🧠 Chapter 2: The Computer System Hardware

1️⃣ Write short note on main memory of a computer.

Main memory (also called primary memory) is the working storage of the computer.

It stores data and instructions that are currently being processed.

It is volatile, meaning data is lost when power is turned off.

Two main parts: RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory).

The CPU directly accesses data from main memory.

Main memory provides fast access to the CPU compared to secondary storage.

2️⃣ List five main functions of CPU.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. Its main functions are:

1. Fetching instructions from memory.

2. Decoding the instructions.

3. Executing the instructions.

4. Storing the results back to memory.

5. Controlling the operations of all other units of the computer

3️⃣ Write four functions of ALU.

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) performs all mathematical and logical operations.

Functions:

1. Performs arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

2. Performs logical operations like AND, OR, NOT, comparisons.

3. Controls bit-wise operations (shift, rotate).

4. Sends the result back to the accumulator or memory

4️⃣ List five important registers of the CPU and state their purposes.

Registers are small, high-speed memory locations inside the CPU.

Register Purpose

Accumulator (AC) Stores intermediate results.

Program Counter (PC) Holds the address of the next instruction.

Instruction Register (IR) Stores the current instruction.

Memory Address Register (MAR) Holds address of memory location to be accessed.

Memory Data Register (MDR)Holds data being transferred to/from memory.

5️⃣ Describe three types of cache memory.

1. L1 Cache – Smallest and fastest, built inside the CPU core.

2. L2 Cache – Larger than L1, slightly slower, may be on the CPU chip or nearby.

3. L3 Cache – Shared among multiple CPU cores, larger and lower than L1/L2.

6️⃣ List the features of primary memory.

Fast and directly accessible by CPU.

Limited in size and expensive.

Temporary (volatile) except ROM.

Stores data, programs, and results currently in use.

Located inside the computer system board

7️⃣ List the features of secondary memory.

Non-volatile (data is permanent).

Large storage capacity.

Slower than primary memory.

Used for storing data and programs permanently.

Examples: hard disk, CD, DVD, USB drive.

8️⃣ Describe four steps of working of instruction cycle.

1. Fetch – The CPU fetches instruction from memory.

2. Decode – The instruction is decoded to understand the operation.

3. Execute – The operation is performed by ALU.

4. Store – Result is stored in memory or register.

9️⃣ Define a bus and an expansion bus.

Bus: A communication pathway that transfers data between components of a computer

(CPU, memory, I/O).

Expansion Bus: Connects peripheral devices (like sound card, graphics card) to the main
system bus.

🔟 State the function or significance of control bus, address bus, data bus.

Bus Type Function

Address Bus Carries memory addresses from CPU to memory.

Data Bus Transfers actual data between CPU, memory, and devices.

Control Bus Carries control signals (Read/Write, Clock, Interrupts).

11️⃣ Explain the booting process when the computer is switched on.

1. Power On – Power supply starts hardware components.

2. POST (Power On Self Test) – System checks basic hardware.

3. Bootstrap Loader – Loaded from ROM to find and load the operating system.

4. OS Loading – OS files are loaded into main memory.

5. User Interface Ready – System ready for use.

💾 Chapter 3: Computer Memory

1️⃣ Draw memory hierarchy diagram.

Memory Hierarchy (from fastest to slowest):

Registers

Cache Memory

Main Memory (RAM)

Secondary Memory (Hard Disk)

Tertiary Storage (Optical, Magnetic Tape)

Cloud / External Storage

Explanation:

As we move down the hierarchy, the speed decreases and the storage capacity increas

2️⃣ List the key features of internal memory.

Located inside the CPU or motherboard.

Includes registers, cache, and main memory (RAM, ROM).

Very fast and directly accessible by the CPU.

Used for temporary storage of data and instructions.

Limited capacity compared to external storage.

3️⃣ List the key features of the main memory.

Directly accessed by the CPU.

Consists of RAM and ROM.

Volatile (RAM) and non-volatile (ROM).

Holds data and instructions currently being used.

Provides fast read/write operations.

4️⃣ Justify: “The primary memory is faster than the secondary memory.”

Primary memory (RAM/ROM) is built using semiconductor technology, making it faster.

It is closer to the CPU, reducing access time.

Secondary memory (like hard disks) uses magnetic/optical technology which is slower.

✅ Hence, primary memory provides faster access for program execution.

5️⃣ Explain the working of the DRAM memory chip.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) stores each bit of data in a small capacitor.

The capacitor leaks charge over time, so it must be refreshed periodically.

DRAM is slower than SRAM but cheaper and used as main memory in computers.

Example: Used in laptops and desktops for main memory.

6️⃣ List the different kinds of ROM memory.

1. PROM (Programmable ROM) – Can be programmed once.

2. EPROM (Erasable PROM) – Can be erased by UV light and reprogrammed.

3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM) – Can be erased and reprogrammed electrically.

4. Flash ROM – Modern type of EEPROM, used in USB drives and SSDs.

7️⃣ Define seek time, latency time, data transfer rate, and access time of magnetic tape.

Seek Time: Time taken to position the read/write head over the desired track.

Latency Time: Time taken for the desired sector to come under the head.

Data Transfer Rate: Speed at which data is transferred from the tape.

Access Time: Total time to access data (Seek + Latency + Transfer time).

8️⃣ List the key features of a floppy disk.

Portable and removable storage device.

Magnetic storage medium (plastic disk coated with magnetic material).

Capacity: 1.44 MB (for 3.5-inch disk).

Data accessed sequentially or directly.

Mostly obsolete now.

9️⃣ Write important features of CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R.

Type Full Form Features

CD-R Compact Disc – Recordable Data can be written once only.

CD-RW Compact Disc – Rewritable Data can be erased and rewritten.

DVD-R Digital Versatile Disc – Recordable Higher storage (4.7 GB), write once only.

🔟 List the key features of an optical disk.

Uses laser technology to read/write data.

Non-volatile storage.

Portable and lightweight.

High capacity compared to floppy disks.

Examples: CD, DVD, Blu-ray.

11️⃣ List the key features of DVD-ROM.

Read-only optical disc.

Storage capacity up to 4.7 GB (single layer) or 8.5 GB (dual layer).

Data cannot be erased or changed.

Used for movies, software, and games.

Faster access speed than CD-ROM.

12️⃣ List the key features of CD-ROM.

Compact Disc – Read Only Memory.

Data written during manufacturing; cannot be modified.

Capacity about 700 MB.

Access using laser beam.

Used for software distribution, audio, and data storage.

13️⃣ Write the features of Magnetic tapes.

Sequential access storage device.

Used for backup and archival storage.

High capacity, low cost.

Data stored on plastic ribbon coated with magnetic oxide.

Slower than disks.

14️⃣ Define a bit, a byte, a word.

Bit: Smallest unit of data, 0 or 1.

Byte: 8 bits = 1 byte.

Word: Fixed-size group of bits (usually 16, 32, or 64 bits) processed by the CPU.

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15️⃣ Write the correct answers:

1 Byte = 8 bits

1 KB = 1024 bytes

1 MB = 1024 KB

1 GB = 1024 MB

1 GB = 1,048,576 KB

1 TB = 1,073,741,824 KB

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16️⃣ Define a Cache hit and Cache miss.

Cache Hit: When required data is found in cache memory.

Cache Miss: When required data is not found in cache, so it must be fetched from main
memory.

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17️⃣ What is the purpose of the Registers?

Registers are small high-speed storage units inside the CPU.

They store instructions, addresses, or data during processing.

Provide fastest data access to the CPU.

Help improve processing speed.

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18️⃣ What are the functions of Bootstrap loader, POST, and CMOS chip?

Component Function

Bootstrap Loader Loads operating system into memory at startup.

POST (Power On Self Test) Checks hardware components before booting.

CMOS Chip Stores BIOS settings, date, and time using a small battery.

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19️⃣ How does a magnetic tape drive work?

Data is recorded on a long plastic strip coated with magnetic material.

The tape moves over a read/write head that records or reads data magnetically.

Works sequentially (must move through the tape to reach data).

Mainly used for data backup and archives.

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20️⃣ Give differences between sequential access devices and direct access devices.

Feature Sequential Access Direct Access

Access Method Data read in sequence Data accessed directly

Example Magnetic tape Hard disk

Speed Slower Faster

Usage BackupMain storage.

21️⃣ List the steps the computer performs when it is switched on till it is ready for use.

1. Power On – Computer receives power.

2. POST – Hardware is checked for proper function.

3. Bootstrap Loader – Loaded from ROM to locate OS.

4. OS Loading – OS is loaded into main memory.

5. Login Screen Appears – Computer ready for use.