SOCIAL SCIENCE & PHILOSOPHY:

Philippine Indigenous Communities

Course Code: Philo 2

Prepared by: JUNE MAUREEN MARQUEZ

Prepared by: June Maureen Marquez Page 1

 Unit 1 – Understandings the Indigenous Communities and the
Indigenous Culture

Lesson 1

Introduction to Indigenous Culture and Communities

What is the meaning of “indigenous”?

Pertains to people who are native to a particular country. It is synonymous

with the aboriginal people of a country. Indigenous people or things belong
to the country in which they are found, rather than coming there or
being brought there from another country.

Indigenous Culture

“Culture” in the context of this unit can be seen as:

 Socially constructed and learned ways of behaving and believing that

identify social groups in an indigenous community
 The beliefs, values, knowledge, assumptions, ideas and experiences
forming the basis of lived life
 The customs, rituals, symbology, myth and legend of the people
 Transmitted generation-to-generation through oral and written language,
art and institutionalisation of key aspects of the community.

Indigenous culture’ = the totality of characteristics which exist within a

nominated country/community and differentiate one country or community
from others:

 Different countries have different cultures

 There can be differences in groups in the same country
 They evolve over time
 Countries are proud of and protect their culture

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Why study the Philippine Indigenous People and their cultures?

Students need to study and be familiarized with the Philippine Indigenous

communities and their cultures to be able to stimulate respect and
understanding for these tribes and for them to demosntrate appreciation to
their cultures.

The study of the indigenouys communities develops the:

 Need to preserve unique culture/s

 Desire to share knowledge
 Need to change attitudes
 Need to align with government/country policies
 Change in society’s attitudes

 Need not to give offence to local communities

 Desire to protect the local communities

 Comply with legislation

Pre-requisite for Demostrating Respect

 Genuine desire to engage with communities

 Willingness to learn from the people
 Preparedness to walk away
 Readiness to accept decisions made by communities
 Supporting policies and procedures to guide activities
Who are the indigenous people?
People who inhabited a land before it was conquered by colonial
societies and who consider themselves distinct from the societies
currently governing those territories.

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 The term indigenous peoples is a common denominator for distinct
peoples who, through historical processes, have been marginalised and
denied their right to control their own development. For indigenous
peoples, self-identification is the basic principle in claiming and asserting
indigenous identity. Indigenous peoples present a vast spectrum of
differentiated organisational representations depending on their history,
relationship with the State, level of recognition and other contextual
factors.

Definition given by the United Nations

Indigenous Communities are those which having a historical

continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on
their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of
societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them.

Core human rights conventions and declarations related to

indigenous peoples

Several international declarations and agreements that acknowledge the

rights of indigenous peoples have been adopted internationally. Here are
some of the most important:

 UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007)

 The Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948)
 ILO Conventions 107 and 169 (1957 & 1989)
 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
 The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
 The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (1965)
 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women (1979)

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 Lesson 2

Terms Commonly Used when Speaking about Indigenous Peoples'

Human Rights

Rapporteur: An expert entrusted by the UN with a special human rights

mandate, acting in his or her personal capacity.

Colonization: An act of colonizing, meaning to establish a body of people

living in a new territory but retaining ties with the parent state.

Self-determination: The right of a cohesive national group (“peoples”)

living in a territory to choose for themselves a form of political and legal
organization for that territory.

Collective: Denoting a number of persons or things considered as one group

or whole.

Group: A number of individuals assembled together or having some unifying

relationship.

Treaty: A contract in writing between two or more political authorities (as

states or sovereigns) formally signed by representatives duly authorized and
usually ratified by the lawmaking authority of the state.

Signed: To write one’s [country’s] name as a token of assent, responsibility

or obligation.

Ratify: Ratification defines the international act whereby a state indicates

its consent to be bound to a treaty if the parties intended to show their
consent by such an act. The institution of ratification grants states the
necessary time-frame to seek the required approval for the treaty on the
domestic level and to enact the necessary legislation to give domestic effect
to that treaty.

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Enter into force: When it enters into force, a treaty is legally binding on all
parties that have ratified the treaty. A treaty usually goes into effect when a
certain number of member states have ratified it.

Accede: "Accession" is the act whereby a state accepts the offer or the
opportunity to become a party to a treaty already negotiated and signed by
other states. It has the same legal effect as ratification. Accession usually
occurs after the treaty has entered into force.

Reservations: When a state makes a reservation to a treaty, it means that

the state considers itself bound to the treaty, except for those provisions to
which it makes the reservation. A reservation enables a state to accept a
multilateral treaty as a whole by giving it the possibility not to apply certain
provisions with which it does not want to comply. Reservations must not be
incompatible with the object and the purpose of the treaty. Furthermore, a
treaty might prohibit reservations or only allow for certain reservations to be
made.

General Assembly: The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ of

the United Nations. It is composed of representatives of all Member States,
each of which has one vote. The General Assembly passes resolutions on
important issues concerning everything from outer space to disarmament.

International Decade: An International Decade is a ten-year period in

which the UN focuses on a specific topic (for example: Indigenous Peoples)
and tries to fulfill important goals regarding that topic.

Covenant: A usually formal, solemn, and binding agreement. It is similar to

a treaty.

Operational directive: World Bank Operational Directives contain a

mixture of policies, procedures, and guidance on how the Bank deals with
specific topics.

World bank: The World Bank is a development assistance bank. It provides

strategies and loans to developing countries to help them “improve living
standards and eliminate the worst forms of poverty.”

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 United Nations: The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization
that aims to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly
relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre
for harmonizing the actions of nations. It was formed in 1945 with 193
member states.

Lesson 3
General facts about indigenous peoples
 There are more than 370 million indigenous people spread across 90
countries
 Indigenous peoples are 5% of the world's population but account for 15% of
the world's extreme poor
 There exist more than 5.000 indigenous communities and they speak around
4.000 different languages
 Indigenous peoples encompass approximately 22% of the world’s land
surface and are estimated to hold 80% of the planet’s biodiversity
 According to United Nations, indigenous peoples are facing greater violations
of their rights than was the case 10 years ago
 Indigenous Peoples are concerned with preserving land, protecting language
and promoting culture.
F A C T S A B O U T T H E I N DI G E N OUS P E OP L E S BY UN DE V E LOP ME N T P ROG RA MME

1. WHEREVER WE LIVE, INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ARE OUR

NEIGHBOURS
 There are an estimated 370-500 million indigenous people in the world,
spread across 90 countries. They live in all geographic regions and
represent 5,000 different cultures.

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[Link] PEOPLE CREATED AND SPEAK AN
OVERWHELMING MAJORITY OF THE WORLD'S 7,000
LANGUAGES

 Indigenous languages are extensive, complex systems of knowledge.

They are central to the identity of indigenous people, the preservation
of their cultures, worldviews and visions, as well as expressions of self-
determination.
 Many indigenous languages are under threat--it's estimated that one
dies every two weeks. UNESCO has declared 2019 the International
Year of Indigenous Languages to preserve these critical markers of
cultural health. When indigenous languages are under threat, so too
are the people who speak them.

3. INDIGENOUS PEOPLE ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE POOR AND

VULNERABLE
 While making up less than five percent of the world's population,
indigenous people account for 15 percent of the poorest. They're more
likely to suffer from malnutrition, and often lack adequate social
protection and economic resources. The international community
recognizes that special measures are required to protect their rights
and maintain their distinct cultures.

4. INDIGENOUS PEOPLE LIVE SHORTER LIVES

 The life expectancy of indigenous people is as much as 20 years lower
than that of their non-indigenous counterparts. Often lacking adequate
healthcare and information, they are more likely to get diseases such
as malaria, tuberculosis, HIV and AIDS.

5. INDIGENOUS WOMEN ARE MORE LIKELY TO SUFFER

DISCRIMINATION AND VIOLENCE
 More than one in three indigenous women are sexually assaulted
during their lifetime, and they also have higher rates of maternal
mortality, teen pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases.
The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples draws attention to

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 the needs and rights of indigenous women and calls for action to
protect them from violence.

6. THE WORLD INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ GAMES BRING

TOGETHER ATHLETES TO CELEBRATE INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS

 Athletes from 566 aboriginal communities all over the world took part
in the first World Games of Indigenous Peoples, held in 2015 in Brazil.
The aim of the games is not just to compete, but also to share
knowledge and cultures.

7. INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES LEAD ON PROTECTING THE

ENVIRONMENT

Indigenous peoples are inheritors and practitioners of unique cultures and

ways of living. Nearly 70 million indigenous women and men depend on
forests for their livelihoods, and many more are farmers, hunter gatherers or
pastoralists.

These communities thrive by living in harmony with their surroundings.

Research shows that where indigenous groups have control of the land,
forests and biodiversity flourishes.

8. INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ARE FIGHTING CLIMATE CHANGE

EVERY DAY

Indigenous communities’ contribution to fighting climate change are far

greater than previously thought. Their forestlands store at least one quarter
of all above-ground tropical forest carbon – about 55 trillion metric tonnes.
This is equivalent to four times the total global carbon emissions in 2014.

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Given that data isn’t available for all the lands native communities manage
around the world, the actual impact is far greater.

9. INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ARE KEY TO THE 2030 AGENDA FOR

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

From protecting the environment tacking inequality to ensuring peace and

security, the Sustainable Development Goals won’t be achieved without
indigenous people. The United Nations General Assembly has asked
countries to emphasize their rights when implementing the 2030 Agenda.

10. THE UN DECLARATION WON’T SUCCEED WITHOUT THE

SUPPORT OF PEOPLE EVERYWHERE.

The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is a milestone in

solidarity with indigenous peoples and the global community. However, there
are significant gaps between the formal recognition of indigenous rights and
the reality. Since it adoption in in 2007, several countries, particularly in
Latin America, have taken steps to recognize the identity and rights of
indigenous peoples, but there is much more to do.

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 Lesson 4

Universal Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People

The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous

Peoples (UNDRIP or DOTROIP is a non-legally-binding resolution passed by
the United Nations in 2007. It delineates and defines the individual and
collective rights of Indigenous peoples, including their ownership rights to
cultural and ceremonial expression, identity, language, employment, health,
education and other issues. It "emphasizes the rights of Indigenous peoples
to maintain and strengthen their own institutions, cultures and traditions,
and to pursue their development in keeping with their own needs and
aspirations". It "prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples", and it
"promotes their full and effective participation in all matters that concern
them and their right to remain distinct and to pursue their own visions of
economic and social development".

The goal of the declaration is to encourage countries to work alongside

indigenous peoples to solve global issues, like
development, multicultural democracy and decentralization.[5] According to
Article 31, there is a major emphasis that the indigenous peoples will be able

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to protect their cultural heritage and other aspects of their culture and
tradition in order to preserve their heritage from over-controlling nation-
states.

On Thursday, September 13, 2007 the United Nations voted by a vast

majority of 144 in favor (4 against, 11 abstained) of the Declaration.

Since 2007, the four countries voting against have reversed their
position and now support the Declaration. As of February 2020, the United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Indigenous Peoples
describe (A/RES/61/295) as "the most comprehensive international
instrument on the rights of indigenous peoples. It establishes a universal
framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity and well-being of
the indigenous peoples of the world and it elaborates on existing human
rights standards and fundamental freedoms as they apply to the specific
situation of indigenous peoples."

As a General Assembly Declaration, UNDRIP is not a legally binding

instrument under international law.[7] According to a UN press release it does
"represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it
reflects the commitment of the UN's member states to move in certain
directions"; the UN describes it as setting "an important standard for the
treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtedly be a significant tool
toward eliminating human rights violations against the planet's 370 million
indigenous people, and assisting them in
combating discrimination and marginalisation."

UNDRIP codifies "Indigenous historical grievances, contemporary

challenges and socio-economic, political and cultural aspirations" and is the
"culmination of generations-long efforts by Indigenous organizations to get
international attention, to secure recognition for their aspirations, and to
generate support for their political agendas." Canada Research Chair and
faculty member at the University of Saskatchewan Ken Coates argues that

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UNDRIP resonates powerfully with Indigenous peoples, while national
governments have not yet fully understood its impact`

Today the Declaration is the most comprehensive international

instrument on the rights of indigenous peoples. It establishes a universal
framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity and well-being of
the indigenous peoples of the world and it elaborates on existing human
rights standards and fundamental freedoms as they apply to the specific
situation of indigenous peoples.

Content

The Declaration is structured as a United Nations resolution, with 23

preambular clauses and 46 articles. In most articles, an aspiration for how
the State should promote and protect the rights of indigenous people is
included (see Provision for further explanation). Major themes of the articles
include:

 Rights of self-determination of indigenous individuals and peoples

(Articles 1 - 8; 33 -34)
o The difference is between the individual and people’s group
 Rights of indigenous individuals and people to protect their culture
through practices, languages, education, media, and religion (Articles 9 -
15, 16, 25, and 31)
 Asserts the indigenous peoples’ right to own type of governance and to
economic development (Articles 17 - 21, 35 -37)
 Health rights (Article 23 -24)
 Protection of subgroups ex. elderly, women, and children (Article 22)
 Land rights from ownership (including reparation, or return of land i.e.
Article 10) to environmental issues (Articles 26 -30, and 32)
 Dictates how this document should be understood in future reference
(Articles 38 - 46)

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 Unit 2: The Indigenous Communities in the Philippines

Lesson 1

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN THE PHILIPPINES

Many categorizations of indigenous peoples in the Philippines are possible,

but for purposes here a fairly conventional one employed by the Episcopal
Commission on Tribal Filipinos (ECTF) will serve. ECTF estimates that there
are approximately 6.5 million indigenous peoples, composing about 10
percent of the total Philippine population and belonging to over 40 distinct
ethnolinguistic groups, which can be grouped in the following fashion: (1) the
Lumad of Mindanao, various non-Muslim tribal peoples found in virtually
every province of Mindanao, numbering around 2.1 million people and
including such groups as the T'Boli, the Manobo, the Mandaya, the Subanun,
the Tiruray, the Bagobo, and the B'laan; (2) the Peoples of the Cordillera,
indigenous inhabitants of the five provinces of the Cordillera mountain range
of Northern Luzon, numbering around 1 million people and including such
groups as the Ifugao, Bontoc, Kalinga, Isneg, Ibaloy, Tinngguian, and
Kankaney; and (3) various other, widely scattered tribal peoples of the
hinterlands of Central and Southern Luzon, some islands in the Visayas,

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Mindoro, and Palawan, and including the various "Negrito" groups (Dumagat,
Agta, Batak, etc.), the various Mangyan groups, the Tagbanua, and the
Pala'wan. In some parts of the country, intermarriage between Tribal
Filipinos and lowland Filipinos and, as suggested above, the length of
residence of at least some "lowland" Filipinos in hinterland areas are factors
confounding efforts to specify unambiguously who is and who is not an
"indigenous Filipino."

Lesson 2

List of Indigenous Cultural Communities in the Philippines

As of 1998, this is the list of the identified Indigenous People in the

Philippines and their location. The term indigenous cultural communities
(ICCs) was used in the Philippine Constitution to describe a group of people
sharing common bonds of language, customs, traditions and other distinctive
cultural traits, and who have, under claims of ownership since time
immemorial, occupied, possessed and utilized a territory. Time immemorial
refers to a period of time when as far back as memory can go, certain
ICCs/IPs are known to have occupied, possessed and utilized a defined
territory devolved to them by operation of custom law/traditions or inherited
from their ancestors

Cordillera and Region I Location of Domains

Bontoc Mountain Province

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Balangao Mountain Province

Isneg Kalinga, Apayao

Tingguian Abra, Kalinga & Apayao

Kankanaey Benguet, Mt. Prov., Baguio

Kalanguya Benguet, Ifugao

Karao Benguet

Ibaloi Benguet

Ayangan Ifugao

Ifugao Ifugao

Tuwali Ifugao

Kalinga Kalinga

Apayao Kalinga, Apayao

Bago La Union, Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte,

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 Pangasinan

Caraballo Mountains Location of Domains

Agta Cagayan, Quirino, Isabela

Kalanguya Nueva Vizcaya

Bugkalot Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino

Isinai Nueva Vizcaya

Gaddang Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela

Aggay Cagayan

Dumagat Isabela, Cagayan

Ibanag Cagayan

Itawes Cagayan

Ivatan Batanes

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 Rest of Luzon/ Sierra
Madre Mountains

Aeta, Negrito, Baluga, Pugot Zambales, Bataan, Tarlac, Pampanga

Abelling Tarlac

Agta Aurora, Palayan City, Camarines Sur

Dumagat Quezon, Rizal, Aurora, Dumagat

Remontado Rizal, Laguna, Quezon

Bugkalot Aurora

Cimaron Camarines Sur

Kabihug Camarines Norte

Tabangnon Sorsogon

Abiyan (Aeta) Camarines Norte/Sur

Isarog Camarines Norte

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Itom Albay

Pullon Masbate

Island Groups Location of Domains

Agutaynon Palawan

Tagbanua Palawan

Dagayanen Palawan

Tao't Bato Palawan

Batac Palawan

Palawanon Palawan

Molbog Palawan

Iraya Mangyan Mindoro Occidental/Oriental

Hanunuo Mangyan Mindoro Occidental/Oriental

Alangan Mangyan Mindoro Oriental

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Buhid Mangyan Mindoro Occidental/Oriental

Tadyawan Mangyan Mindoro Occidental/Oriental

Batangan Mangyan Mindoro Occidental

Gubatnon Mangyan Mindoro Occidental

Ratagnon Mindoro Occidental

Ati Romblon

Cuyunon Palawan

Iloilo, Antique, Negros Occidental, Capiz,

Ati
Aklan

Sulod/ Bukidnon Iloilo, Antique, Capiz, Aklan

Magahat Negros Occidental

Korolanos Negros Oriental

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Ata Negros Oriental

Bukidnon Negros Oriental

Escaya Bohol

Badjao Cebu/Bohol

Kongking Leyte, Samar

Southern/ Eastern
Location of Domains
Mindanao

Manobo Agusan Del Norte/ Del Sur

Mandaya Davao Oriental

Mansaka Davao Del Norte

Dibabawon Davao Del Norte

Banwaon Agusan Del Sur

Bagobo Davao Del Sur/ Davao City

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Ubo Manobo Davao Del Sur/ Davao City

Tagakaolo Davao Del Sur

Talaingod, Lanilan Davao Del Norte/ Davao City

Mamanwa Surigao Del Norte

Higaonon Agusan Del Norte/ Agusan Del Sur

B'laan Davao Del Sur, Sarangani, South Cotabato

T'boli South Cotabato

Kalagan Davao Del Sur

Tagabawa Davao City

Manobo B'lit South Cotabato

Davao City, Davao Del Sur, Davao Del

Matigsalog
Norte

Tigwahanon Agusan Del Norte, Agusan Del Sur

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Sangil South Cotabato, Sarangani

Central Mindanao Location of Domains

Aromanon North Cotabato

Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, Cotabato

Teduray
City

Bagobo North Cotabato

Ubo Manobo North Cotabato

Higaonon Lanao Del Sur, Iligan City

Subanen Lanao Del Norte

Maguindanao Maguindanao

Maranao Lanao Del Norte/ Lanao Del Sur

Iranon Maguindanao, Lanao Del Sur

Karintik North Cotabato

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 North Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat,
B'laan
Maguindanao

Lambangian Sultan Kudarat

Dulangan Sultan Kudarat

Northern and Western

Location of Domains
Mindanao

Zamboanga Del Sur, Del Norte, Misamis

Subanen
Occidental/Oriental, Zamboanga City

Talaandig Bukidnon

Higaonon Bukidnon, Misamis Occidental/Oriental

Matigsalog Bukidnon

Umaymanon Bukidnon

Manobo Bukidnon

Kamigin Camiguin

Yakan Basilan

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Sama Tawi-Tawi

Badjao/Sama Laut Tawi-Tawi, Basilan, Sulu archipelago

Kalibugan Zamboanga Del Sur/ Del Norte

Sulu archipelago
Jama Mapon

As of 1998, this is the list of the identified Indigenous People in the

Philippines and their location.[2]

Cordillera and Region I Location of Domains

Bontoc Mountain Province

Balangao Mountain Province

Isneg Kalinga, Apayao

Tingguian Abra, Kalinga & Apayao

Kankanaey Benguet, Mt. Prov., Baguio

Kalanguya Benguet, Ifugao

Karao Benguet

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Ibaloi Benguet

Ayangan Ifugao

Ifugao Ifugao

Tuwali Ifugao

Kalinga Kalinga

Apayao Kalinga, Apayao

La Union, Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte,

Bago
Pangasinan

Caraballo Mountains Location of Domains

Agta Cagayan, Quirino, Isabela

Kalanguya Nueva Vizcaya

Bugkalot Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino

Isinai Nueva Vizcaya

Gaddang Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela

Aggay Cagayan

Dumagat Isabela, Cagayan

Ibanag Cagayan

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Itawes Cagayan

Ivatan Batanes

Rest of Luzon/ Sierra

Madre Mountains

Aeta, Negrito, Baluga, Pugot Zambales, Bataan, Tarlac, Pampanga

Abelling Tarlac

Agta Aurora, Palayan City, Camarines Sur

Dumagat Quezon, Rizal, Aurora, Dumagat

Remontado Rizal, Laguna, Quezon

Bugkalot Aurora

Cimaron Camarines Sur

Kabihug Camarines Norte

Tabangnon Sorsogon

Abiyan (Aeta) Camarines Norte/Sur

Isarog Camarines Norte

Itom Albay

Pullon Masbate

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Island Groups Location of Domains

Agutaynon Palawan

Tagbanua Palawan

Dagayanen Palawan

Tao't Bato Palawan

Batac Palawan

Palawanon Palawan

Molbog Palawan

Iraya Mangyan Mindoro Occidental/Oriental

Hanunuo Mangyan Mindoro Occidental/Oriental

Alangan Mangyan Mindoro Oriental

Buhid Mangyan Mindoro Occidental/Oriental

Tadyawan Mangyan Mindoro Occidental/Oriental

Batangan Mangyan Mindoro Occidental

Gubatnon Mangyan Mindoro Occidental

Ratagnon Mindoro Occidental

Ati Romblon

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Cuyunon Palawan

Iloilo, Antique, Negros Occidental, Capiz,

Ati
Aklan

Sulod/ Bukidnon Iloilo, Antique, Capiz, Aklan

Magahat Negros Occidental

Korolanos Negros Oriental

Ata Negros Oriental

Bukidnon Negros Oriental

Escaya Bohol

Badjao Cebu/Bohol

Kongking Leyte, Samar

Southern/ Eastern
Location of Domains
Mindanao

Manobo Agusan Del Norte/ Del Sur

Mandaya Davao Oriental

Mansaka Davao Del Norte

Dibabawon Davao Del Norte

Banwaon Agusan Del Sur

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Bagobo Davao Del Sur/ Davao City

Ubo Manobo Davao Del Sur/ Davao City

Tagakaolo Davao Del Sur

Talaingod, Lanilan Davao Del Norte/ Davao City

Mamanwa Surigao Del Norte

Higaonon Agusan Del Norte/ Agusan Del Sur

Davao Del Sur, Sarangani, South

B'laan
Cotabato

T'boli South Cotabato

Kalagan Davao Del Sur

Tagabawa Davao City

Manobo B'lit South Cotabato

Davao City, Davao Del Sur, Davao Del

Matigsalog
Norte

Tigwahanon Agusan Del Norte, Agusan Del Sur

Sangil South Cotabato, Sarangani

Central Mindanao Location of Domains

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Aromanon North Cotabato

Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, Cotabato

Teduray
City

Bagobo North Cotabato

Ubo Manobo North Cotabato

Higaonon Lanao Del Sur, Iligan City

Subanen Lanao Del Norte

Maguindanao Maguindanao

Maranao Lanao Del Norte/ Lanao Del Sur

Iranon Maguindanao, Lanao Del Sur

Karintik North Cotabato

North Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat,

B'laan
Maguindanao

Lambangian Sultan Kudarat

Dulangan Sultan Kudarat

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 Lesson 3

TERMS USED UNDER THE PHILIPPINE INDIGENOUS ACT

a) Ancestral Domains.

Refers to all areas generally belonging to ICCs/IPs, subject to property rights

within ancestral domains already existing and/or vested upon the effectivity
of the Act, comprising lands, inland waters, coastal areas, and natural
resources therein, held under a claim of ownership, occupied or possessed
by ICCs/IPs by themselves or through their ancestors, communally or
individually since time immemorial, continuously to the present, except
when interrupted by war, force majeure or displacement by force, deceit,
stealth, or as a consequence of government projects or any voluntary
dealings entered into by the government and private individuals/
corporations, and which are necessary to ensure their economic, social and
cultural welfare. It shall include ancestral lands, forests, pasture, residential,
agricultural, and other lands individually owned whether alienable and
disposable or otherwise; hunting grounds: burial grounds; worship areas;
bodies of water; mineral and other natural resources; and lands which may
no longer be exclusively occupied by ICCs/IPs, but from which they

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traditionally had access to, for their subsistence and traditional activities,
particularly the home ranges of ICCs/IPs who are still nomadic and/or shifting
cultivators.

b) Ancestral Lands.

Refers to land, subject to property rights within the ancestral domains

already existing and/or vested upon effectivity of the Act, occupied,
possessed and utilized by individuals, families and clans who are members of
the ICCs/ IPs since time immemorial, by themselves or through their
predecessors-in-interest, under claims of individual or traditional group
ownership, continuously, to the present except when interrupted by war,
force majeure or displacement by force, deceit, stealth, or as a consequence
of government projects and other voluntary dealings entered into by
government and private individuals/corporations, including, but not limited
to, residential lots, rice terraces or paddies, private forests, swidden farms
and tree lots.

c) Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT).

Refers to a title formally recognizing the rights of possession and

ownership of ICCs/IPs over their ancestral domains identified and delineated
in accordance with this law.

d) Certificate of Ancestral Land Title (CALT).

Refers to a title formally recognizing the rights of ICCs/IPs over their

ancestral lands. e) Culture Sensitive. Refers to the quality of being
compatible and appropriate to the culture, beliefs, customs and
traditions, indigenous systems and practices of ICCs/IPs.

e) Communal Claims.

Refer to claims on land, resources and rights thereon belonging to the

whole community within a defined territory.

f) Commercial Forest Plantation.

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 Refers to any land planted to timber producing species, including
rubber, and/or non-timber species such as rattan and bamboo,
primarily to supply the raw material requirements of existing or
proposed public or private forest-based industries, energy-generating
plants and related industries.

g) Customary Laws.

Refer to a body of written or unwritten rules, usages, customs and

practices traditionally observed, accepted and recognized by
respective ICCs/ IPs.

h) Customs and Practices.

Refers to norms of conduct and patterns of relationships or usages of a
community over time accepted and recognized as binding on all
members
i) Community Intellectual Rights.
Refer to the rights of ICCs/IPs to own, control, develop and protect:
(a) the past, present and future manifestations of their cultures, such
as but not limited to, archeological and historical sites, artifacts,
designs, ceremonies, technologies, visual and performing arts and
literature as well as religious and spiritual properties;
(b) science and technology including, but not limited to, human and
other genetic resources, seeds, medicine, health practices, vital
medicinal plants, animals and minerals, indigenous knowledge systems
and practices, resource management systems, agricultural
technologies, knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora, oral
traditions, designs, scientific discoveries; and,
(c) language, script, histories, oral traditions and teaching and learning
systems.

k) Free and Prior Informed Consent.

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 As used in the Act, shall mean the consensus of all members of the
ICCs/IPs to be determined in accordance with their respective
customary laws and practices, free from any external manipulation,
interference and coercion, and obtained after fully disclosing the intent
and scope of an activity, in a language and process understandable to
the community.

l) Indigenous Cultural Communities/ Indigenous Peoples (ICCs/IPs).

Refer to a group of people or homogenous societies identified by self-

ascription and ascription by others, who have continuously lived as
organized community on communally bounded and defined territory,
and who have, under claims of ownership since time immemorial,
occupied, possessed and utilized such territories, sharing common
bonds of language, customs, traditions and other distinctive cultural
traits, or who have, through resistance to political, social and cultural
inroads of colonization, non-indigenous religions and cultures, became
historically differentiated from the majority of Filipinos. ICCs/IPs shall,
likewise include peoples who are regarded as indigenous on account of
their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, at the
time of conquest or colonization or at the time of inroads of non-
indigenous religions and cultures or the establishment of present state
boundaries who retain some or all of their own social, economic,
cultural and political institutions, but who may have been displaced
from their traditional domains or who may have resettled outside their
ancestral domains.

m) Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) or Act.

Heretofore, the Act shall refer to Republic Act No. 8371.

n) Indigenous Political Structures.

Refer to organizational and cultural leadership systems, institutions,

relationships, patterns and processes for decision making and

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 participation identified by ICCs/ IPs such as, but not limited to, Council
of Elders, Council of Timuay, Bodong Holders, or any other tribunal or
body of similar nature.

o) Individual Claims.

Refer to claims on land and rights thereon which have been devolved
to individuals, families and clans including, but not limited to,
residential lots, rice terraces or paddies and tree lots.

p) Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices.

Refer to systems, institutions, mechanisms, and technologies

comprising a unique body of knowledge evolved through time that
embody patterns of relationships between and among peoples and
between peoples, their lands and resource environment, including such
spheres of relationships which may include social, political, cultural,
economic, religious spheres, and which are the direct outcome of the
indigenous peoples, responses to certain needs consisting of adaptive
mechanisms which have allowed indigenous peoples to survive and
thrive within their given socio-cultural and biophysical conditions.

q) Large Scale Agriculture.

Refers to any commercial or profit making business activity or

enterprise, involving the cultivation of soil, planting of crops, growing
of trees, raising of livestock, poultry fish or aquaculture production
including the harvesting of such farm products, and other farm
activities and practices performed in conjunction with such farming
operations, agribusiness or services, by natural or juridical persons
whether single proprietorship, cooperative, partnership or corporation.

r) National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP).

Refers to the office created under the Act, which shall be under the
Office of the President, and which shall be the primary Page 4

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 government agency responsible for the formulation and
implementation of policies, plans and programs to recognize, protect
and promote the rights of ICCs/ IPs.

s) Native Title.

Refers to pre-conquest rights to lands and domains which, as far back

as memory reaches, have been held under a claim of private
ownership by ICCs /IPs, have never been public lands and are thus
indisputably presumed to have been held that way since before the
Spanish Conquest.

t) Natural Resources.

Refer to life support systems such as, but not limited to, the sea, coral
reefs, soil, lakes, rivers, streams and forests as well as useful products
found therein such as minerals, wildlife, trees and other plants,
including the aesthetic attributes of scenic sites that are not man-
made.

u) Non-Government Organization (NGO).

Refers to a private, non-profit voluntary organization that has been

organized primarily for the delivery of various services to the ICCs/ IPs
and has an established track record for effectiveness and acceptability
in the Governance. Refers to the community where it serves.

v) Peoples’ Organization.

Refers to a private, non-profit voluntary organization of members of an

ICC/IP which is accepted as representative of such ICCs/IPs. w) Self
right of ICCs/IPs to pursue their economic, social, and cultural
development; promote and protect the integrity of their values,
practices and institutions; determine, use and control their own
organizational and community leadership systems, institutions,
relationships, patterns and processes for decision making and

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 participation, such as, but not limited to, Council of Elders, Bodong
Holders, Dap-ay, Ator, Council of Mangkatadong, or any other body of
similar nature.

x) Sustainable Traditional Resource Rights.

Refer to the rights of ICCs/IPs to sustainably use, manage, protect and

conserve:

a) land, air, water, and minerals;

b) plants, animals and other organisms;

c) collecting, fishing and hunting grounds;

d) sacred sites; and

e) other areas of economic, ceremonial and aesthetic value in

accordance with their indigenous knowledge, belief systems, and
practices.

y) Time Immemorial.

Refers to a period of time when as far back as memory can go, certain
ICCs /IPs are known to have occupied, possessed and utilized a defined
territory devolved to them, by operation of custom law or inherited
from their ancestors, in accordance with their customs and traditions.

z) Unlawful or Unauthorized Intrusion.

Refers to the occupation of lands and utilization of resources

within the ancestral domain without the consent of the IP concerned or
through invasion, violation, wrongful entry or entry by stealth or force
or uninvited entrance upon the territorial domain of another. aa)
Usurpation. Usurpation of real rights in property or occupation of real
property as defined in Article 312 of the Penal Code is committed by
any person who, by means of violence against or intimidation of
persons, shall take possession of any real property belonging to
another.

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 Lesson 4: What is the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act 1997
(Republic Act No. 8371 of 1997)?

Indigenous People's Rights Act of 1997 (IPRA) (RA 8371) is a

legislation that recognize and promote all the rights of Indigenous Cultural
Communities/Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines.

Up to 15 per cent of the Philippine population - about ten million people -

belong to distinct indigenous communities and retain a close link with their
traditions. They avoided Hispanisation during Spain's 350-year colonisation of the
Philippines. In 1987, after the fall of the Marcos regime, a revised Philippine
Constitution recognised the ancestral land rights of indigenous people, and ten
years later, in 1997, those rights finally became law in the Indigenous Peoples
Rights Act.

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 The Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act (IPRA) is modelled on the provisions
of the UN Draft Declaration on Indigenous Peoples' Rights. In theory IPRA is
one of the most enlightened laws dealing with Indigenous Peoples,
recognising the free prior and informed consent (FPIC) of Indigenous Peoples,
and asserting that in the absence of such a clear level of consent, a project
cannot proceed. In practice however, this is regularly undermined, not least
by legislation such as the 1995 Mining Code, which in many cases gives
mining claims to the same Indigenous land supposedly covered by IPRA.
Indigenous Peoples communities and organisations, and their supporters,
have been vocal in fighting for their legal rights for many years, and the
struggle continues.

. Unit 3: INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN LUZON

Lesson 1

The BAGO Tribe

Facts About the BAGO Tribe

 The most dominant among the indigenous peoples in Region 1 in terms

of population based from the National Commission on Indigenous
Peoples (NCIP) census
 The most organized tribe nationwide according to Commissioner Rizalino
“Langley” Segundo and director Ruben S. Bastero of NCIP Region II
during the 5th Bago Congress

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  The hilltribe dwellers and original inhabitants in the border regions
between Ilocos and Cordillera mountains different from their neighboring
tribes and other adjacent ethnic groups whose ancestors are early
inhabitants of the country prior to colonization
 Bago communities existed in the country before the arrival of the
Spaniards. According to its history, during the process of Christianization
by the Spanish Catholic missionaries, they were dubbed as “Bagong
Kristyano” by those who preceded them and the name calling stuck and
are called Bagos to the present day
 The offspring of intermarriages as well as product of trade between
mountain tribes of the Cordillera and the Iloko of the lowlands
 Part of the 1st Malay migrating groups to the Philippines, believed to be
about 200-300 years B.C. who entered and settled at the upper delta of
the Amburayan River (Ilocos Province) with some going further north at
the upper delta of the Abra River and from here, Bago tribe migrated to
all parts of the country and even abroad
 The upper deltas of the Abra River and the Amburayan river were
already inhabited by the Bago Tribe before the arrival of the Spaniards in
the Northern Philippines
 Thee Bago are known as the Ilocanized Kankanaeys and Ibalois
 The researcher found out that predominantly Bago Communities in
A. La Union:
1. Bagulin
2. San Gabriel
3. Sudipen
4. Santol
5. Pugo
B. Ilocos Sur: (Upland Municipalities)
1. Salcedo
2. Cervantes
3. Quirino

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 4. Suyo
5. Sugpon
6. San Emilio
7. Lidlidda,
8. Del Pilar
9. Galimuyod
10. Banayoyo
11. Alilem
 All places in upland areas of Ilocos Sur are governed by two systems,
the Barangay Hall and the Dap-ay, both has a respect to each other by
consulting on a particular issues. They called this system as Sapit, a
justice court which consisted by the Tribal Elders and the Barangay
Officials.
SOCIO CULTURAL PRACTICES:

Begnas Ylocos

 The Upland people are industrious, cooperative, friendly, hospitable

and peace loving. Residents can sleep with open windows and doors
at night and safely leave his products at the farm for weeks. The
Children prefer to sleep with peers in places called abong or in
a pataguab.
 Begnas is a seven day celebration of thanksgiving after the
productive and fruitful harvest season to Kabunian. It is also meant
to drive away bad spirits who might have caused misfortunes, such
as droughts, and anxieties among the people in the community.
Leading the Begnas is the mannapo or native priest who offers
prayers and live chickens as sacrifice. Meanwhile, the community
engages itself in dances and songs. In the final stage of ritual
called Obaya, a Pig is also butchered and the meat is apportioned
among the various households. The mannapo then ends
the Begnas with prayers.

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  In terms of Religion, majority of the Bago Tribes are United
Methodists.
 Some of the Bago Cultures that are in the memories of elders in the
community of the researcher during their meetings like wake and
reunions are as follows:
 Albasia (mediator) was the custom of young ladies
before to gather and sleep together in one house
which called ulog, usually it was a house of a widow
or spinster who is living alone. For this reason, it
became natural for men to present and court into the
house. The old lady then became the mediator
between the young man and the young lady, any
response from the young lady shall be conveyed
through the old lady.
 While Pitling or Pinikpikan that performed for the
improvement of the growth of the plants and building
a house or any structure, chicken is killed in offer for
the ap-apu or an-anito. This ritual can be adopted
as goal resource to begin a fellowship with them with
picnic and food festivals.
 Sapangot - this ceremony is performed after the
burial when the people who went to the ceremony of
burying the dead has arrived to the bereaved
family’s house. Those who went to the cemetery who
did not wash their hands in this ceremony are
considered filthy and defiled from his home. In
Christian ethical standards it is not necessary but it
can be adopted because it is promoting cleanliness
and healthy lifestyle which is acceptable for
humanitarian reasons.
 Some beliefs that are still active in some Bago communities also are:

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 1.) Damaan- the relatives, friends and sympathizers gathered at the

home of the bereaved family and one by one chanting their sorrows
in a mournful tune.
2.) Duayyaan- in a circular gallop all people holding this will chant

the duayya.
3.) Bayya-o- in front of Apagan, a cup of bubod or tapey, the one who

will drink must chant.

4.) “Bulikangkang or puggapog that also called tungngatong is a
pieces of bamboo that sounding softer than gangsa.
5.) Sakuting is a rhythmic dancing using two pieces of sticks each of
the pair, dancing of its sound like a war game
6.) Tadek or Innallopan - a dance that mimic the rooster and a lien or

hen that is using both allop, a colourful blanket that can be

interpreted as their wings.

 The Bagos have their own language, examples are: sinoy naicasta
(why, what happened), tapey (rice wine), mannapo (native priest),
sapo (prayer), am-in (all), sumaa (to arrive), napupuka (awake),
minpintas (beautiful), ambit (baby girl), amboy (baby boy), eng-nga /
unga (baby/child), minlam-ek (cold), minsipnget (dark), minngina
(expensive), nakinguab / kinbaba (lower portion), tumayaw (to fly),
minlaba (to wash clothes). Some Bago jargons are: ayaket or yaw’, this
is said when dismayed/disappointed or amazed, kasos and Aye’, these
are also said when dismayed or disappointed, ni’-in’, this is said when
one happens to commit mistake.

 Generally, the Bagos speak the dialect akin to the Kankanaey,

Tingiuans and Ibalois; however, to this day; most of them speak the
Iluko dialect with distinct intonation.

SUGPON, Ilocos Sur — Poverty is common in rural areas like this town set in
the mountainous area of Ilocos Sur, but being poor in these parts comes with
the luxury of fresh organic greens, cool air, and a breathtaking scenery.

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Sugpon is a town sharing mountainous borders of this province with Abra
and La Union, just across the Amburayan River.
Difficult trail to reach this town is a physical challenge that demands a four-
hour trek from the lowlands up along the rolling hills. Apart from the
gruelling trail, one will have to cross a testy river and contend with its strong
current.
Perhaps, this is why the people here prefer to stay than move out unless
necessitated by trips to sell agricultural produce to the lowlands or purchase
supplies in the market.
‘Bago’ or new people Interestingly, the inhabitants here are referred to as
the “Bago tribe.” They are Ilokano Christians who came from the lowlands
and ethnic tribes from the highlands like the “Kankanaey,” the “Igorot,” and
the Tingguian.”
Over time, intermarriages prevailed and gave birth to the so-called “Bago” or
“new” tribe, a village of Christians speaking Ilocano and embracing moun-
tain life.
Farming families
Families who live here in the hilly farmlands of Barangay Licungan grow
organic vegetables like saluyot, gabi, and, ampalaya and fruits like guavas
and mangoes, among others.
They raise cattle and let their little children shepherd the livestock as they
graze in vast tracts of land.
And because they eat healthy and till these lands at no cost, many of the
Bago people live long, strong, and able.
Even those who plant rice have this rich land as far as the eyes can see to
use for free.
In the end, poor as they might be – in as far as credit records and money in
their pockets are concerned – the Bago people are rich in many ways we
may gauge the quality of our lives.
Truly, the best things in life are free.

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 Lesson 2

The Igorot

Facts About the Igorot Tribes

Igorot, From the root word golot, which means "mountain", Igolot means
"people from the mountains" (Tagalog: “Mountaineer”) any of various ethnic
groups in the mountains of northern Luzon, Philippines, all of whom keep, or have
kept until recently, their traditional religion and way of life. Some live in the tropical
forests of the foothills, but most live in rugged grassland and pine forest zones
higher up. The Igorot numbered about 1.5 million in the early 21st century. Their

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languages belong to the northern Luzon subgroup of the Philippine languages,
which belong to the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) family.

 The Igorot peoples are Austronesians. They were known in earlier days
for their wars and practice of headhunting. The Spaniards forcibly
partially subdued them during the colonial occupation of the
Philippines, that process being completed during the period of
U.S. hegemony. Ethnologists distinguish about 10 main ethnic groups,
each with its own dialect and culture. There are also variations within
these groups.
 Two broader groupings may be made of the Igorot as a whole:
1.) peoples of the higher country who cultivate wet rice, mostly in
steplike terraces on the mountainsides; These are Nabaloi or
Ibaloi, Kankanay (Kankanai), Lepanto or northern Kankanay,
Bontoc (Bontok), southern Kalinga, and Tinggian nearly all live
in populous villages, but one ethnic unit, the Ifugao, has small
farmsteads of kinsmen dotted throughout the rice terraces.
2.) peoples of the higher country who cultivate wet rice, mostly in
steplike terraces on the mountainsides; These are
the Gaddang, northern Kalinga, and Isneg or Apayao—are
sparsely settled in hamlets or farmsteads around which new
gardens are cleared as the soil is worked out; some Gaddang
live in tree houses.
 Igorot" is the modern term to describe the indigenous people of the
Cordillera Mountains located in the northern part of the Philippine
island of Luzon. When first "discovered" by the Spaniards in the 16th
century, they were called "Ygolotes" - later to be re-spelled "Igorrotes."
The Spaniards used other names to describe Igorots based on where in
the Cordilleras they were found.
 As one can infer, Igorots are a highland race, and are well-adapted to
life in raised altitudes. To assure themselves a steady supply of crop,

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 they have even devised a way to carved terraces at the sides of
mountain, which they plant with various grains.
 The Igorot people are categorized into six different ethno-linguistic
group:
1.) Bontoc. The Bontoc thrive on the bank of the Chico River.
Famous as headhunters in the past, they have since turned
their backs from the practice of head hunting. At present, a
huge majority of the Bontoc have embraced Christianity. They
have seamlessly transitioned into a peaceful, agricultural
people.
2.) Ibaloi. The Ibaloi too are an agrarian society. Mostly found in
Southern Benguet, there are about 93,000 of them all over
the Philippines. Their language is from the Austronesian
family of languages.
3.) Ifugao. The Ifugao, on the other hand, are known for their
epics and their stories, such as the hudhud and the alim. Like
the Bontoc Igorots, Ifugao people were headhunters in the
past. Ifugao people have a total of four different dialects, and
are sometimes called Amganad, Kiangan, or Mayoyao. The
word Ifugao means "from the hill."
4.) Isneg or Apayao. The Isneg or Apayao can be found living near
the banks of the Apayao River. Originally slash-and-burn
farmers, they have since begun to practice more sustainable
forms of farming. The Isneg are also known as good fishers,
and have a penchant for coffee.
5.) Kalinga. The Kalinga tribes are perhaps the most diplomatic of
all the Igorot. They put great importance on kinship and social
ties, and are heralded for the peace pacts that have allowed
their tribes to become strong. They are also known as the
most heavily adorned of all the Igorot people.

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 6.) Kankana-ey. Finally, the Kankana-ey are one of the few tribes
who still practice a way of living more common in the old
days, although is fast disappearing as well. In the Kankana-ey,
young men and women are divided by gender and then
ushered into separate dormitories. Entry into a dormitory
signifies a young person's readiness to enter the stages of
courtship. Courtships are carried out in the ebgan, or the "girl
house

Religious Beliefs and Practices:

The Gods of the Igorot tribe. According W.D Sacla, former Vice
Governor of Benguet, there are categories of the gods of the Igorots:

(A) Dios Adi kaila, the god which we can not see. The creator is the
highest god;

(B) Kabunyan-which is the son- he’s the one who execute the plan of
god Adi kaila; canao are offered to him;

(C) Anitos or the ancestral spirit - which means the spirit of those
relative who pass away or malevolent ancestral spirits; they are often called
Ap-apo under superior deities by Kabunyan.

There is a tribe in the Cordillera that includes Lumaweg as one of their

gods. Lumaweg is the name of the god of Ifugao’s Tribe.
The Tribal Leader of the Igorot is called Manbunong. He is considered as a
tribal leader as well as priest who performed rituals. Leaders are not elected
but they emerge; the influence of this traditional leadership is immeasurable.
There is no administrative structure; the elected government officials exist,
but the influence of the manbunong is more powerful or influential than the
elected officials. In small communities, this leader settle disputes, judge
cases, determine punishment and compensation, officiate marriages, handle
separation and bury their dead, they have the final authority in matters
which affect the entire community. Their role is not limited in social matters;

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they also perform religious functions. He presides over various religious rites
and rituals, interpret dreams, diagnose sickness, and determine the cause of
misfortune through divination and prescribe appropriate rituals to correct
situation.

The rituals:

(a) Canao is a highlight of religious celebration. It is offered for

various purposes: to celebrate as a religious and as part of
funeral rite and to secure healing . In some part of Cordillera,
Canao is also celebrated to be blessed by the anitos or
Kabunyan.
According to Encarnation, the Canao fulfill two social
functions; it brings prestige to the family, it also affirms and
strengthens the existing social structure and the extended
family ties.
The Canao plays a vital role in reaffirming the existing order
and status which has been determined in the spiritual world.
It is also regarded as a means of influencing the gods and
spirits to maintain the existing order. In addition, the Igorots
believe that fame, material blessings, and good health are
granted by Kabunyan and the Ancestral spirits. Therefore, it is
natural for them to view present wealth as reward for their
religious piety expressed through many canao sacrifices;
today’s canao ensure tomorrow’s blessing.
(b) Begnas- After planting and before harvest there is one
week of celebration, the community contributes any kinds of
food and animals for the rituals. The purpose for this are: the
deities will bless their crops and protect it from plagues or
insects. Normally, Igorots killed the animals to offer to the
spirits or Anitos and later the meat will be distributed to the
entire community. During these event, there is one day

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 declare as rest day or "Tengao" in Igorot; nobody went out
of the house, then the elders make the cooked-rice like ball to
be distributed also to every families in the community

There are common rituals they make even today:

Senga/ Sambo. This feast or ritual is where they speak blessing of
prosperity of the family.

1. Senga for be-ey (House blessing) after building the house, the
family expected to perform ritual to express their thanksgiving to
secure more blessing from the deities. Their common prayer is that
the family would offer more rituals to honor their gods, especially if
the owner of the house becomes rich. As they perform this ritual,
they should butcher 2-5 pigs, and they distributed the meat to the
relatives of both husband and wife, then at the night time, all the
night old folks gather at the newly built house to speak blessing
(gasat or swerte) upon the family but they tell it in day-eng or Igorot
chant. At the might night they eat the remaining meat (head and
feet of the pigs); they offer prayer of blessing to the ancestral spirits
(anito) after that they will go home at 1-2 o’clock in the morning.
2. Senga for the newly wed couple- (blessing for the newly wed
couple) – a newly married couple is encouraged to perform a ritual
for two days following the wedding festival. The ritual prescribed by
the manbunong, as the rituals performed, they anticipate that
Kabunyan will bless them and bring them good luck needs met.

Clothing

 For Igorot women to carry around blankets with them. If it is too cold,
the wear these blankets. Usually, they are small in size and are
called kud-pas . These blankets are created through a very special
process called heirloom weaving. In this handmade crochet product,

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 heirloom weaving is a significant, "cultural and traditional practice"
because "the blankets were used for rituals, specifically for wrapping
their dead kin and for the bones of their previously deceased loved
ones."

 For men, they use Wa'nis .The apron worn in the lower part of the
body is called a wa'nis. It is worn by Igorots from the Botoc and Samoki
areas (Jenks, 696). There are different types of variations of breech
cloths that are worn in the lower area for males. Most of these cloths
are created in multi-colored patterns of red, white and chocolate
brown.

Native Food

1) Pinikpikan - When it comes to Cordilleran cuisine, this is without a doubt

the recipe that is most well-known. The butchering process is basically
beating a chicken to death with a stick. Why? To preserve the blood in the
chicken's body. To allow the blood to coagulate within the parts of the
chicken that are beaten with a stick - mostly the neck and wings. Cooking
genuine pinikpikan is a breeze. All you need is a live chicken,
sayote, etag (pork that's been dried or smoked the Igorot way), and any
leafy vegetables like pechay or wombok. Use barn chickens or what we call
"native" chickens. What does pinikpikan taste like? It's like tinola with a
smoky taste courtesy of the etag added into it.

Chicken and etag cooked together as pinikpikan. Photo source:

[Link].
2) Etag or kiniing - This is salted meat that's preserved by either drying it
under the sun or smoking it. Yes, it's basically ham. Igorots usually don't
cook and eat them as is. The meat is mostly used as an added ingredient
for pinikpikan. It also tastes great when cooked alongside white or black
beans or any other legume. The preservation process is also very efficient
that the dried meat can last for months or years if stored properly.

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3) Tengba - This is quite commonly prepared in municipalities within Mt.
Province. Preparation and serving of tengba is usually associated with life
events. For instance, there's a tradition called nilayaan in the town of Besao
in Mt. Province wherein the parents of a newborn child invite friends,
neighbors, and relatives to a feast/gathering. Tradition dictates
that tengba be served for the guests.
Tengba is fermented rice paste and freshwater crab (the Kankana-eys call
this crab gaki). The freshwater crabs are salted thoroughly and placed in an
earthen jar (gosi). After about 24 hours, pulverized white rice and an ample
amount of clean water are mixed with the salted crabs. Yeast (bubod) is then
added and mixed with the other ingredients to kick off the fermentation
process. The jar is then sealed for at least three weeks. The tengba can be
served as is. However, it's usually very salty so it's commonly used as an
added ingredient to other recipes like vegetables soups or boiled meat.

4) Tapey (or tapuy, tapuey) - This is the Igorot people's version of the
Japanese sake (rice wine). The great thing about tapey is that its taste
depends on the amount of time it spent inside the fermentation jar. The
older the wine gets, the more bitter it becomes. Tapey that are a few weeks
or a few months old have the fresh and sweet taste attributed to rice wine. If
the aging time goes beyond a year, the taste drastically changes. The liquid
starts tasting like whiskey or brandy.

Adding bubod which is one of the steps in preparing tapey. Photo source:
[Link]

5) Safeng or sabeng - a non-alcoholic fermented drink, like yogurt. This

drink has live microorganisms, helpful bacteria that aid our body to recover
from deteriorating cells. I suppose it also strengthens our immune system. In
the Cordillera region, the base is usually the left over water from boiling
sweet potatoes. It is placed in an earthen jar and is consistently added with

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corn, cooked rice, and herbs.

6) Duom - This is a snack the only ingredient of which are young heads of
rice that ain't yet ready for harvesting. The young grains are plucked off their
stalks then slightly fried over a pan or vat (silyasi). The grains are then
pounded using a wooden pestle and a stone mortar to remove the dry or
burnt husks. The grains which have been pounded flat are then separated
from the husks using a winnower (bilao). Voila, the thing is now ready to eat.
Sprinkle sugar to give it a sweeter taste.
7) Wildlife delicacies - The mountains and hills of the Cordilleras are now
rather lacking when it comes to wildlife. Wild boars and deer are probably
extinct by now. But that doesn't mean Cordillerans have stopped hunting.
There are are still some who do. And among their common targets are
monitor lizards (banyas, banias), wild cats (lidaga), and civets
(motet, musang). These are usually cooked by roasting them or boiling them
in a stew.
8) Dog meat - This speaks for itself. There are eateries in Baguio City that
serve this. Men in the region are rather fond of consuming it alongside
bottles of gin.
9) Binungor - Binungor is a Kalinga dish that is served as an appetizer or
side dish and not a viand. It is made of various vegetables found around a
Kalinga household along with tenga ng daga and other wild mushrooms, and
ot-an, that spiral shaped shell-fish you suck to get the meat inside. The
Binungor had slight hints of sweetness and spiciness to it.
10) Sigtim or sinigtiman (meat, fish, or freshwater snails cooked
with tapey) - Tapey is not only consumed as a beverage, it's also eaten
(the rice grains, that is). A lot of Cordillerans take out the fermented rice
grains from the earthen jars and use these as additional ingredients for
cooking. They can be added to meat-based or fish-based dishes. A favorite
among Cordillerans is a tapey-freshwater snail tandem. We call these

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snails ket-an in the local dialect. The fermented grains can also be added
for kuhol-based dishes.

Lesson 3

The Ivatan People

The Ivatans are a Filipino ethnolinguistic group predominant in the

islands of Batanes of the Philippines. Their ethnogenesis is unclear; their

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origins remain untraced among scholars, but they are believed to be
an Austronesian group, related to neighboring Ilocanos on purely linguistic
basis.

The culture of the Ivatans is partly influenced by the environmental

condition of Batanes. Unlike the old-type nipa huts common in the
Philippines, Ivatans have adopted their now-famous stone houses made
of coral and limestone, designed to protect against the hostile climate.

Physical Attributes

One of the earliest accounts of the Ivatan is that of

the British buccaneer William Dampier in 1687. Dampier described them as
"short, squat people; hazel eyes, small yet bigger than Chinese; low
foreheads; thick eyebrows; short low noses; white teeth; black thick hair; and
very dark, copper-colored skin." They also have strong mixture of the short
type of the Mongols, and there are some individuals who seem to have some
physical characteristics peculiar to the Ainus of Japan.

Ivatan Culture

The Ivatan's culture have been largely influenced by the climate of

Batanes. Due to severe climatic disruptions to their agriculture, Ivatans have
developed numerous successful strategies to protect their food supply and
way of life.

Traditionally, because of frequent typhoons and drought, they plant

root crops able to cope with the environment. These crops include yam,
sweet potato, taro, garlic, ginger and onion, as they ensure higher chances
of survival during awry climate conditions. The Ivatan study the behavior of
animals, sky color, wind and clouds to predict the weather. Ivatans usually
gather their animals and stay in their houses when they see that the cows
take shelter from the payaman (communal pasture) and birds taking refuge

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in houses or in the ground. A pink sky with an orange hue also heralds a
storm.

The sea is vital to the Ivatan's way of life. They depend on the flying
fish (dibang) and dolphinfish (arayu) present on the shores of Batanes in
the months of March through May. They have a native delicacy
called uvod(the pith of the banana stalk) which is served with the
wine palek, on festive occasions such as weddings.

Before Spaniards arrived at the Philippines, Ivatans built their houses

from cogon grass. These homes were small, well-situated,and designed to
protect against strong winds. The Spaniards introduced large-scale
production of lime to the Ivatan for the construction of their now-famous
stone houses. Meter-thick limestone walls, are designed to protect against
the harsh Batanes environment, which is known as a terminal passage of
typhoons in the Philippines. The basic cogon grass is still preserved as roofs
of their houses, thickly constructed to withstand strong winds. These houses
are comparable to the white houses in New Zealand, Ireland and Scottish
Highlands.

One of the endemic clothing of the Ivatans is the vakul. A vakul is a

headgear designed to protect the wearer from sun and rain. It is made
from vuyavuy palm fiber.

The Ivatan have three folk songs styles: the laji, the kanta and
the kalusan. The laji are ancient lyrical songs that are supposed to be
sung when they are merry or just finished work. The kalusan is sung during
work.

The Ivatan have legends that are called kabbata. They have the rawod,
chants that chronicle the adventures of the Ivatan's forefathers as they
escape a disaster.

Lesson 4

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 The Ibanag Tribe

IBANAG PEOPLE, CAGAYAN, LUZON, 1885

The Ibanag [Y Bannag] are lowland tribe of Cagayan. Their name is

derived from the term bannag meaning "from the river". They reside in the
valley within the Sierra Madre, Cordillera and Caraballo Mountain chains.

The Ibanag appear to have had it original home in the swampy zone of
the lower Cagayan river valley. Populations speaking Ibanag and calling
themselves as such have also come to predominate from the Tuguegarao
area southward to the Cagayan-Magat junction.

The Ibanag language became the lingua franca of most of the Cagayan
valley peoples, used first in trade and later in governmental mission work.

At the time the Spaniards arrived, the Ibanag were already cultivating
wet rice crop on the lower Cagayan river flats as well as dry rice in hilly
areas. They had been trading with Chinese and Japanese traders. The
Ibanags quickly converted to Roman Catholicism in the 16th and 17th
centuries.

The agricultural economy of the Cagayan valley floor changed during

Spanish colonial times through the "polo" or forced labor system of growing
tobacco. Cagayan valley became the most favorable Philippine locale for the
production of cigar-wrapper and filler tobaccos.

One half of the total Philippine tobacco acreage was located in the
Cagayan Valley during the tobacco monopoly period and the Cagayan
tobaccos, and the cigars produced from them became world famous.

Traditional Ibanag practice dictated that families must allow each

newborn's placenta to be carried away by the river as a gift to the spirits of
the river. The materials used in healing or death rituals were also thrown into
the river to purify them and carry away the cause of illness or death.

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 Ibanag mothers to this day continue to avoid brightly colored dresses
for their daughters for fear of attracting the attention of evil spirits. Eating
near where a spirit is known to live requires all Ibanags to toss small bits of
food to the ground as a gift to the spirit. Offending the spirits can result to
illness, fever, involuntary twitching or convulsions during sleep or
wakefulness, coma or even death.

Elaborate rituals are performed by a local spirit medium or healer after

determining which spirits are involved in the illness, usually through going
into trance or communicating with the spirit world.

Along the Cagayan province coast today, Ilocano settlers are in the
great majority. But an older Ibanag speaking population is concentrated
around the Abulug and Pamplona river mouths. Ibanags are outnumbered
about five to one by the Ilocanos.

Ibanag Culture

People in the valley dressed very simply. Old women used the saya and
kimono while men used the camisa de chino or the barong tagalog. Some of
the houses that withstood the Japanese occupation were historical houses
made of hard wood. Some were bahay-kubo. Most typical homes were strong
and typhoon-resistant.
For agriculture, today, there are only a few have modern agricultural
implements. The majority still use traditional implements like animal-drawn
tools.
Non-Material Culture
Filipinos are characterized by its close family ties such that majority of
married couples with children lived with their parents. The value of
bayanihan, sharing, cooperation, brotherhood, self-responsibility, respect,
love, peace, and dignity, are still very much alive in Cagayan.
Old songs, proverbs, and poems are still sung today, alongside the
instruments Kuribaw, tulali and the kuritang produced by Ibanags. These

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produced warlike or sad music. It also exhibits the beauty of the unoni, the
berso, and the pabattang (proverbs and the advises through songs) which
convey Ibanag history and their mores that the ethnic group keep sacred and
inviolable. The following are samples of the Unoni as described by the
Ibanags: “maguray y mapporay, mesipo y massipo, mawawan y carwan”
(the brave leads, the lenient are included and the rest gets lost). “Arica
mamappalla ta bagu ca la nappaya; Vulauap paga ic cucum amu y
ginafu-gafum” (Do not be proud because you became famous/wealthy;
Your fingers may be made of gold but we know what you are). Mapia ca
nacuan nu maguinna ca tat tabarang (You should have been lucky if
you heed advices, Lasam, 1966).

Lesson 5

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 Aeta/Agta

The Aeta or Agta, are an indigenous people who live in scattered,

isolated mountainous parts of the island of Luzon, the Philippines.

These people are considered to be Negritos, whose skin ranges from

dark to very dark brown, and possessing features such as a small stature and
frame; hair of a curly to kinky texture and a higher frequency of naturally
lighter colour (blondism) relative to the general population, small nose, and
dark brown eyes. They are thought to be among the earliest inhabitants of
the Philippines, preceding the Austronesian migrations

The Aeta were included in the group of people named "Negrito" during
the Spanish Era. Various Aeta groups in northern Luzon are
named Pugut or Pugot, an Ilocano term that also means "goblin" or "forest
spirit", and is the colloquial term for people with darker complexions.

As nomadic people, Aeta communities typically consist of

approximately 1 to 5 families of mobile group. So the word Aeta or Agta is
frequently used as an umbrella term for numerous Aeta groups in the
Philippines, considering their varied locations in Luzon, including some living
in parts of Visayas and Mindanao. Groups under the “Aeta” umbrella are
normally referred to after their demographic locations. Scholars (particularly
anthropologists and ethnographers) focusing on the Aeta communities tend
to follow this particular naming to also account for cultural variations (most
notably, in language) for each individual group. Aeta of Magbukun (also
called Aeta of Bataan), Casiguran, Dumagat Agta, Aeta of Zambales (also
called Aeta of Mt. Pinatubo), Aeta of San Mariano Isabela, and Agta of
Lamika, are some of the Aeta communities in the Philippine archipelago.

Ancestral lands

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 Aetas are found in Zambales, Tarlac, Pampanga, Panay, Bataan,
and Nueva Ecija, but were forced to move to resettlement areas in
Pampanga and Tarlac following the devastating Mount Pinatubo eruption in
June 1991.

Some Aeta communities have received government land titles

recognizing their claims to their ancestral lands.

A total of 454 Aeta families in Floridablanca, Pampanga, received their

Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) on May 27, 2009. The title
covers 7,440.10 hectares in San Marcelino and Brgy. Batiawan in Zambales
and barangays Mawakat and Nabuklod in Floridablanca. [ It was the first time
clean ancestral domain titles were distributed by the National Commission on
Indigenous Peoples.

Lifestyle

The Aeta are nomadic and build only temporary shelters made of sticks
driven to the ground and covered with the palm of banana leaves. The more
modernized Aetas have moved to villages and areas of cleared mountains.
They live in houses made of bamboo and cogon grass.

Mining, deforestation, illegal logging, and slash-and-burn farming have

caused the indigenous population in the country to steadily decrease to the
point where they number only in the thousands today. The Philippine
government affords them little or no protection, and the Aeta have become
extremely nomadic due to social and economic strain on their culture and
way of life that had previously remained unchanged for thousands of years.

As hunter-gatherers, adaptation plays an important role in Aeta

communities to survive. This often includes gaining knowledge about the
tropical forest that they live in, the typhoon cycles that travel through their
area, and other seasonal weather changes that affect the behavior of the
flora and fauna in their location.[12] Another important survival skill is
storytelling. Like many other hunter-gatherer societies, the Aeta promote

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social values, such as cooperation, through stories. Thus, they highly value
skilled storytellers.

Dry season for many Aeta communities means intense work. They not
only hunt and fish more, the start of the dry season also
means swiddening the land for future harvest. While the clearing of land is
done by both men and women, Aeta women tend to do most of the
harvesting. During this period, they also do business transactions with non-
Aeta communities living around the vicinity they temporarily settled in either
to sell the food they gathered, or to work as temporary farmers or field
laborers. Aeta women play more active roles in business transactions with
non-Aeta communities, mostly as traders and agricultural workers for
lowland farmers.[ While dry season typically means bountiful food for Aetas,
rainy season (which often falls in the Philippines between September and
December) often provides the opposite experience, considering the
difficulties of traversing flooded and wet forests for hunting and gathering.

Aeta communities use different tools in their hunting and gathering

activities. Traditional tools include traps, knives, and bow and arrow, with
different types of arrow points for specialized purposes. Most Aetas are
trained for hunting and gathering at age 15, including Aeta women. While
men and some women typically use the standard bow and arrow, most Aeta
women prefer knives and often hunt with their dogs and in groups to
increase efficiency and for social reasons. [15] Fishing and food gathering are
also done by both males and females. In terms of gender, then, Aeta
communities are more egalitarian in structure and in practice.

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Religion

Indigenous monotheistic religion

There are different views on the dominant character of the Aeta

religion. Those who believe they are monotheistic argue that various Aeta
tribes believe in a supreme being who rules over lesser spirits or deities, with
the Aeta of Mt. Pinatubo worshipping "Apo Na". The Aetas are also animists.
For example, the Pinatubo Aeta believe in environmental spirits. They
believe that good and evil spirits inhabit the environment, such as the spirits
of the river, sea, sky, mountain, hill, valley and other places.

Indigenous polytheistic religion

There are four manifestations of the "great creator" who rules the world:
Tigbalog is the source of life and action; Lueve takes care of production and
growth; Amas moves people to pity, love, unity, and peace of heart; while
Binangewan is responsible for change, sickness, and death.

 Gutugutumakkan – The Supreme Being and Great Creator who have

four manifestations, namely, Tigbalog, Lueve, Amas, and Binangewan.
 Kedes - The god of the hunt.
 Pawi - The god of the forest.
 Sedsed - The god of the sea

Art

A traditional form of visual art is body scarification. The Aetas intentionally

wound the skin on their back, arms, breast, legs, hands, calves and
abdomen, and then they irritate the wounds with fire, lime and other means
to form scars.

Other "decorative disfigurements" include the chipping of the teeth. With the
use of a file, the Dumagat modify their teeth during late puberty. The teeth
are dyed black a few years afterwards.

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 The Aetas generally use ornaments typical of people living in
subsistence economies. Flowers and leaves are used as earplugs for certain
occasions. Girdles, necklaces, and neckbands of braided rattan incorporated
with wild pig bristles are frequently worn.

Aetas used to be very resourceful with their surroundings. They would

resort to hunting, fishing, gathering, or foraging in getting their food,
generously possible in their area. The Aetas' basic strategy in food
subsistence was to acquire their food through different possible means and
techniques. In fishing, for instance, they could use the method of angtoko
(water goggle) and biste (short iron spear) type, or the mamalah type where
Aetas built dams by putting big stones in the stream, causing the stream
branch out and making fishing easier (Shimizu, 1992). In hunting for bird
game, they used different kinds of arrows for particular birds (Brosius, 1990).
They would also search for wild yams, bananas, insects, wild pigs and even
bats; all of which became their main sources of food. According to one Aeta
interviewed by Shimizu (2001), "food was never hard to find in the
mountains"

When the Aetas were introduced to swidden agriculture or the

"slashand-burn" technique, they had become very knowledgeable in planting
crops, to the extent that they knew exactly the best time to plant and
harvest the crops. A swidden site, usually located near an Aeta village, was
cleared first sometime between January and February and then left to dry for
two to three months before burning (Shimizu, 1992). After the site was
burned, the field would be planted with root crops, sweet potatoes, yams,
taros, cassavas, cornbeans, and rice (Shimizu, 1992).

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 LESSON: INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PALAWAN

Palawan is the largest province in the Philippines and is home

to several indigenous ethnolinguistic groups such as
the Tagbanua, Palaw’an, Tao’t Bato, Molbog, Batak, Agutaynen,
and Cuyonon.
These groups of people live in remote villages throughout the province
that are found in mountains and coastal areas. According to the province’s
history, the ancestors of these indigents have occupied Palawan long before
the Malay settlers from the Majapahit Empire of Indonesia arrived in the area
during the 12th century.
In the year 1962, a team of anthropologists from the Philippine National
Museum unearthed various fossils at the Lipuun Point which is now
commonly known as the Tabon Cave in the municipality of Quezon in
Palawan.

The team which was led by Dr. Robert Fox was able to discover the
remains of Homo Sapiens that are believed to be 22, 000 to 24, 000 years
old during that time. Those remains were then named “Tabon Man” and
were, then, used for further study. The discovery of the Tabon Man and the
fossils found in the cave gave way for Palawan to earn the title “The Cradle
of Philippine Civilization”.
According to Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Ferdinand Magellan,
the remnant of Magellan’s fleet landed in Palawan after Magellan’s death.
They were able to observe the way of life of the native people who
were populating in Palawan at that time. In his writings, he highlighted how
cultivated the fields are in the said province and that all the native people
used weapons consisting of blowpipes, spears and bronze Lombard.
Pigafetta also mentioned the experiences he had such as witnessing
cockfighting and fistfighting. He also discovered that the natives had their

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own system of writing which is composed of 13 consonants and three
vowels and that they had a dialect of 18 syllables.
He also included that the local King in Palawan during that time has 10
scribes who wrote down the King’s dictation on the leaves.
These natives that were mentioned by Pigafetta were probably the
Tabon Man that was discovered by Dr. Fox. According to research, it is very
likely that the Tagbanuas and the Palaw’ans are descendants of the
Tabon Cave’s inhabitants. It was further explained that these tribes have
similarities when it comes to their language, farming methods, and a
common belief in soul relatives.
At present, many groups of indigents have moved into Palawan,
however, the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples only
acknowledge seven of these groups of people as true native of Palawan.
[Link] tribe

The Batak tribe is a group of indigenous people who live in the rugged
interiors of the northeast portion of the province of Palawan. These group
of people lives close to nature and are extremely peaceful and
shy. They believe in nature spirits with whom they communicate with
through the aid of a “babaylan” or a shaman.

At present, there are only about 500, or less, Batak people remaining in the
Philippines.

The Bataks are also called Tinitianes and are considered by

anthropologists to be closely related to the Aytas of Central Luzon, another
Negrito tribe. They are described as people who tend to be small in stature
and has a dark complexion, they also have short curly, mostly kinky,
hair – traits that earned the “Negrito” groups of their name.
However, there are still debates as to whether the Bataks are related to the
other Negrito groups of the Philippines or to other physically similar groups in
Indonesia or as far as the Andaman Islands.

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 For centuries, the Bataks have combined a hunting-gathering kind of
lifestyle with seeding of useful food plants, kaingin – a slash and burn
farming method, and trading. It is believed that they may have already had
trading relations with Chinese merchants as early as 500 AD.
During mid to late 20th century, Bataks were pushed out of their gathering
grounds which was by the sea and was forced to move into the
mountains by emigrant farmers who were mostly from Luzon. Living in less
fertile areas, they attempted to supplement their income by harvesting and
selling various nontimber forest products such as rattan, tree resins, and
honey.

This was, however, resisted by the government and commercial

collectors who claim that the Bataks have no legal right to the
resources that they are utilizing. Conservationists, on the other hand, have
taken interest in the collection methods of the Bataks which are more
sustainable than the techniques used by commercial concessionaires.
Bataks were once nomadic people but this changed when the government
has given a small village for them. Still, they often go to gathering trips
that would take them a few days at a time, a practice that has both
economic and spiritual value to them.
Bataks are animist – they believe that spirits reside within nature. The
Bataks make a regular offering to these spirits, while Shamans undergo
spiritual possessions in order to communicate with the spirits and to heal the
sick.
These days, “pure” Bataks or those whos parents both belong to the Batak
tribe have become highly rare due to the incursion by immigrants and
the exposure of the tribe to the society.
Most Bataks would prefer marrying a person outside of the
tribe and will, later on, have children who will choose not to go by the norms
of the tribe. As an effect, Bataks are being absorbed into a more diffuse
group of upland indigenous peoples who are slowly losing their tribal

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identities, their unique spirituality and culture, there are even debates as to
whether these people still exist as a distinct ethnic entity or not.
[Link]

This indigenous group is most likely to be found in the northern part of the
province of Palawan such as Agutaya Island, Municipality of Roxas,
Municipality of San Vicente, Municipality of Brooke’s Point, Municipality of
Taytay, and Linapacan. They may also be occasionally spotted in Manila, the
capital city of the Philippines.

These groups of people are believed to belong to the family of

Austronesians and Malayo-Polynesians whose have a long inhabited the
province of Palawan. They have lexical similarity with Cuyonon and the
Calamian Tagbanua, who are also indigents in Palawan.
Agutaynens, however, does not have much information and exposure to the
public since there are only a few of them and there are almost no records
about this group due to the separation of their area to the mainland of the
province of Palawan. According to recent reports, this group of people has
also begun embracing modernization.

[Link]

As mentioned earlier, the Tagbanuas are believed to be descendants

of the Tabon Man due to the many similarities that they have when it comes
to language, alphabet, the practice of kaingin, and a common belief in soul
relatives.
This tribe is found mostly in the Central and Northern portion of
Palawan. They practice shifting cultivation of upland rice which is
considered as a divine gift, they are also known for their rice wine ritual
called “Pagdiwata”. The cult of the dead is the key to the religious system of
the Tagbanua, who also believe in countless deities found in the natural
environment.

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 The Tagbanua is one of the oldest ethnic groups in the Philippines
that can be mainly found in the municipalities of Aborlan, Quezon, Calamians
Islands, Baras Coast, Busuanga Island, Coron Island, in some parts of El Nido,
and even Puerto Princesa City.
Tagbanua are brown skinned people with slim and erect stature and
has straight hair.
This ethnic group is divided into two groups;

A. Central Tagbanua and

B. Calamian Tagbanua.

The two groups speak different languages and do not exactly have similar
customs.

Tagbanuas live in compact villages of 45 to 500 individuals. In 1987,

there are about 130,000 Tagbanuas living in Palawan, at present, however, it
dropped to only around 10,000, 1, 800 of which are located in Calamianes.
Tagbanuas have their own unique government system that is being practiced
by both the Central Tagbanuas and the Calamian Tagbanua.

4. MOLBOGS
The Molbogs are indigents in the province of Palawan who is believed
to be among the migrants from North Borneo and is now living in
the Balabac Island in Palawan. Referred as Molebugan or Molebuganori in
many literary works, Molbogs do a lot of farming, fishing, and occasional
barter trading with the Sulu Bangsa Moro and nearby Sabah market centers
as means of their subsistence.
Molbogs are believed to be related to the Orang Tidung or
Tirum (Camucone in Spanish) as based on their dialect and I some of their

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socio-cultural practices. Orang Tidung is an Islamized indigenous group that
lives in the northeast coast of Sabah. However, words from other ethnic
groups such as the Jama Mapun and the Tausug are also found in the dialect
of the Molbogs. This, together with their socio-cultural lifestyle, distinguished
them from Orang Tidung.
The intermarriages that occurred frequently between the Molbogs
and the Tausugs have hastened the Islamization of the Molbogs. The
offsprings of these intermarriages are known as “kolibugan which means
half-breed. The Sulu Sultanate in the Philippines’ political periphery was also
formed from the unification of the Molbogs and the Palawanon Muslims who
were then ruled by Sulu Datus.
Like all Muslim groups, Islam is a way of life for the Molbogs. They
observe the Five Pillars of Islam and the basic Arabic chanting that may be
heard daily in a Molbog community. In the past, there have already been two
groups who tried to reach these people, one in the year 1975 and the other
in 1982.
Both groups were accepted as medical and literacy volunteers. Any
outsiders who want to bring religion to the community, however, is not
welcome.

5. The Palaw’an

The Palaw’an, also known as Palawano, is an indigenous ethnic group found

in the province of Palawan. This group is divided into four ethnolinguistic
subgroups namely; Quezon Palawan (also known as the Central Palawano),
Bugsuk Palawano (South Palawano), Brooke’s Point Palawano, and Southwest
Palawano.
This indigenous group belongs to large Manobo-based linguistic groups of the
southern Philippines. They were originally found in the interior regions of
South Apuruan on the West Coast and South of Abo-Abo on the East Coast,
these regions may be located in the Southern part of the province of

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Palawan. The Palaw’ans have become popularly known as Palawans which is
pronounced faster than the name of the province.

The Palaw’ans were originally nomadic, however, agrarian settlers began

coming and occupying their vast domain. The tribe used to exploit the most
fertile piece of land and move on to the next one; their family units were
very small which was probably caused by high mortality rates.
They built their houses on a hillside that is close to a river or a stream
using four skinny trunks of trees. The floor of their houses is about 15 to 20
feet above the ground. Members of the family used a slanted log that is
attached to the entrance of their houses to get up and down the house, for
those who were not married, a hanging rope is more preferred.
They hunt wild animals using spears with lethal poison at the tip of it and
catch fish by using a special root sap that is diluted in a shallow river or
stream. The Palaw’ans hardly domesticate chickens nor hogs, they preferred
dogs which comes very helpful during hunting.
They are considered naïve when it comes to socialization and would always
welcome outsiders with great precaution since they have always been scared
of getting sick; this form of precaution makes them abandon their area
immediately to avoid acquiring any form of the disease – even just a
common cold.

It is believed that the Palaw’ans have the shortest lifespan of all peoples
but there is no statistical data that could back up this claim. This tribe has no
concept of years when asked about when they were born, they would usually
use a tree as the reference of their age, saying that they were born when the
tree was just at a certain height.
The men in this tribe wear g-strings while the women wear patadyong which
is a native wrap that is similar to the malong.
In food preference, the Palaw’ans do not usually use salt, their usual diet is
composed of rice, banana, cassava, vegetables, rimas or breadfruit, fruits,

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wild pigs from hunting, birds such as wild quails and tikling, wild chicken /
labuyo, and freshwater fish.

They prepare a delicious delicacy called the pinyaram which is closely similar
to the bibingka of the Tagalogs.

Tao’t Bato
The term “Tao’t Bato” literally means “people of the rock”, they are
not actually a separate language or a separate ethnic group but rather a
small community of traditional southwestern Palawanos who happen to live
in the crater of an extinct volcano during certain seasons of the year, their
houses are built on raised floors inside caves though others have set their
homes on the open slopes.
These group of people is found in the Singnapan Basin, a valley in
Mount Matalingahan on the east and the coast of the west; in their, North is
the municipality of Quezon while to their South are still unexplored regions of
Palawan.

They have preserved their culture and way of life, the men still
wear g-strings that are made from bark and cloth while the women wear a
piece of cloth that is made into skirts to cover their lower body. Like many
tribes, this group of people is half naked but sometimes, women wore a
blouse that they obtain from the market system.
Their artistry is cruder than any of the other Palawan tribes except in
rare cases that involve basketry. Around cave dwellings, they construct a
light and sturdy lattice-work made of saplings lashed together and anchored
fast to crevices in the walls to provide access to the caves. The construction
of these lattice-works does not depend on any framework that would hold
the unit against the walls; the anchorage is distributed all along the lattice-
work in a way that the breakdown of one section may be compensated for by
the other portions of the construction. There are modifications and
elaborations on the basic “datag” or sleeping platforms, and “lagkaw” or
granary, depending on the varying conditions there is in various caves.

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 The Tao’t Bato are swidden cultivators who practice multiple
cropping with cassava as their major source of carbohydrates. They also
produce sweet potatoes, sugar canes, malunggay, garlic, pepper, string
beans, squash, tomato, pineapple, and many others. Throughout the year,
hunting and forging are pursued to complement the carbohydrate diet of the
people; most of the wild pigs that they are hunt are caught through spring
traps.
They also indulge the “samb” or barter, and “dagang” or monetary
exchange. The samb is specifically for marine fish that is provided for them
by the Candawaga in exchange for horticultural products while the dagang
involves forest products like almaciga and rattan.

The basic social unit among the Tao’t Bato is the ka-asawan or
marriage group. This extends to the basic couple to the more complex
arrangements of a compound and extended family grouping. The ka-asawan
is further grouped into large associations called “bulun-bulun” which means
gathering. These multi-household bands are physically bounded in terms of
areas of habitation. Each bulun-bulun normally occupies one cave or a single
house complex in the swidden area for their residence. Being part of the
bulun-bulun is characterized by the ecosystem of sharing through different
types of social and material exchanges such as in food.
Because of their uniqueness, the Philippine government declared their
area off-limits to strangers to protect them from unreasonable
exploitation.

[Link]
The Cuyunon refers to an ethnic group that dwells in the municipality
of Cuyo, northern, and in central Palawan. The Cuyunons are originally from
Cuyo and the surrounding Cuyo Islands that is found in Sulu Sea, in the
northern portion of Palawan.

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 This group of indigents is considered as an “elite class” among the
hierarchy of the natives who live in Palawan. During the Spanish colonization
in the Philippines, Cuyo was one of the territories of Palawan that had the
strongest Spanish presence.
Known as Cuyonon, Cuyono, Cuyunon, Kuyunon, Kuyunen, and many
others, this ethnic tribe in Palawan geography is the most dominant tribal
group in this region – composed of about 240,000 people as recorded for the
year 2015; although scattered all over the world, 85% of them permanently
resides in the province of Palawan. They originated genetically and
linguistically from Panay Island in the central Philippines since 1250 AD but
they have Malayan roots from the Banjarmasin in Borneo Island 1,000 years
ago.

The Cuyono of tody is usually a Roman Catholic, Christian Protestants,

and Animists with strong Spanish adaptations. The Cuyunon Tribe, unlike
most of the Philippines’ homogeneous tribal groups, is a heterogeneous
tribe, their ancestors could be traced back to the ancient migrants and
traders who settled down in Palawan like the Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Indians,
Malays, Vishayans, Spanish and other Europeans.
Although the language of the Cuyunons is closely related to the Kinaray-a
of Miag-ao in Iloilo province, the fact remains that as early as 1250’s, the
early Cuyunon tribe became the common denominator of all the
homogeneous tribes of Palawan because they always intermarry with the
Bataks, Tagbanuas, Agutaynens, Molbogs, and other tribes that live in
Palawan.

Cuyunons are divided into four subgroups which distinguish one

Cuyunon from the other.
1. Paraguanen – the Cuyuno people who settled mostly in the mainland
Palawan (Paragua)

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 2. Poroanen – the Cuyuno people who settled mostly in the islands and
islets of Palawan
3. Mestiso – the Cuyuno who usually are half Chinese or Spanish
4. Lakto – the Cuyuno who did not accept Catholicism and lived as
Animists.
Cuyunons, unlike the other tribes in Palawan, may be seen anywhere in
the province and even in the city of Puerto Princesa. They are the ones who
have embraced modernization and have utilized it in their daily lives,
making it hard to identify them when they are in public unless you ask them
about their ethnicity.
.

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 Unit 4: INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN VISAYAS AND MINDANAO

Lesson 1

THE BADJAO

The Sama-Bajau refers to several Austronesian ethnic

groups of Maritime Southeast Asia with their origins from the
southern Philippines. The name collectively refers to related people who
usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A'a Sama, "Sama
people");[ or are known by the exonym Baja also
spelled Badjao, Bajaw, Badjau, Badjaw, Bajo or Bayao). They usually live
a seaborne lifestyle, and use small wooden sailing vessels such as
the perahu (layag in Meranau), djenging (balutu), lepa,
and vinta (pilang). Some Sama-Bajau groups native to Sabah are also known
for their traditional horse culture.

The Sama-Bajau are the dominant ethnic group of the islands of Tawi-
Tawi in the Philippines. They are also found in other islands of the Sulu
Archipelago, coastal areas of Mindanao, northern and
eastern Borneo, Sulawesi, and throughout eastern Indonesian islands. In the
Philippines, they are grouped together with the religiously-similar Moro
people. Within the last fifty years, many of the Filipino Sama-Bajau have
migrated to neighbouring Malaysia and the northern islands of the
Philippines, due to the conflict in Mindanao. As of 2010, they were the
second-largest ethnic group in the Malaysian state of Sabah.

Sama-Bajau have sometimes been called the "Sea Gypsies" or "Sea

Nomads", terms that have also been used for non-related ethnic groups
with similar traditional lifestyles, such as the Moken of the Burmese-
Thai Mergui Archipelago and the Orang laut of southeastern Sumatra and
the Riau Islands of Indonesia. The modern outward spread of the Sama-Bajau
from older inhabited areas seems to have been associated with the
development of sea trade in sea cucumber (trepang).

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 For most of their history, the Sama-Bajau have been a nomadic,
seafaring people, living off the sea by trading and subsistence fishing. The
boat-dwelling Sama-Bajau see themselves as non-aggressive people. They
kept close to the shore by erecting houses on stilts, and travelled using lepa,
handmade boats which many lived in.

Sama-Bajau were first recorded by European explorers in 1521

by Antonio Pigafetta of the Magellan-Elcano expedition in what is now
the Zamboanga Peninsula. Pigafetta writes that the "people of that island
make their dwellings in boats and do not live otherwise".

Sama-Bajau were often widely mentioned in connection to sea

raids (mangahat), piracy and the slave trade in Southeast Asia during the
European colonial period, indicating that at least some Sama-Bajau groups
from northern Sulu (e.g. the Banguingui) were involved, along with non-
Sama-Bajau groups like the Iranun. The scope of their pirate activities was
extensive, commonly sailing from Sulu to as far as Moluccas and back again.

Sama-Bajau are generally regarded as peaceful, hospitable, and

cheerful people, despite their humble circumstances. However, a significant
number are also illiterate, uneducated, and impoverished, due to their
nomadic lifestyle.

The Sama-Bajau in the Sulu Archipelago were historically discriminated

against by the dominant Tausūg people, who viewed boat-dwelling Sama-
Bajau as 'inferior' and as outsiders (the traditional Tausūg term for them is
the highly offensive Luwaan, meaning "spat out" or "outcast"). They were
also marginalised by other Moro peoples because they still
practised animist folk religions either exclusively or alongside Islam, and thus
were viewed as "uncivilised pagans".

In the Philippines, the Sama-Bajau can be divided into three general groups
based on where they settle:

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 Sama Bihing or Sama Lipid – The "shoreline Sama" or "littoral Sama".
These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in stilt houses in
shallows and coastal areas. An example is the Sama Simunul. They are
originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi. They have a more flexible
lifestyle than the Sama-Gimba (Dilaut Origin), and will farm when there is
available land. They usually act as middlemen in trade between the Sama
Dilaut and other land-based peoples.
 Sama Dea, Sama Deya, or Sama Darat – The "land Sama". These are
the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in island interiors. Some
examples are the Sama Sibutu and the Sama Sanga-Sanga. They are
usually farmers who cultivate rice, sweet potato, cassava,
and coconuts for copra through traditional slash-and-burn agriculture (in
contrast to the plow agriculture technology brought by the Tausūg). They
are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi and Pangutaran. In the
Philippines, the Sama Dea will often completely differentiate themselves
from the Sama Dilaut
 Sama Dilaut, Sama Mandilaut, Sama Pala'u, or Bajau Laut – The
"sea Sama" or "ocean Sama". In the Philippines, the preferred ethnonym
is Sama Dilaut;] while in Malaysia, they usually identify as Bajau Laut. This
subgroup originally lived exclusively on elaborately crafted houseboats
called lepa, but almost all have taken to living on land in the Philippines.
Their home islands include Sitangkai and BongaoThey are the Sama-
Bajau subgroup most commonly called "Bajau", though Filipino Sama
Dilaut consider it offensiveThey sometimes call themselves the "Sama
To'ongan" (literally "true Sama" or "real Sama"), to distinguish
themselves from the land-dwelling Sama-Bajau subgroups.

The following are subgroups which do not self-identify as Sama, although

they are culturally related to the Sama people and speak a Sama-Bajaw
language:

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 Abaknon (Philippines) - a subgroup from Capul, Northern Samar in
the Visayas Islands that speak the Abaknon language. They were
colonized and converted to Christianity early by the Spanish and today
are culturally Visayan.
 Jama Mapun (Philippines) – sometimes known by the exonyms 'Sama
Mapun", "Sama Kagayan", or "Bajau Kagayan". They are from the island
of Mapun, Tawi-Tawi (formerly known as Cagayan de Sulu). Their culture
is heavily influenced by the Sulu Sultanate. [63] They are relatively isolated
and do not usually consider themselves as Sama.
 Yakan (Philippines) – Found in the mountainous interior of the island
of Basilan. Though they may have been the ancestors of the Sama-Bajau,
they have become linguistically and culturally distinct and are usually
regarded as a separate ethnic group. They are exclusively land-based and
are usually farmers.[31] Yakan are also a horse-riding culture, similar to the
West Coast Bajau. They are renowned for their weaving traditions. [64] They
resisted Tausug rule during the early formation of the Sulu Sultanate,
eventually gaining recognition as a separate political entity. They are only
partially Islamized, with a significant minority retaining
indigenous anito beliefs or practicing Folk Islam. Main article: Yakan
people.
Religion can vary among the Sama-Bajau subgroups; from a strict
adherence to Sunni Islam, forms of folk Islam (itself influenced by Sufi
traditions of early Muslim missionaries), to animistic beliefs in spirits and
ancestor worship. There is a small minority of Catholics and Protestants,
particularly from Davao del Sur in the Philippines.

Music, dance, and arts

Sama-Bajau traditional songs are handed down orally through
generations. The songs are usually sung during marriage celebrations
(kanduli pagkawin), accompanied by dance (pang-igal) and musical
instruments like pulau (flute), gabbang (xylophone), tagunggo' (kulintang

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gongs), biula (violin), and in modern times, electronic keyboards.[28] There
are several types of Sama-Bajau traditional songs, they include: isun-
isun, runsai, najat, syair, nasid, bua-bua anak, and tinggayun.

Among the more specific examples of Sama-Bajau songs are three love
songs collectively referred to as Sangbayan. These are Dalling
Dalling, Duldang Duldang, and Pakiring Pakiring.[28] The most well-known of
these three is Pakiring Pakiring (literally "moving the hips"), which is more
familiar to the Tausūg in its commercialised and modernised form Dayang
Dayang. The Tausūg claim that the song is native to their culture, and
whether the song is originally Tausūg or Sama-Bajau remain controversial.
[28]
Most Sama-Bajau folk songs are becoming extinct, largely due to the
waning interest of the younger generations.]

Sama-Bajau people are also well known for weaving, needlework skills,
and their association with tagonggo music.

In visual arts, Sama-Bajau have an ancient tradition of carving and

sculpting known as okil (also okil-okil or ukkil). These were used to decorate
houseboats and animistic ritual objects. They were used most prominently
for Sama grave markers which are found in the ancient traditional burial
grounds of the Sama people in some (usually uninhabited) islands of Sulu
and Tawi-Tawi. These include some of the oldest examples of okil, which are
usually carved from coral and limestone. Wooden carved grave markers are
common later on, usually made from or carved from the boat belonging to
the deceased. These are usually carved into human figures that represent
the deceased. These graves are often decorated with buntings and food
offerings, reflecting the ancient ancestor worship (anito) traditions of the
Sama. Okil later inspired the very similar okir traditions of the Maranao
people.

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 Lesson 2

THE LUMAD CULTURES OF MINDANAO

Lumad is a collective term, used since 1986, for a large number of

indigenous peoples of the Mindanao island group in the Southern Philippines.
The lumad population in Mindanao is about half the total population of all
indigenous groups in the Philippines.

The 18 major lumad ethnolinguistic groupings are the Bagobo,

Banwaon, Blaan, Bukidnon, Dibabawon, Higaonon, Mamanwa, Mandaya,
Mangguwangan, Manobo, Mansaka, Matigsalug, Subanen,
Tagakaolo, Talaandig, Tboli, Teduray, and Ubo.

Lumad are distinct from the Moro (indigenous Islamic) tribes, which
include about 14 sub-groups concentrated in western Mindanao. Lumad are
also distinct from the indigenous groups which are based in Mindanao but
rooted in Visayan culture.

Lumad are found throughout Mindanao, in remote mountainous areas

and valleys, in low-lying plains, and in coastal areas. Over the years, the
Lumad have nurtured and protected their traditional ancestral lands, and
their individual cultures. Lumad culture is rich and diverse, with a wide range
of languages, chants, rituals, dances, and other traditions.
The use of the collective term Lumad resulted from a desire among
Mindanao’s indigenous minorities to free themselves from the derogatory
labels and names otherwise attributed to them, such as paganos (pagans) or
nitibo (natives). In 1999, historian Rudy Rodil wrote:

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 “The name Lumad grew out of the political awakening among them
during the martial law regime of President Ferdinand Marcos. In June 1986,
representatives from 15 tribes agreed to adopt a common name in a
congress which also established Lumad Mindanao. This is the first time in
their history that these tribes have agreed to a common name for
themselves, distinct from the Moros and from the migrant majority.

Lumad is a Cebuano word meaning indigenous. The choice of a

Cebuano word may be a bit ironic -- Cebuano is the language of the natives
of Cebu in the Visayas -- but they deemed it to be most appropriate
considering that the various tribes do not have any other common language
among themselves except Cebuano. Lumad Mindanao, the organization, is
no longer intact, but the name remains and is, from all indications, gaining
more adherents.

Lumad-Mindanao's main objective was to achieve self-determination

for their member tribes, meaning self-government within their ancestral
domains and in accordance with their customary laws under the sovereignty
of the Republic. The decision to have a common name was crucial and
historic. This was a first in Lumad history.”
The Lumad of Mindanao encompass many different indigenous cultures
of the Philippines. These cultures offer a rare window into the everyday life
and the precolonial cultures of the Philippines

Bagobo

The Bagobo are one of the largest subgroups of the Manobo peoples.
They comprise three subgroups: the Tagabawa, the Klata (or Guiangan), and
the Ovu (also spelled Uvu or Ubo) peoples. The Bagobo were formerly
nomadic and farmed through kaingin (slash-and-burn) methods. Their
territory extends from the Davao Gulf to Mt. Apo. They are traditionally ruled

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by chieftains (matanum), a council of elders (magani), and female shamans
(mabalian). The supreme spirit in their indigenous anito religions is
Eugpamolak Manobo or Manama.

They are referred to as ethnic because they are the people whose
distinctive identity is rooted in history. From the beginning and up to the
present, the Bagobo are the predominant inhabitants of the vast areas
extending from the west coast of Davao Gulf to the high reaches of Davao’s
famous and significant mountain ranges of Mt. Apo or Apo Sandawa to the
tribal people.
Apo Sandawa happens to be the sacred grounds of the Bagobo since
time immemorial, valued as one among the group’s richest cultural
heritage. It is the homeland of the world-known Philippine eagle as well.
Today, changes can be easily observed and it is due to the influences of
foreign cultures such as those of the Spaniards, Japanese, Americans and
other neighboring countries. Lately, the existence and encounters between
the CPP-NPA, the military forces and other armed groups in their ancestral
domain/lands forced them to adapt and accept realities surrounding them in
their struggle for survival.
These encounters also ended or drastically diminished some of the
traditions, beliefs and practices and even the culture itself.
Its political structure was composed of the Chieftains called “Matanum,”
the Council of Elders, the Magani’s, the Babaylans and the slaves called “Al-
lang” in the native dialect. The Datu can have as many wives as he can but
upon the recommendation and approval of the first wife. In marriage, age is
not an issue for as long as arrangements and settlements are reached,
agreed upon and complied with by both parties. All conflicts and problems
are finally addressed and resolved by the Chieftain with the Council of
Elders.
Bagobo Handicrafts

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 Food is abundant enough to be able to supply the community for the
next harvest season. the weavers are able to supply the needs for clothing.
In fact, a Bagobo weaver, Salinta Monon, won this years’ Gawad sa
Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA) for her handloom weaving, a proof of the
Bagobo artistry and craftsmanship. Environmental preservations and
utilization of natural resources are properly dealt with by the people
according to their tradition, practices and culture.
Blaan
The Blaan people, alternatively spelled as "B'laan," are one of
the indigenous peoples of Southern Mindanao in the Philippines. Their name
could have derived from "bla" meaning "opponent" and the suffix "an"
meaning "people." Other terms used to refer to this group are Blaan, Bira-an,
Baraan, Vilanes, and Bilanes.
The Blaan are neighbors of the Tboli, and live in Lake Sebu and Tboli
municipalities of South Cotabato, Sarangani, General Santos City, the
southeastern part of Davao and around Lake Buluan in North Cotabato. They
are famous for their brassworks, beadwork, and tabih weave. The people of
these tribes wear colorful embroidered native costumes and beadwork
accessories. The women of these tribes, particularly, wear heavy brass belts
with brass "tassels" ending in tiny brass bells that herald their approach.

Weaving tradition

The Blaans have a system of weaving using abaca fiber. The art of abaca
weaving is called mabal or mabal tabih, while the cloth produced by this
process is called the tabih.

Blaan weavers do not use spinning wheels. Instead, they join together by
hand strands of the abaca fiber, which are then used to weave the tabih. Fu
Yabing Dulo is one of two surviving master designers left of the mabal
tabih art of ikat weaving.

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Brass and copper work and beadwork

The Blaan have a tradition of creating art from brass and copper. The
Blaan smelt brass and copper to produce small bells and handles of long
knives. These knives, called the fais, are made with intricately designed
brass.

The Blaan also sew plastic beads or shell sequins to create intricate
designs on women's blouses and trousers, called the takmon. Geometric and
other designs depicting the environment or the solar system are sewn using
cotton yarns onto men's pants and shirts, called the msif.

Bukidnon
The colorful Kaamulan Festival celebrated annually in Malaybalay City

The Bukidnon are one of the seven tribes in

the Bukidnon plateau of Mindanao. Bukidnon means 'that of the mountains
or highlands' (i.e., 'people of the mountains or highlands'), despite the fact
that most Bukidnon tribes settle in the lowlands.

The name Bukidnon itself used to describe the entire province in a

different context (it means 'mountainous lands' in this case) or could also be
the collective name of the permanent residents in the province regardless of
ethnicity.

The Bukidnon people believe in one god, Magbabaya (Ruler of All),

though there are several minor gods and goddesses that they worship as
well. Religious rites are presided by a baylan whose ordination is voluntary
and may come from any sex. The Bukidnons have rich musical and oral
traditions[8] which are celebrated annually in Malaybalay city's Kaamulan
Festival, with other tribes in Bukidnon (the Manobo tribes, the Higaonon,
Matigsalug, Talaandig, Umayamnom, and the Tigwahanon).

The Bukidnon Lumad is distinct from and should not be confused with
the Visayan Suludnon people of Panay and a few indigenous peoples

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scattered in the Visayas area who are also alternatively referred to as
"Bukidnon" (also meaning "highland people").

Higaonon

The Higaonon is located on the provinces of Bukidnon, Agusan del

Sur, Misamis Oriental, Camiguin (used to be Kamiguing), Rogongon in Iligan
City, and Lanao del Norte. The Higaonons have a rather traditional way of
living. Farming is the most important economic activity.

The word Higaonon is derived from the word "Higad" in the Higaonon
dialect which means coastal plains and "Gaon" meaning ascend to the
mountains. Taken together, Higaonon, means the people of the coastal
plains that ascended to the mountains. Higaonons were formerly coastal
people of the provinces as mentioned who resisted the Spanish occupation.
Driven to the hills and mountains these people continued to exist and fought
for the preservation of the people, heritage and culture.

Kalagan

Also spelled "K'lagan" or (by the Spanish) "Caragan", is a subroup of

the Mandaya-Mansaka people who speak the Kalagan language. They
comprise three subgroups which are usually treated as different tribes: the
Tagakaulo, , Compostela Valley, Davao del Norte (including Samal
Island), Davao Oriental, and North Cotabato; between the territories of
the Blaan people and the coastline. The Caraga region is named after them.
Their name means "spirited people" or "brave people", from kalag, ("spirit"
or "soul"). They were historically composed of small warring groups.

Kamigin
A subgroup of the Manobo people from the island of Camiguin. They
speak the Kamigin language and are closely related to the Manobo groups
from Surigao del Norte.

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Mamanwa

The Mamanwa is a Negrito tribe often grouped together with the

Lumad. They come from Leyte, Agusan del Norte, and Surigao provinces in
Mindanao; primarily in Kitcharao and Santiago, Agusan del Norte, though
they are lesser in number and more scattered and nomadic than the
Manobos and Mandaya tribes who also inhabit the region. Like all Negritos,
the Mamanwas are phenotypically distinct from the lowlanders and the
upland living Manobos, exhibiting curly hair and much darker skin tones.

These peoples are traditionally hunter-gatherers and consume a wide

variety of wild plants, herbs, insects, and animals from tropical rainforest.
The Mamanwa are categorized as having the "negrito" phenotype with dark
skin, kinky hair, and short stature. The origins of this phenotype (found in the
Agta, Ati, and Aeta tribes in the Philippines) are a continued topic of debate,
with recent evidence suggesting that the phenotype convergently evolved in
several areas of southeast Asia.

However, recent genomic evidence suggests that the Mamanwa were

one of the first populations to leave Africa along with peoples in New Guinea
and Australia, and that they diverged from a common origin about 36,000
years ago.

Currently, Mamanwa populations live in sedentary settlements

("barangays") that are close to agricultural peoples and market centers. As a
result, a substantial proportion of their diet includes starch-dense
domesticated foods.[19] The extent to which agricultural products are bought
or exchanged varies in each Mamanwa settlement with some individuals
continuing to farm and produce their own domesticated foods while others
rely on purchasing food from market centers. The Mamanwa have been
exposed to many of the modernities mainstream agricultural populations
possess and use such as cell phones, televisions, radio, processed foods, etc.

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 The political system of the Mamanwa is informally democratic and age-
structured. Elders are respected and are expected to maintain peace and
order within the tribe. The chieftain, called a Tambayon, usually takes over
the duties of counseling tribal members, speaking at gatherings, and
arbitrating disagreements. The chieftain may be a man or a woman, which is
characteristic of other gender-egalitarian hunter-gatherer societies. They
believe in a collection of spirits, which are governed by the supreme
deity Magbabaya, although it appears that their contact with monotheist
communities/populations has made a considerable impact on the
Mamanwa's religious practices. The tribe produce excellent winnowing
baskets, rattan hammocks, and other household containers.

Mamanwa (also spelled Mamanoa) means 'first forest dwellers', from

the words man (first) and banwa (forest). They speak the Mamanwa
language (or Minamanwa). They are genetically related to the Denisovans.

Mandaya

"Mandaya" derives from "man" meaning "first," and "daya" meaning

"upstream" or "upper portion of a river," and therefore means "the first
people upstream". It refers to a number of groups found along the mountain
ranges of Davao Oriental, as well as to their customs, language, and beliefs.
The ethnographic map of the Spanish colonizers shows Mandaya existence in
the present provinces of Davao Oriental, Davao del Norte and Compostella
Valley, and from Tago town of Surigao del Sur and Southern part of Agusan
del Sur. This colorful ethnic group since then have underwent many
influences from neo-political and economic systems. Other sub-groups
emerge with names taken from their locational self-ascriptions. Presently,
the concentration of the Mandaya is in Davao Oriental that lies along the
Pacific Ocean. Cole (1913) avers that Mandaya is the largest tribal unit in
southeastern Mindanao.

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 During the Spanish time, the Davaweno group emerged. These are the
Mandaya converts into Christianity baptized during the 1870’s at the height
of Spanish colonization of the Philippines. The creation of Provincia de
Caraga long before the Davao province during the colonial period provides
the historical and chronological evidence that Davaweños are Mandaya
descendants.
Agriculture is the main source of living. Rice, tubers, and other
cultigens are cultivated in pawa (swidden) farming) along with bananas,
vegetables and root crops. Hunting for wild pig, deer, chicken, monkeys,
lizards, birds and other animals complement farming.
At an early age, children are taught how to hunt using spears and
traps. The Mandaya are freshwater fishing experts. Individual, family and
cooperative fishing are done using several By practice, farming is very much
influenced by deep religiosity. Rites and rituals and other belief practices
with lavish offerings are observed before, during and after farming. Au-yon
(cooperative farming) is a common practice. Post-harvest pasawit (sharing)
is valued to get more blessings the next planting season.
The intimate belief of the Mandaya created a unique blend of nature,
spirits and man. Undoubtedly, the Mandaya have one of the richest cultural
heritage among ethnic groups. They are very close to their families.
Christianized Mandaya still retain some of the past beliefs creating a
syncretic form of religion.
Dagmay, an abaca handwoven cloth with intricate designs revolving
around man and crocodile, is one of the most popular material culture. Its
mud-dyeing technique is believed to be the only one existing in the
Philippines. Interestingly, dagmay weaving has also become a pasttime of
women as they cooperate in tie-designing while making pleasantries. Bayok,
a highly tonal art of delivering messages in the form of figurative speeches,
passages, and even euphemism usually done in pairs and in continuous
answering pattern. Like a debate, each of the bayok artist stands on opposite

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sides. Bayok chanting is indispensable in important celebration and events
like proposal for marriage. settlement of conflicts, welcoming of visitors and
also in common merrymaking. Any topic like funny personal traits, food,
offering of drinks and many more could be derived for a bayok.
Mandaya also has an array of musical rendition. Instruments like
kudlong, a two-stringed zither with only one string with frets, deliver music
with historical, eventful, and important meanings. Kudlong is played before
hunting, staging the deadly pangayao (vendetta killing) or farming. It could
also be for simply entertainment. One popular instrument also is the gimball
or gimbao, a large drum made using deer hide from a doe on one side and
from a stag on the other side to produce different tone and pitch. The drum
is played to accompany the Balyan in her performance in summoning the
spirits. During celebrations, gimbao is indispensable in dances and any
celebration, ritual and assembly. It is played by one of two players. The
Mandaya also plays a meter-long flute called bonabon made of a slender
bamboo. Its music ranges from sentimental to jolly ones with deep emotional
expression. The suding, jew’s harp made of bamboo, add more range to the
music of the Mandaya.

Manobo

Manobo is the hispanicized spelling of the endonym Manuvu (also spelled

Menuvu or Minuvu). Its etymology is unclear; in its current form it means
'person' or 'people'. It is believed that it is derived from the
rootword tuvu which means "to grow"/"growth" (thus Man[t]uvu would be
"[native]-grown" or "aboriginal").

The Manobo are probably the most diverse ethnic groups of the
Philippines in the relationships and names of the groups that belong to this
family of languages. The total current Manobo population is not known,
although they occupy core areas from Sarangani island into the Mindanao
mainland in the regions of Agusan, Davao, Bukidnon, Surigao, Misamis, and
Cotabato. A study by the journal NCCP-PACT put their population in 1988 at

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around 250,000. The groups occupy such a wide area of distribution that
localized groups have assumed the character of distinctiveness as a separate
ethnic grouping such as the Bagobo or the Higaonon, and the Atta.
Depending on specific linguistic points of view, the membership of a dialect
with a supergroup shifts. The Manobo possess Denisovan admixture, much
like the Mamanwa.

Mansaka

The term "Mansaka" derives from "man" with literal meaning "first"
and "saka" meaning "to ascend," and means "the first people to ascend
mountains/upstream." The term most likely describes the origin of these
people who are found today in Davao del Norte and Davao de Oro. and some
parts of Davao Oriental. Specifically in the Batoto River, the Manat Valley,
Caragan, Maragusan, the Hijo River Valley, and the seacoasts of Kingking,
Maco, Kwambog, Hijo, Tagum, Libuganon, Tuganay, Ising, and Panabo.

Matigsalug

Bukidnon groups who are found in the Tigwa-Salug Valley in San

Fernando in Bukidnon province, Philippines. Their name means "people along
the Salug River (now called the Davao River)". Although often classified
under the Manobo ethnolinguistic group, the Matigsalug are a distinct sub-
group.

The Matigsalug, in earlier years, practiced a hunting-and-gathering

lifestyle with minimal agriculture efforts. Very recently, by roberta influence
of migrant farmers and businessmen from northern Philippines and the
island provinces, the Matigsalug shifted to sedentary land cultivation with
more or less permanent villages.

What remains of their earlier lifestyle is now found in their cultural and
artistic expression. This is evidenced by their costume of bright colored mid-
rib blouses and short skirt, and with skillful hunting and gathering

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techniques. This early lifestyle is also shown in their music, songs, dances,
poetry, epic, and spiritual expressions.

The Matigsalug men wear short tight-fitting tine pants that are of knee
secret and are hem and turbans for the head decorated with beads and
fringed with goat's/horse's hair.

Sangil

The Sangil people (also called Sangir, Sangu, Marore, Sangirezen, or

Talaoerezen) are originally from the Sangihe and Talaud Islands (now part
of Indonesia) and parts of Davao Occidental (particularly in the Sarangani
Islands), Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Sultan Kudarat, South Cotabato,
and North Cotabato. Their populations (much like the Sama-Bajau) were
separated when borders were drawn between the Philippines and Indonesia
during the colonial era. The Sangil people are traditionally animistic, much
like other Lumad peoples. During the colonial era, the Sangil (who usually
call themselves "Sangir") in the Sangihe Islands mostly converted
to Protestant Christianity due to proximity and contact with the
Christian Minahasa people of Sulawesi. In the Philippines, most Sangil
converted to Islam due to the influence of the neighboring Sultanate of
Maguindanao. However, elements of animistic rituals still remain. The
Indonesian and Filipino groups still maintain ties and both Manado
Malay and Cebuano are spoken in both Indonesian Sangir and Filipino Sangil,
in addition to the Sangirese language. The exact population of Sangil people
in the Philippines is unknown, but is estimated to be around 10,000 people.

The Sangils are among the 13 Muslim ethnolinguistic groups in the

Philippines and are estimated to number almost 10,000. Although most of its
population is concentrated in Balut and Sarangani islands, some can also be
found living in some coastal region of South Cotabato and Davao del Sur
provinces. They speak a language similar to Bahasa and Tausug and engage
in fishing as a major source of livelihood. A number of old Sangil families can

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trace lineages that go back many centuries, while a handful can trace their
ancestry to Maguindanao or the Buayan Sultanate of Cotabato.

The western side of Mindanao up to the Sulu Archipelago is the core

concentration of the Muslims in the Philippines. Muslim missionaries
introduced Islam and indoctrinated the Sangils, who have been devoted
followers since. Subsequently, Christian proselytizers also visited the island,
compelling the two groups to live harmoniously together for a time. The
Sangils are well known for their expertise in boat making and helped in
uprisings against the Spanish authorities in other regions of the country.
They assisted by donating vessels, weapons, and fighters in clashes.

Subanon

The Subanons are the first settlers of the Zamboanga peninsula. The
family is patriarchal while the village is led by a chief called a Timuay. He
acts as the village judge and is concerned with all communal matters.

History has better words to speak for Misamis Occidental. Its principal
city was originally populated by the Subanon, a cultural group that once
roamed the seas in great number; the province was an easy prey to the
marauding sea pirates of Lanao whose habit was to stage lightning forays
along the coastal areas in search of slaves. As the Subanon retreated deeper
and deeper into the interior, the coastal areas became home to inhabitants
from Bukidnon who were steadily followed by settlers from nearby Cebu and
Bohol.

Tagakaulo

Tagakaulo is one of the tribes in Mindanao. Their traditional territories

is in Davao Del Sur and the Sarangani Province particularly in the localities of
Malalag, Lais, Talaguton Rivers, Sta. Maria, and Malita of Davao Occidental,
and Malungon of the Sarangani Province. Tagakaulo means living in

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mountain. The Tagakaulo tribe originally came from the western shores of
the gulf of Davao and south of Mt. Apo a long time ago.
Presently, they're also found in the coastal towns of Malita, Lais, and
Talaguton Rivers. There are approximately 71,356 native speakers (2000,
SIL International). Tagakaolo belongs to the Austronesian and Malayo-
Polynesian language families; its dialect related to the Mandaya, Kalagan,
and Kamayo. Tagakaolo translates to “inhabitants of headwater (olo sa
tubig) or sources of rivers and streams.”

Their environment, diverse, consisted of the lowland, coastal, riverine,

valley, mountain, highland, and the plain. Their lifestyle, wholly sedentary
with principal subsistence dependent on agriculture, fishing, and paid labor.
Each upland river valley or highland plain inherited by primogeniture (right of
succession belonging to the firstborn child). Central to their culture is the
datu who presides over civic and labor duties; a prominent datu could
secure, either by capture or by purchase. Each datu is the autonomous chief
over an area.

Talaandig

Talaandig are originally from the foothills of Mount

Kitanglad in Bukidnon, specifically in the municipalities
of Talakag and Lantapan. The Talaandig learning system is embodied in
various forms of oral tradition. These tradition includes the narratives called
Nanangen, epic called Ulaging, poetic songs called sala and songs called
Idangdang Limbay are particular songs about animals.

The long historical narrative of the Talaandig is call Gugud. It is

considered sacred because it relates to the existence of the gods and spirits
at the time of creation. A Talaandig story to recall is called Barbat while a
reference story is called Sampitan. The Talaandig sayings or proverb is called
Basahan; a customary law, Batasan while a brain twister or riddle of the
Talaandigs is called Antuka.

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 The Talaandig indigenous political system and leadership are governed
by existing customary laws called Batasan. Batasan is a set of sacred
customs, traditions and policies sanctioned through the religious beliefs and
practices of the tribe. Being sacred, the leadership of the Talaandig
community under the sanctions of customary laws is highly respected. A
ritual to institute the Talaandig leadership is called Panagulambung. This
ritual is done in the presence of other leaders as a confirmation and
proclamation of authority of a Datu. A Datu is a mediator and a leader. His
major role is to intervene in conflicting relationships in order to secure peace
and harmony in the community. In moments of crises, the Datu readily takes
the responsibility to lead.
Teduray
The Teduray/Tiruray people live in the municipalities of Datu Blah T.
Sinsuat, Upi, and South Upi in southwestern Maguindanao Province; and
in Lebak municipality, northwestern Sultan Kudarat Province. They speak
the Tiruray language, which is related to Bagobo, B'laan, and T'boli. Coastal
Tirurays are mostly farmers, hunters, fishermen, and basket weavers; those
living in the mountains engage in dry field agriculture, supplemented by
hunting and the gathering of forest products. Tirurays are famous for their
craftsmanship in weaving baskets with two-toned geometric designs. While
many have adopted the cultures of
neighboring Muslims and Christians people, a high percentage of their
population still believe and practice their indigenous customs and rituals .

Tboli
The Tboli are one of the indigenous peoples of South Mindanao. From
the body of ethnographic and linguistic literature on Mindanao, they are
variously known as Tboli, Teboli, Tau Bilil, Tau Bulul or Tagabilil. They term

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themselves Tboli. Their whereabouts and identity are to some extent
confused in the literature; some publications present the Teboli and the
Tagabilil as distinct peoples; some locate the Tbolis to the vicinity of the
Buluan Lake in the Cotabato Basin or in Agusan del Norte. The Tbolis, then,
reside on the mountain slopes on either side of the upper Alah Valley and the
coastal area of Maitum, Maasim and Kiamba. In former times, the Tbolis also
inhabited the upper Alah Valley floor.

Tigwahonon
The Tigwahanon inhabit the Bukidnon and Davao del Norte border,
specifically in the municipality of San Fernando Watersheds in Agusan del
Norte, Bukidnon, Agusan Sur and Misamis Occidental.
The areas where the tribes live are generally underdeveloped with poor
infrastructure. Dispossessed of their tribal lands, they have little control over
their lands. They practice swidden agriculture and live off the forest. They
are driven off the land by loggers and corporate plantations.
Unlike the dominant Muslim tribes, they have failed to consolidate
themselves and thus have no significant voice in politics. Because of their
unattended grievances, they are prey to the communist rebels and other
dissident movements who wish to use them against the government.

Umayamnon

The Umayamnon are originally from the Umayam River watershed and
the headwaters of the Pulangi River. They are within the Pulangi River in
Bukidnon Province and Umayam River in Agusan del Sur. They are a
subgroup of the Manobo. They live very ordinary lives, mostly dependent on
below-subsistence level upland farming, fishing from the river, and gathering
of non-timber natural resources.

Some are still practicing the traditional customs and beliefs. They
believe in the existence of the Almighty Super Natural being who created

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everything and controls everything. Some have been made Christians
through American and Filipino missionaries.
Their existence and survival are being threatened in their ancestral
domain by the migrants and some other sub-tribes of Bukidnon and Agusan
del Sur. Besides, they need appropriate livelihood projects for daily needs.
They live far below the poverty line.

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