1 - Ethics and Morality 2 - Moral Universalism & Cultural Relativism
Philosophy – essential to ethics because it provides Moral appraisal – practice of evaluating an action
the conceptual approach to fundamental ideas. whether it is right or wrong.
● Ex.: Plato's forms of the True, Good, and
Beautiful. “is there a truly universal moral system? Or is it a matter
● Ethics, as a branch of philosophy, specifically of taste or convention? Who has the authority to
inquires into the nature of the "good" to help designate an action as right or wrong?”
sketch out how to live a "good life."
CULTURAL RELATIVISM – beliefs, customs, ethics are
Ethics – philosophical inquiry about the good life relative to the individual with its own social context.
(reasoning– what should we do?). ● right or wrong are culture-specific.
● Truth as variable, not absolute.
MORALITY – set of personal and shared beliefs (norms) ● Different cultures have different moral codes
about what is right and wrong in interpersonal
interactions, which informs daily decisions. Right and wrong differ from culture to culture
● Morality as culture-bound
"Oughts" (Obligations): Not all obligations are moral. ● Universality of ethics as a myth.
● Aesthetic Ought: - related to appearance or
professionalism. Cultural differences argument
○ (e.g., dress sharp) Belief (from culture-bound morality) does not argue
● Prudential Ought: - related to self-care or against what really is the case
personal well-being. ● Attempts to derive substantive conclusions
○ (e.g., eat three meals) based on disagreements.
● Moral Ought - involves a moral obligation
toward another human being. From the standpoint of logic, the argument on cultural
○ (e.g., help a drowning child) differences based on belief and disagreement do not
hold:
NORMATIVE ETHICS – establishing the standards for 1. Taking cultural relativism seriously renders our
right conduct and moral evaluation. social practices immune from criticism
● Moral guidance and evaluation must be based 2. Cultural relativism not only forbids us from
on reason and impartiality. criticizing the codes of other societies; it also
○ We must have good reasons for our stops us from criticizing our own
actions. 3. No one may challenge the ideals of a society
○ We must consider everyone's interests according to cultural relativism
equally (impartially).
● Feelings can be irrational and blur proper moral “There are some moral rules that all societies must have
judgment, which is why we must rely on reason. in common, because those rules are necessary for
● Ex.: Moral Dilemmas and the Trolley Problem society to exist.”
Moral dilemmas – complex situations where any Is moral universalism possible?
decision leads to a "moral failure," meaning there is no ● Not every moral rule varies
guarantee of a correct decision. They require careful ● Is there a culture-neutral standard of right and
consideration of the implications of our actions. wrong?
● Tolerance – allows us to “live in peaceful
Different versions of the dilemma test our underlying cooperation with those who see things
moral rules (normative ethics): differently”
1. Driver Scenario: Is it better to redirect harm ○ However, tolerance requires you to think
from many to one? that some cultural practices are better
than others
2. Footbridge Scenario: Is it morally acceptable
to use one person as a means (a tool) to save Cultural relativism warns us about the assumption that
five others? all our preferences are based on some absolute rational
standard
3. Surgeon Scenario: Can we justify sacrificing
an innocent person for the "greater good" of We learned to think that some types of conduct are
saving many? acceptable, while others are not.
Learning to navigate these complex problems is crucial
for leading a good life as an ethical person, even though
they may not always involve life-and-death stakes in our
daily lives.
3 - Virtue Ethics (Aristotle) 4 - Deontology (Immanuel Kant)
Good actions → Excellent character (Virtue) What is Enlightenment? (1784. Immanuel Kant)
What we do determines who we become, “Enlightenment – man's emergence from his
self-imposed immaturity.
Artistotle – attributed for virtue ethics. Immaturity – inability to use one's understanding
without guidance from another.
Virtue – mindset that has a “distinctive range of ● This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause
considerations as reasons for action” lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of
resolve and courage to use it without guidance
VIRTUE ETHICS – character of the person and ought to from another.
be takes primacy than ought to do. Sapere Aude! Have courage to use your own
● Virtues – primary mode of evaluation, and all understanding!" -- that is the motto of enlightenment.”
other modes are understood and defined in
terms of virtue.
● Act evaluation is understood in terms of DEONTOLOGY– defines right independently of the good
character evaluation ● What makes an action morally permissible
“Good” → Prudentially, intellectually, and Morally good depends on the conformity to the moral law, or
Ex.: Acting out of kindness by helping an old woman the categorical imperative.
cross the road. Axe Murderer Situation → Kant says you cannot lie.
DOCTRINE OF THE (GOLDEN) MEAN – Virtue is a Duty-based ethics – duties can be understood in
mean state, which means that it does not exhibit excess. reference to respective the imperative.
● Kant on duties: what makes an action wrong is
“... virtue or excellence is a characteristic involving not the bad it produces, but rather its kind.
choice, and... it consists in observing the mean relative ● Genuine moral duties are categorical and
to us, a mean which is defined by a rational principle, unconditional.
such as a man of practical wisdom would use to ○ Morality is a priori: it is found in pure
determine it.“ – Aristotle reason, not feelings, inclination, or
desires.
PRACTICAL WISDOM –
● Theoretical wisdom and practical wisdom
Categorical Imperative Hypothetical Imperative
involves contemplation and action
● The truly well-functioning person is able to
A binding command based •A contingent command, based
control and regulate their feelings and emotions,
on reason. We ought to on desire. We ought to follow
as well as act rightly.
follow, no matter what our given our desires
desire tells us.
Eudamonia – happiness, means being really alive
Conditional
rather than just existing
Unconditional and the basis
of morality. Ex:
According to Aristotle, happiness requires activity, good
1. Exercise if you want to stay
habits, and practical wisdom:
Ex.: healthy
● Moderation – wisdom as hitting the mark
1. Always tell the truth 2. Review if you want to excel
(sophrosyne) between too much and not
2. Do not steal in your study
enough.
● Virtue – hitting the mark of moderation, and vice
consists of being off by too much (excess) or too Moral Worth; RIGHT THING TO DO – actions lack
little (deficiency). Virtue is the mean between moral worth if they are solely motivated by good
either extreme inclination.
● A person can still exhibit moral worth while still
Cultivating Virtue (Phronesis) experiencing psychological conflict.
● We are what we repeatedly do. Thus, excellence ● Our inclinations are just desires that we have,
is not an act, but it is a habit. pushing us in a certain direction.
● Cultivating a virtuous character is something that ○ Too fickle a basis to provide firm moral
happens by practice. motivation.
● Developing one’s virtue is like developing one’s ○ Content of our desires changes, but the
skill, a continuous process. commands of reason do not.
● Ethical characteristics are developed by Morality is unconditional and not dependent on our
practical learning and habitual action, not merely desires, or on typical desires, or even the idealized
by intellectual teaching. desires of an ideal observer.
● Kant does not say positive” emotions are bad.
Emotions can be good but have no moral worth.
Difference between: 1. Specify the approach to take: to maximize value,
1. Following a rule and bring about as much of it as possible
2. Behaving in such a way that our actions happen
to conform to a rule 2. Value-theory: provides a substantive account of
Ex.: A person gives money out of pity for the beggar on intrinsic value that we ought to be maximizing or
the street. promoting
Categorical Imperative The morally right action for the individual is that which
Formulation 1: “Act only according to that maxim produced the greatest amount of pleasure.
whereby you can at the same time will that it should ● Basic good → pleasure
become a universal law.” ● Basic bad → pain
● Maxim – rule or principle by which one act.
○ If it passes the categorical imperative, Parameters of pleasure:
then the action is permissible 1. Intensity
○ If it does not pass, then the action is 2. Duration
impermissible. 3. Certainty or uncertainty
What if this were a universal law? What if everybody did 4. Propinquity or remoteness
this? 5. Fecundity
Formulation 2: “Act in such a way that you treat 6. Purity
humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of 7. Extent
another, always at the same time as an end and never
simply as a means.” On Pleasure – Egalitarian view that everyone's pleasure
● Respect for persons as autonomous, rational basically counted the same, and that the only differences
beings. between pleasures was quantitative.
● How much pleasure there is associated with a
“DEON” – DUTY given action
Perfect (or obligatory negative) duties – ● Swine Morality – Critics argued that Bentham’s
precise-defined actions toward specified others. view could reduce humanity to the level of
● Ex.: Killing oneself or truth-telling animals (swine).
Imperfect (or supererogatory negative) duties – JOHN STUART MILL – "greatest happiness
undetermined actions toward unspecified others. principle" actions are moral if they maximize happiness
● Ex.: Cultivation of talent or beneficence. for the greatest number.
Not required, but the world would be better with it. ● Modifies some aspects of Bentham's
utilitarianism.
● Rule Utilitarianism – for the long-run.
4 - Utilitarianism
(Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill) A qualitative account of pleasure and pain
Hedonism – maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. ● Some pleasures that people experience are
better kinds of pleasures.
Jeremy Bentham – earliest and chief expounder of ● While pleasure can be measured quantitatively,
utilitarianism, which holds that actions are morally right if they can also be qualitatively compared.
they promote happiness or pleasure for the greatest ● Solves the "swine morality" by distinguishing
number. between higher and lower pleasures
○ Higher pleasures, such as intellectual
UTILITARIANISM – account for the well-being of ALL pursuit, artistic practice, and moral
persons, or even all sentient creatures, impartially excellence, are superior
considered. ○ Lower pleasures are those that satisfy
● Consequentialist ethical theory. the appetite and bodily desires.
● Outcomes – Best actions → Best Results.
Basis – Principle of utility: approves or disapproves of
every action, according to the tendency which it appears
to have to augment or diminish the happiness.
● Law should be scrutinized according to principle
of utility.
○ If it is useless or harmful, it should be
reformed or removed.
○ Ex.: panopticon
5 - Feminist Ethics (Carol Gilligan)
FEMINIST ETHICS – correct male biases in theory ETHICS OF CARE –focus on the significance of
formation,because those theories were initially relationships and the considerations in decision-making
formulated by men. based on particular contextual features.
● Leads to biases, prejudices, and unintended ● More weight on relationships rather than rules.
political and ethical consequences ● Impartial ethics fails to reflect this dimension
● Makes ethics “gendered.
Rejects Rule-Following as a moral guide:
Substantive failures of content – fails to reflect 1. Moral judgments should not solely depend on
experience that is typical of women’s lives and discounts following general moral principles.
that experience as trivial and not worth accounting for. 2. Moral reality — too rich and complex to be
● Impartiality of ethics. captured by simple general principles, making
● Ignores the significance of special obligations . morality inherently particularis.
3. Focus on significance of relationships and
CAROL GILLIGAN – American developmental making decisions based on particular contextual
psychologist best known for her research into the moral features.
development of girls and women. ● Impartial ethics fails to reflect this
● Criticized Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral dimension.
development.
● Informed a feminist-oriented movement in Individual and Community → caring require motivations
philosophical ethics known as ethics of care. Interdependent Self – An individual's identity is often
dependent on relations with others. The "self" is not truly
Kohlberg's stages of Moral Development – gradual formed if these relations are stripped away.
development of an individual’s concept of right or wrong
– conscious, religious values, social attitudes and certain Rejection of Isolation – The feminist idea is that we are
behavior. not isolated individuals. Our worth and value are not
● Three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, understood in terms of purely individual pursuit at the
and post-conventional. cost of everyone around us.
● Two stages for each level.
Embeddedness – We are embedded in communities,
families, and friendships that are crucial to our
Punishment and one obeys the authority figure in order to self-understanding. This embeddedness is what drives
Obedience: avoid being harmed by punishment
moral motivations like caring for the environment for
Individual making deals with others for mutual
future generations or advocating for social change.
Instrumental Purpose benefit; reciprocity relationships
and Exchange:
Mutual Interpersonal respecting trust and loyalty
Expectations and
Conformity
Social System and subordinate one’s own desires or
Conscience personal relationships for the sake of the
Maintenance** group norms or maintaining group rules
Prior Rights and personal relationships subordinated to
Social Contract or justice
Utility
Universal Ethical Adhering to principles with universal
Principles: validity.
**According to Kohlberg: women seem to be stuck
at the third level (Conventional)– Women place far
greater weight on relationships than on formal systems
for social justice.