
M

Fig.16.3
A

16.5. CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE WITH ANESTHESIA

BE

Anesthesia is used in surgery to induce unconsciousness. One problem with drug-induced

unconsciousness is large differences in patient responsiveness. Furthermore the patient
response changes during an operation. A model of drug induced Anesthesia Control is shown
in Fig.3. The proxy for unconsciousness is arterial blood pressure.

Body dynamics Actual

Desired Controller blood
2(s+5)
2e sT
blood pressu
pressure s
Sensor
2
s 2

Fig.16.4

16.6. Types of Controllers

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

(i) P-controller
(ii) PI-controller
(iii) PD-controller
(iv) PID-controller

P-controller

(a)

IN
GA
(b)
&
Fig.16.5
M

Control system with P-controller with inertia load

A
BE

Fig.16.6

For this system, closed-loop response is

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 177

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Kp
C (s) Js 2 Kp Kp
2 2 2
(16.1)
R( s ) Kp Js Kp J (s n )
1
Js 2
Kp
C ( s) 2 2
R(s ) (16.2)
J (s n )

1
For step-input, R s
s

Step response becomes

c ( t ) 1 cos n t (16.3)

IN
Kp
Where, n
J

GA
&
A M

Fig.16.7
BE

Solved problem

1. Consider the unity feedback system of Fig. 16.8. Let Kp=20 and J=50. Determine the equation of
response for a unit step input and determine the steady-state error.

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 178

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Fig.16.8

Solution

KP
C ( s) Js 2 Kp
2
R (s ) Kp Js Kp
1
Js 2

C ( s) Kp
2 2
R (s ) J s n

IN
Kp 2
n rad/s
J 5

Kp
c(t )
J 2
n
(1 cos n t) GA
2
c(t ) 1 cos t
5
&
2 2
se ( t ) 1 1 cos t cos t
5 5
M

2. Find the step response of the system shown inFig.16.9.

A
BE

Fig.16.9

Solution

Kp
G1
s 1

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 179

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

E1 ( s ) 1 s 1
R( s) 1 G1 ( s ) s 2

1 s 1
E1 ( s ) R( s ) R(s)
1 G1 ( s ) s 2

Step response is

s 1
E1 ( s )
s s 2

U1 ( s ) K p ( s 1)
R( s ) ( s 2)

IN
C1 ( s ) 1 1
R( s ) s 1 Kp s 2

e1 (t )
1
2
1 e 2t GA
1
c1 (t ) 1 e 2t
2
&
A M
BE

Fig.16.10

I-controller

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 180

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

(a)

C2

R1
ei -
eo
+

IN
GA (b)

Fig.16.11
&
Ki
G2
s ( s 1)

E2 ( s ) 1 1 s( s 1)
M

R( s ) 1 G2 (s ) 1
Ki s2 s 1
s ( s 1)
A

U 2 (s) K i ( s 1)
R(s ) s2 s 1
BE

C2 ( s ) 1 1
2 2
R( s ) s s Ki s s 1

0.5 t 3 1 3
e2 (t ) e cos t sin t
2 3 2

0.5t 1 3 3
c2 (t ) 1 e sin t cos t
3 2 2

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Fig.16.12

IN
PD-controller
GA
(a)
&
R2
R
R1 R
M

ei -
-
+
eo
+
A

C
BE

(b)

Fig.16.13

Control system with P-controller with inertia load

Fig.16.14

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

For this system, closed-loop response is

K p (1 Td s)
C ( s) Js 2 K p (1 Td s) K p (1 Td s)
2
(16.4)
R( s ) K p (1 Td s) Js K p (1 Td s) K pTd Kp
1 J s2 s
Js 2 J J

K p (1 Td s )
C ( s) R( s ) (16.5)
2
K pTd Kp
J s s
J J

1
For step-input, R s
s

IN
Step response becomes

Kp nt
c (t ) 2
1 e cos d t sin d t
J n GA 1 2

(16.6)
K pTd 1 nt 2
e sin n 1 t
J n 1 2

Kp
&
Where, n
J

Solved problem
M

3. Consider the unity feedback system of Figure 3. Let K p=20 and J=50. Determine the equation of
response for a unit step input and determine the steady-state error. Here, Kp =20, Td =1 and J=50.
A
BE

Fig.16.14

Solution

C ( s) 20( s 1) 20(1 s)
R( s) 50 s 2 20 s 20 2
50( s 2 n s 2
n )

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 183

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Kp nt
c(t ) 2
1 e cos d t sin d t
J n 1 2

K pTd 1 nt 2
e sin n 1 t
J n 1 2

Kp
c( ) 2
1
J n

Only PD control
Transient characteristic
No system damping

IN
35.09
Maximum overshoot, %
unsatisfactory
Rise time tr, sec 3.15
Peak time tp, sec 5.24
Settling time ts , sec (5% criterion)
GA 15

PI-controller
&
M

(a)
A
BE

(b)

Fig.16.15

Control system with PI-controller with inertia load

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Fig.16.16

For this system, closed-loop response is

Ki 1 sK p Ki
G Kp (16.7)

IN
s s 1 s ( s 1)

E (s) 1 s ( s 1)
2
(16.8)
R( s ) 1 G1 ( s ) s s (1 K p ) K i

U (s)
R ( s) s 2
GA
(s 1)( sK p
s (1 K p ) Ki
Ki )
1 (16.9)

C ( s) ( sK p Ki ) 1
2
(16.10)
R(s) s s (1 K p ) K i (s 1)
&
Step response

u (t ) 1
M

t
e (t ) e
A

c (t ) 1 e t
BE

Fig.16.17

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 185

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Fig.16.18

IN
GA
&

Fig.16.19
M

PID-controller
A
BE

(a)

(b)

Fig.16.20

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 186

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Here, transfer function of PID-controller,

Ki
Gc s Kp Kd s (16.11)
s

Ti
Gc s K p 1 Td s (16.12)
s

Where,

Ki
Ti
Kp
(16.13)
Kd
Td
Kp

IN
Tuning of PID-controller

A. First Method (Ziegler and Nichols) GA

The Setup for obtaining system parameters for PID tuning
&
M

Fig.16.21
A

C (s) Ke Ls
(16.14)
BE

U (s ) 1 Ts

Ke Ls
C ( s) U ( s) (16.15)
1 Ts

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

IN
Fig.16.22

Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules based on step response

Type of controller
P T
Kp
GA Ki
0
Kd
0
L
PI 0.9T L 0
&
L 0.3
PID T 2L 0.5L
1.2
L
M

1
Gc ( s ) Kp 1 Td s
Ti s
A

1.2T 1
1 0.5 Ls
L 2 Ls
BE

2
1
s
L
Gc ( s) 0.6T
s
Ziegler-Nichols tuning rule based on critical gain Kcr and critical period Pcr.

Type of controller Kp Ki Kd
P 0.5 Kcr 0 0
PI 0.45 Kcr 1/1.2 Pcr 0
PID 0.6 Kcr 1/0.5Pcr 0.125 Pcr

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 188

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

Where, Kcr proportional constant of a switched-off integral and derivative controls at which sustained
oscillations of period P cr occur.

Second Method

Ti
Gc ( s ) Kp 1 Td s
s
(16.16)
1
0.6 K cr 1 0.125 Pcr s
0.5 Pcr s
2
4
s
Pcr
Gc ( s ) 0.075 K cr Pcr (16.17)

IN
s

GA
&
A M
BE

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 189

BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

17. Components
17.1. AC SERVOMOTORS
A two phase servomotor (Induction Motor) (A few watts to hundred watts) is commonly used
in feedback control systems. In servo applications, an induction motor is required to produce
rapid accelerations from standstill.

Schematic Diagram

IN
Constructional features GA
Squirrel Cage rotor with Cu or Al conductor
High Rotor resistance
Small diameter to length ratio to minimize inertia
Two stator windings in space quadrature(One called reference winding and the other Control
winding)
&
The two voltages to stator windings must derived from same source(Or they must be in
synchronism)

Principle of Operation
M

(i) The two applied AC voltage to stators with a phase difference produce a rotating flux.
(ii) As this moving flux sweeps over the rotor conductors, small emf is induced in rotor. Rotor being
short circuited, currents will flow and this current interacts with rotating flux to produce a torque
in the rotor. This torque causes the rotor to turn so that it chases the rotating magnetic flux.
A
BE

Torque-Speed Characteristics of AC Servomotor

For induction motor in high power applications, rotor resistance is low in order to obtain maximum
torque. Positive slope part of the characteristics is not suitable to control applications as this results
instability.

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In AC servomotor high resistance rotor results in negative torque-speed [Link]

characteristic is needed for positive damping and good stability. The rotor has a small diameter –to-
length ratio to minimize the moment of inertia and to give a good accelerating characteristic.
However, more rotor resistance results more loss and less efficiency.

IN
Transfer Function
GA
The torque developed is a function of shaft angular position ( ) and control voltage Ec.

s Km Km K
G s
&
2
Ec s Js Ds s Js D s Tm s 1

Km J
Where, K = motor gain constant, Tm = motor time constant
D D
M

Merits of AC Servomotors
(i) Lower cost,
A

(ii) less weight and inertia,

(iii) higher efficiency and
(iv) fewer maintenance requirements(since no commutator or brush)
BE

Demerits of AC Servomotors
(i) Nonlinear characteristics,
(ii) Used for low power applications(e.g. instrument servo),
(iii) Difficult for speed control and positioning

17.2. Synchros
It is also known as selsyn. It is a self-synchronizing device widely used in servomechanisms as
a position indicator.

Important synchro systems are

Synchro system with transmitter and control transformer
Synchro system with synchro transmitter and motor
Synchro system with transmitter, differential and motor

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General Constructional features of Synchro

(i) The construction of synchro transmiiter, motor and transformer are almost same.
(ii) Stator laminated silicon steel, slotted to house distributed 3- ,Y-connected
windings with axes 1200 apart.
(iii) Stator not directly connected to supply
(iv) Rotor is 2-pole (dumb-bell shaped for synchro transmitter and cylindrical shape for
control transformer) with single winding connected to AC source. The magnetic
field in excited rotor induces voltages in stator coils. The magnitude of voltage
induced in any stator coil depends on the angular position of coil’s axis with respect
to rotor axis.
(v) Synchro control transformer has cylindrical shape rotor so that air gap flux is
uniformly distributed around the rotor.
Constructional features

IN
GA
&

(a) Constructional features

A M
BE

(b) Electrical Circuit

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IN
(c) Schematic Symbol
Fig. Synchro Transmitter

Synchro transmitter
GA
It is not a three phase machine. It is a single phase machine. Here, input is angular position of
its rotor [Link] is a set of three stator coil-to-coil voltages. Common connection
between the stator coils is not accessible.
&
Synchro system with transmitter and control transformer
A synchro error detector system may consist of synchro transmitter and synchro control
transformer.
It compares two angular displacements and the output voltage is approximately linear
M

with angular difference or misalignment between shafts of transmitter & Control

transformer.
Usedas error detector in feedback systems.
A

Synchro system with synchro transmitter and synchro motor

The rotors of both the synchro devices are connected to same AC source. Figure (b) shows a
BE

circuit configuration, using two synchros, for maintaining synchronism between two shafts.
When rotor windings are excited, emfs are induced by transformer action in the stator windings
of transmitter and motor. If the two shafts are in similar positions (relative to that of the stator
windings), then there are two emfs of equal value are induced in the two stator [Link]
no circulating current exists and hence no torque is produced. If the two shaft positions do not
match, the emfs are unequal and result circulating current to flow. The circulating current in
conjunction with air gap magnetic field produce torque which tend to align the shafts.

Synchro system with transmitter, differential and motor

The function of this system is to permit the rotation of a shaft to be a function of sum or
difference of the rotations of two other shafts. The differential has 3-phase distributed windings
on both stator and rotor. The voltages impressed on its stator windings induce corresponding
voltages in its rotor windings.

r=Displacement of receiver shaft

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s=Displacement of transmitter shaft

d=Displacement of differential shaft

Then, r t dt

If the phase sequence of stator and rotor windings of differential are reversed then
r t dt

17.3. TACHOGENERATOR OR TACHOMETER

In many control systems, it is necessary to feedback a voltage proportional to speed of shaft.
Tachogenerator serves the purpose.

IN
17.3.1. DC Tachometer
It is a permanent magnet DC generator. It resembles a small DC machine having a PM
stator, rotating armature, brush and commutator assembly. The rotor is connected to the
shaft to be measured. The output voltage is proportional to the angular velocity of the
GA
shaft. The direction of rotation decides the polarity of the voltage.
&
A M
BE

DC tachogenerator suffers from the drawback of output in ripple, commutator &

brush problem.
A DC tachometer can be used in AC servomechanism by converting the DC output
voltage to an AC voltage by using a rectifier circuit.

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BEAM & GAIN Control Systems

17.3.2. AC Tachometer
Used in AC servomechanism. It resembles 2-phase AC induction motor.
It comprises two stator windings arranged in space quadrature and a rotor which is
not conductively connected to external circuit.
One stator phase winding is excited by a suitable AC voltage of constant
magnitude and frequency. A voltage of the same frequency is generated across the
other winding known as control winding.
It is necessary that the voltage developed across the control winding is linearly
proportional to shaft speed and the phase of this voltage be fixed with respect to
voltage applied to reference winding.
The output voltage is connected to high impedance circuit of amplifier so that the
winding is considered open circuit.
An AC tacogenerator should have low inertia when rapid speed variations are
encountered. The drag cup construction gives low inertia and is used many times

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

17.4. HYDRAULIC OPERATED DEVICES IN FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

Hydraulic systems must be stable and satisfactory under all operating conditions. Hydraulic
output devices are generally of two types.
A. Hydraulic linear actuator(Produce linear motion)
B. Hydraulic motors(rotary motion)

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17.5.1 Hydraulic Linear Actuator(Hydraulic Servomotor)

Hydraulic linear actuator consists of pilot valve and a power cylinder. The piston inside
the power cylinder divides the cylinder into two chambers. The pilot valve is known as
spool valve because of its shape control the flow rate of the hydraulic fluid to the power
cylinder. It is a four port valves. It is connected to fluid supply at constant pressure. The
two ports connected to each chamber of power cylinder. One drain port is connected to
reservoir.

Principle of Operation

If input x moves the pilot valve to the right, port II is uncovered, and so high pressure oil
enters the right side of the power piston. Since port I is connected to the drain port, the
oil in the left side of the power piston is returned to the drain. The oil flowing into the
power cylinder is at high pressure; the oil flowing out from the power cylinder into the

IN
drain is at low pressure. The resulting difference in pressure on both sides of the power
piston will cause it to move to the left.

GA
&
A M

Transfer Function
BE

Rate of flow of fluid Q(kg/sec) time dt(sec) is equal to the power piston displacement
dy(m) times the piston area A(sq.m) times the density of fluid P (kg/m3 ).Fluid flow rate
is proportional to pilot valve displacement x. So,

Q x

Q Kx

where K is a positive constant.

dy
Q AP
dt

dy
AP Kx
dt

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APsY s KX s

Y s K
X s APs

Advantages

(i) Hydraulic fluid acts as a lubricant and heat transfer medium

(ii) Comparatively small size hydraulic actuators can develop large forces or torques
(iii) Fast start, stop, and speed reversals(Faster response)
(iv) Hydraulic actuators can be operated under any type of load (i.e. continuous,
intermittent, reversing or stalled loads)
(v) Availability of linear and rotary actuators(e.g. motors)
(vi) Better speed regulation.

IN
Disadvantages

(i) Hydraulic fluid acts as a lubricant and heat transfer medium

GA
(ii) Like electric power, hydraulic source not readily available
(iii) Presence of dirt contaminate the hydraulic fluid
(iv) Fire and explosion hazards exist
(v) For a similar function, cost of hydraulic system may be higher compared to
electrical system.
&

17.5.2 DC and AC Motors in Control Systems to Position an Inertia Load

i. The load may be massive (e.g. radar antenna) or light weight precision
M

instrument.
ii. The actuator should have
Desired dynamic response
Desired cost, size, and weight
A

iii. Electric power is readily available, cleaner and quieter and easier to transmit.
So electric motors is mostly preferable compared to hydraulic and pneumatic actuation)
BE

Merits of DC motor
(i) Linear characteristics,
(ii) Used for large power applications,
(iii) Easier control

Demerits of DC motor
(i) Lower torque to volume and
(ii) Lower torque to inertia ratio.

Future developments
(i) Development of rare earth magnet results in DC motor high torque to volume ratio.
(ii) Advances in brush commutator technology make trouble free maintenance.
(iii) Development of brushless DC motors.

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SUMMARY

CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING

3.0 Introduction to Control system

3.1 Scope of Control System Engineer
3.2 Classification of Control System
3.3 Historical development of Control system
3.4 Analogus systems
3.5 Transfer function of Systems
3.6 Block diagram representation
3.7 Signal Flow Graph(SFG)
4.0 Feedback Characteristics of Control systems and sensitivity measures
4.1 The Concept of Feedback and Closed loop control
4.2 Merits of using Feedback control system
4.3 Regenerative Feedback

IN
3.0Control System Components

3.1 Potentiometers

3.2 DC and AC Servomotors

3.3 Tachometers
GA
3.4 Amplidyne

3.5 Hydralulic systems

&
3.6 Pneumatic systems

3.7 Stepper Motors

M

4.0 Time Domain Performance Analysis of Linear Control Systems

4.1 Standard Test Signals

A

4.2 Time response of 1st order Systems

4.3 Unit step response of a prototype 2nd order system

BE

4.4 Unit Ramp response of a second order system

4.4 Performance Specification of Linear System in Time domain

4.5 The Steady State Errors and Error Constants

4.6 Effect of P, PI, PD and PID Controller

4.7 Effect of Adding a zero to a system

4.8 Performance Indices(ISE,ITSE,IAE, ITAE)

4.9 Approximations of Higher order Systems by Lower order Problems

5.0 The Stability of Linear Control Systems

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5.1 The Concept of Stability

5.2 The Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion

5.3 Relative stability analysis

6.0 Root Locus Technique

6.1 Angle and Magnitude Criterion

6.2 Properties of Root Loci

6.3 Step by Step Procedure to Draw Root Locus Diagram

6.4 Closed Loop Transfer Fuction and Time Doamin response

IN
6.5 Determination of Damping ratio, Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Root Locus

6.6 Root Locus for System with transportation Lag.

6.7 Sensitivity of Roots of the Characteristic Equation.

7.0 Frequency Domain Analysis.

GA
7.1 Correlation between Time and frequency response

7.2 Frequency Domain Specifications

&
7.3 Polar Plots and inverse Polar plots

7.4 Bode Diagrams

7.4.1 Principal factors of Transfer function

M

7.4.2 Procedure for manual plotting of Bode Diagram

A

7.4.3 Relative stability Analysis

7.4.4 Minimum Phase, Nonminimum phase and All pass systems

BE

7.5 Log Magnitude vs Phase plots.

7.6 Nyquist Criterion

7.6.1 Mapping Contour and Principle of Argument

7.6.2 Nyquist path and nyquist Plot

7.6.3 Nyquist stability criterion

7.6.4 Relative Stability: Gain Margin, and Phase Margin

7.7 Closed Loop Frequency Response

7.7.1 Gain Phase Plot

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[Link] Constant Gain(M)-circles

[Link] Constant Phase (N) Circles

[Link] Nichols Chart

7.8 Sensitivity Analysis in Frequency Domain

IN
GA
&
A M
BE

BSNL JE STUDY MATERIAL 200