Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Student guide
Physics
Year 1
(STEM)

Prepared by
Saeed Mohamed Ali
Revised by
Dr. Aziza Ragab Khalifa

Page 1 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
Contents

Unit pages
Three : motion and force From 5 to 16
Four : Waves From 18 to 34
Skills
Competencies Knowledge
(Be able to)

TPC3.1 apply Newton’s laws • TPK01 Newton’s Laws of

Motion.
define the meaning of work
TPC3.2
Define Force and its measuring units TPK02 Work and Unit of
and aply Measuring
TPC3.3 calculate the work Work (Joules).
Newton’s laws
TP3 And Define TPC3.4
define the energy and its TPK03 Energy and Type
Work, measuring units of Energy
Energy,And identify some types (forms) of
Power. TPC3.5 energy such that potential and TPK04 forms of energy
kinetic energy
define the power and its TPK05 Power and Unit of
TPC3.6 energy and study forms of Measuring
energy Power (Watt)
Differentiate between the
TPK06 Types of Waves
TPC4.1 mechanical and
electromagnetic waves TPK07 Types of
Differentiate between the Mechanical Waves
TPC4.2 transverse and longitudinal
TPK07 sound waves
waves
Define the parameters such TPK08 Light Reflection
TP4
Explain The TPC4.3 as ,the frequency ,the period and Light
types of Waves and the wavelength Refraction
Understand different regions
of EM spectrum (IR, UV,
TPC4.4
visible, x-ray. etc..) and their TPK08 total reflection,
uses critical angle and
optical fibers
TPC4.5 Identify Law of Reflection.

Identify the index of

TPC4.6
refraction
Determine critical angle for
total internal reflection when
TPC4.7
light passes from more dense
to less dense optical material

Page 2 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

week Unit First secondary Second term 2023

Week 1 Lesson 1:Newton’s laws of motion
Week 2 Lesson 2:Newton’s laws of motion
Week 3 Lesson 3 :Work
Week 4 Lesson 4:Energy and some energy forms
Week 5 Lesson 5: power
3
Week 6 Lesson 6: unit test
Week 7 Lesson 7: Revision
Week 8 Lesson 8: Revision
Week 1 Lesson 1: types of waves
Week 2 Lesson 2 : types of mechanical waves
Week 3 Lesson 3: sound wave
Week 4 Lesson 4: light
4
Week 5 Lesson 5: light reflection and light refraction
Week 6 Lesson 6: total internal reflection and optical fibers
Week 7 Lesson 7: unit test
Week 8 Lesson 8: Revision

Page 3 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
Unit three
Motion and force

Lesson Page
Lesson 1: Newton’s laws of motion 5
Lesson 2 :Newton’s laws of motion 9
Lesson 3: Work 10
Lesson 4: energy and some energy forms 14
Lesson 5: Power 17
Dear student, By the end of this lessons you should have the following skills and
knowledges
Apply the relation between the force, mass, and acceleration
Explain the action and reaction phenomenon
Explain the scientific meaning of Work.
Deduce that work is a non-vector quantity.
Apply the relation between work and force
Deduce units of Energy.
Compare between the kinetic energy and the potential energy.
Identify the mathematical relationship for both kinetic energy and potential energy.
Identify that potential energy is the work done
Differentiate between the concept of energy and power
Deduce units of power.
Apply the relation between the energy and power

Page 4 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Lesson 1
Newton’s laws of motion

Introduction
The previous chapter dealt with the description of linear motion in one direction (straight
line) by studying the concepts of displacement, velocity and acceleration without getting into
the reasons beyond.
In this chapter, we will discuss why objects move with acceleration as a result of an external
effect (force), this effect can change the velocity of the object. The relationship between force
and acceleration will be discussed by studying Newton’s laws of motion that are considered
as basic laws in physics.
The concept of force F
(An external effect that affects the object, it changes or attempts to change its state or
direction).
OR
(It is an action which produces or tends to produce a change in a body’s state of rest or
motion).
Force (F) is a derived vector quantity, its measuring unit Newton (N) and measured by a
spring balance.
Newton's first law
It is known that a rolling object on the floor would move for a certain distance, slowing
down, and then stops due to presence of friction forces that slow it down till stop. If these
forces do not exist, the object would keep moving with the same velocity in the same
direction and would not stop. This principle is known as Newton’s First Law of motion.
Statement of Newton's first law
“A static object keeps its state of rest, and a moving object keeps its state of motion at
uniform velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by a resultant force.”
That is mean, if the resultant force acting on the object is zero, the velocity of the object does
not change, therefore the acceleration by which the object is moving equals zero.
The mathematical formula of Newton's first law
∑𝐅 = 𝐳𝐞𝐫𝐨
There are many examples, for example, the book of Physics (the object) which is placed on
a horizontal table (contact case) under effect of two forces, one of them is weight of the book
affects downward and the other the force by which the table affects the book. It is a normal
force affects the object by the surface when they in contact case.
The relationship between the force of friction and the distance covered
1- If the force of friction increases, the distance covered decreases
2- If the force of friction decreases, the distance covered increases
3- If there is no frictional force, the object will continue to move in a straight line at a
constant velocity

Page 5 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Inertia
Newton’s First Law is related to the concept of inertia. Accordingly, it is called (Law of
Inertia)
(It is the tendency of an object to keep either its state of rest or state of motion at its
original velocity uniformly in a straight line)
This mean that, the tendency of a static object to remain in a state of rest and the tendency of
a moving object to continue moving at its original velocity in a straight line.
This means that objects resist changing its static or dynamic state.
From daily observations that illustrate the concept of inertia
1- The driver of the car rushes forward when stopping suddenly (when using the brakes
suddenly) or when the car hits an obstacle. (therefore Seat belt should be fastened on
driving)
2- Passengers suddenly rush back when the vehicle is suddenly moving
3- Passengers rush towards the car door when the car is traveling in a circular curve
Notes
It is observed that the possibility of stopping objects moving under the effect of inertia
depends on the mass and speed of these objects, as:
1- A big truck is hard to stop while a small bike is easier to stop assuming they are moving at
the same velocity.
2- It is difficult to stop the car if its velocity is high, while it is easy to stop if its velocity is
low.
Some concepts related to Force
1- linear momentum
Linear momentum (PL) is a derived vector quantity, its measuring unit (kg.m/s)
The mathematical formula of linear momentum
Momentum = mass × velocity
PL = m v
2- Mass and Weight
Mass (m)
(Resistance of the object to change its Kinematic state)
Weight (Fg )
(It is the force of gravity acting on the object and its direction is towards the Earth’s
center)
Comparison between mass and weight
Quantity Symbol Mathematic Measuring Notes
al Formula Unit
Weight Fg Fg = m g Newton (N) 1- It changes from one place to
another according to the
acceleration due to gravity
2- measured by the spring balance
Mass m m Kilogram (kg) 1- It does not change from place to
place
Page 6 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
2- measured by a beam balance or
digital balance
Newton's third law
Newton formulated an explanation for the above mentioned situations through his third law
of motion that studies the nature of forces acting on objects. He noticed that forces act in
pairs of equal magnitude and opposite directions.
From daily observations
1- When the player kick a football, the forward force that
your foot exerts on the ball launches it into its
trajectory, but you also feel the force the ball exerts
back on your foot.
2- The rifle bounces back when the bullet goes out from it.
3- The idea of operation of the rocket based on Newton's third law, where a huge mass of
flaming gases rushes from the bottom of the rocket, and the reaction of the rocket is to rush
upwards.
4- Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car is equipped with wheels that spin.
As the wheels spin, they grip the road and push the road backwards. Since forces result
from mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing the wheels forward. The size of the
force on the road equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the direction of the
force on the road (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the wheels
(forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction.
Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.

Newton’s Third Law of motion statement

(When an object A acts on another object B by a force, the second object B acts on
object A by a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction)
OR
(For every action there is a reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in direction).
Notes
1- The statement of Newton’s third law means that in every interaction, there is a pair of
forces acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the forces on the first
object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the
first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object.
Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs
No single force exists in the universe. Action and reaction are paired; originate and vanish
together.
i.e. Action and reaction are of the same type; if the action is a gravitational force, reaction is a
gravitational force, as well.
2- Why cannot say that resultant of the action and reaction are at equilibrium?
For two forces to be at equilibrium, they must be equal, opposite, having one line of action
and act on the same body. All these conditions except the last one may be applied on
action and reaction; since they may act on different bodies

Page 7 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
The mathematical formula
𝐅𝐀 𝐨𝐧 𝐁 = − 𝐅𝐁 𝐨𝐧 𝐀
Exercise
Study the following figure, then answer the questions below:
1- What is the relation between the force acting on the elephant and that on the man?
2- Why are not action on the elephant and reaction on the man at equilibrium?
3- If the elephant’s mass is 6 times heavier than the man’s mass, calculate the acceleration by
which the elephant moves giving that the man moves at an acceleration 2m/s 2. Why is the
elephant acceleration negative?

Page 8 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Lesson 2
Newton's second law

Introduction
We have learnt that when no resultant force affects the object, it does not move at
acceleration. Consequently, when a resultant force acts on the object (Σ F ≠ 0), it moves at
acceleration. Accordingly, its velocity changes and it acquires acceleration (a ≠ 0).Newton
defined the factors affecting such acceleration through his second law
Newton's second law statement
(The resultant force acting on an object is equal to the time rate of change in the
momentum of that body)
OR
(The resultant force acting on an object is equal to the product of the object’s mass and
its acceleration)
Mathematical formula of Newton's second law
∆ PL
F= =ma
∆t
Notes
“When a resultant force affects an object, the object acquires an acceleration which is directly
proportional to the resultant force and inversely proportional to the object mass.”
F
a =
𝑚
1- The acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object at constant the resultant
force.
2- The acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on the object at
constant the mass of the object.

Page 9 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Exercise
1- The opposite graph represents the relationship between acceleration (a)
acquired by the object and the resultant force (F) acting on the object of
two objects A and B. Which of the two objects has the greater mass?
Why?

2- A force of F acts on an object and accelerates it at certain acceleration (a).When another

force acts on the same object and accelerates it at acceleration (5a). What do you conclude
about the two forces acting on the object?
Through Newton’s Second Law, we can infer that
1- Moving or stopping a heavy object as a train is much difficult than a lighter body as a
bicycle.
2- Any object that acquires acceleration must exist force acting on it, and if an object falls, it
moves with the free fall acceleration, which means that it is affected by a force known as
the force of gravity.

Solved examples
Example (1)
Two equal forces act on two objects: the first has a mass of 10 kg, and it moves with an
acceleration of 5 m/s2, and the second has a mass of 25 kg. What is the acceleration of the
second object?
The solution
𝒎𝟏 𝒂𝟏
=
𝒎𝟐 𝒂𝟐
𝟏𝟎 𝒂𝟐
=
𝟐𝟓 𝟓
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐𝒎/𝒔𝟐

Example (2)
What is the force required for a car of mass 1.6×103 kg to move with a positive acceleration
of 2m/s2?
The solution
F  m a
 F  (1.6  10 3 )(2)
 F  3.2  10 3 Kg
Example (3)
A car of mass 5000 kg started its motion from rest under effect a force of 4000 N, calculate
the acceleration.
The solution
𝑭=𝒎𝒂
𝑭 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒂= = = 𝟎. 𝟖 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝒎 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
Page 10 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Lesson 3
Work
Introduction
In nature, energy exists in different forms such as thermal (heat) energy, chemical energy,
mechanical energy, etc. this energy can be converted from one form into another. What is
energy? What is its relation to the work done?
The term work may be used in our daily experience to express a task that captured
somebody’s interest and is involved in the most. This task could be mental as doing
homework, physical as visiting a patient, or even just being at office. Physicists use the term
work to express something really different
Work:
When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of the object, it is said
that work was done upon the object.
There are three key ingredients to work - force, displacement, and cause. In order for a force
to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a displacement and the force
must cause the displacement.
There are several good examples of work that can be observed in everyday life:
1- A Caw pulling a plow through the field.
2- A father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle of a grocery store.
3- A freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her shoulder.
4- A student lifting a barbell above his head, an Olympian launching the shot-put.
5- A teacher applies a force to a wall and becomes exhausted.
6- A book falls off a table and free falls to the ground. etc.

In each case described here there is a force exerted upon an object to cause that object to be
displaced.
If the object does not move, no work is done regardless how huge the exerted force is.
Accordingly, there are two conditions for work to be done:
1- A certain force acts on the object.
2- The object should move through a certain displacement in the direction of the force.
Mathematical formula of Work
If work done (W) by a certain force (F) on an object to move it
through a displacement (d) along the line of the force action can
be found by the relation:
W=Fd
If the direction of the force (F) is inclined at an angle (θ) to the
direction of displacement (d) as shown in figure, work done can
be found by the relation:
W = F d cos θ

Page 11 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Measuring unit of work:

Work is a derived scalar quantity and its measuring unit (kg .m2/ s2) (Joule)
The Joule is the unit of work.
1 Joule = 1 Newton * 1 meter
1J=1N*m
The Joule: is the work done by a force of one Newton to move an object through a
displacement of one meter in the direction of the force.

What do you think?

1- When a rocket accelerates through space. Does the rocket do work?
2- When a waiter carries a tray full of meals above his head by one arm straight across the
room at constant speed. Does the waiter do work?
Solved examples
Example 1:
A box is pulled with a force of 25 N to produce a
displacement of 15 m. If the angle between the force and
displacement is 30o, find the work done by the force.
Solution:
W = Fd cos θ
W = 25 × 15 × cos 30 = 324.76 J
Example 2:
If an object of mass 2 kg is thrown up from the ground reaches a height of 5 m and falls back
to the Earth (neglect the air resistance). Calculate
a- The work done by gravity when the object reaches 5 m height
b- The work done by gravity when the object comes back to Earth
c- Total work done by gravity both in upward and downward motion and mention the
physical significance of the result.
Solution:
When the object goes up, the displacement points in the upward direction whereas the
gravitational force acting on the object points in downward direction, then the angle between
gravitational force and displacement of the object is 180°
The work done by gravitational force in the upward motion
F= mg
W = F. d cos θ = mgd cos θ
Wup = 2 × 10 × 5 cos (180) = - 100 J
When the object falls back, both the gravitational force and displacement of the object are in
the same direction. This implies that the angle between gravitational force and displacement
of the object is 0°.
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Wdown = 2 × 10 × 5 cos (0) = 100 J
The total work done by gravity in the entire trip (upward and downward motion)

Wtotal = Wup + Wdown = - 100 + 100 = 0

Page 12 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Example 3:
Calculate the work done by this girl who is carrying a bucket of mass (300 g) to move it
through a displacement of (10 m) in the horizontal direction. Then, calculate the work done
by the boy to lift a bucket of the same mass (10 cm) in the vertical direction. (g = 10 m/s 2)
The solution
Work done by the girl:
Since the force exerted by the girl is perpendicular to displacement, work done equals zero.
Work done by the boy:
F = mg = 300×10-3 ×10= 3N
Since force and displacement are in the same direction, (θ) = 0

W = Fd cos θ = (3) (10×10-2) (cos 0) = 0.3 J

Page 13 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

Lesson 4
Energy and some energy forms
Introduction
We use energy in the form of firewood, fossil fuels and electricity to make life comfortable
and convenient.
At home we use electricity for our lights and fans, air-conditioner, water heater and room
heaters, oven, microwave, washing machine and drier etc.
We use petrol, diesel, natural gas for our cars, buses, autos etc. Large amount of energy is
consumed in agriculture and industry.
In offices we use energy to run air conditioners, fans, lights, computers, copying machines
etc.
Energy is essential to life and all living organisms. The sun, directly or indirectly, is the
source of all the energy available on Earth. Our energy choices and decisions impact Earth's
natural systems in ways we may not be aware of, so it is essential that we choose our energy
sources carefully.
The true cost of energy is more than just dollars and cents; there are important economic,
political, and social factors and consequences to consider as well.
Energy:
(It is the ability to do work)
The energy means that if a certain body is able to do work, this body possesses energy.
Simply, the energy of a body is its capacity to do work. Because of this, the unit of energy is
the same as the unit of work which is the Joule.
Energy is a derived scalar quantity and its measuring unit ((kg .m2/ s2) (Joule)
There are many different forms of energy, including
 Heat (thermal)
 Light
 Mechanical
 Electrical
 Chemical
 Gravitational
 Nuclear
 Electromagnetic

In the following section we are going to discuss two forms of energy which are kinetic energy
and potential energy
Page 14 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

First: Kinetic Energy (KE)

When an object is acted upon by a force and the object starts to move by the impact of this
force, we can say that this object has energy called kinetic energy (K.E).
Kinetic Energy The energy possessed by the object due to its motion.
Generally, kinetic energy of an object moving at velocity (v) and its mass (m) is calculated by
the relation:
1
K. E = m v 2
2
From the previous relation, we conclude that the kinetic energy is directly proportional to the
object mass and the square of the object speed.
Note
The work done (the energy required to move the object) equals the kinetic energy. The work done is
directly proportional to the square of the object speed. If we’d like to stop a car moving at velocity
(60 km/h) by applying the brakes, the car would slide for a distance before stopping. This distance is
four times longer than that needed if the car moves at velocity (30 km/h).
Solved example
Find the kinetic energy of a car of mass (2000 kg) traveling at (72 km/h).
The solution
1 1 1000
K. E = m v 2 = × 2000 × (72 × ) = 4 × 105 J
2 2 60 × 60
Second: Potential Energy (P.E)
Energy can be stored in objects because of their new positions.
This energy is called potential energy (PE).
Potential Energy the energy possessed by the object due to its
position or state
For example,
1- Compression or elongation of a spring makes its particles
have new positions and hence extra potential energy known
as elastic potential energy. The spring then does work to
release this energy, restoring its original position.
2- When an object is raised higher above the ground, it acquires potential energy known as
gravitational potential energy. This energy is related to the object position relative to the
surface of Earth.
Generally, Potential energy of an object of its mass (m) at height (h) from the ground by the
relation:
P. E = m g h
From the previous relation, we conclude that the potential energy is directly proportional to
the object mass and the square height from the ground.
Note
The work done to lift the object to a certain point = potential energy of this object at that point.
Solved example
Calculate the work done to lift an object of mass (50 kg) to (2.2m) high above the ground.
(g = 10 m/s2)
The solution
Page 15 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
P. E = m g h = 50 × 10 × 2.2 = 1100 J
Lesson 5
Power
Introduction
Energy is the capacity to do work and power is
the rate of energy delivery.
Power is always dependent on work done, so if
a person does work at different rates his power
also differs at different times. This is where the
concept of average-power comes into the
picture.
Power
(The rate of doing work)
(It is the work done in unit time).
The SI unit of power is Watt (W) which is joules per second (J/s).
Sometimes the power of motor vehicles and other machines is given in terms of Horsepower
(hp), which is approximately equal to 745.7 watts.
What is Average Power?
We can define average power as the total energy consumed divided by the total time taken. In
simple language, we can say that average power is the average amount of work done or
energy converted per unit of time.
The mathematical formula of Power:
Work W
Power = =
time t
Unit of Power:
The unit for standard metric work is the Joule and the standard metric unit for time is the
second, so the standard metric unit for power is a Joule / second, defined as a Watt and
abbreviated W.
Solved Example:
A 60-watt bulb is switched on 24 hours a day and there is another 60-watt bulb that is turned
on for only 12 hours. Find the energy consumed by both the bulbs in one day.
Solution:
For the first 12 hours, both bulb A and B are turned ON, therefore,
Power = 60 + 60 = 120 watts Energy = Power × Time = 120 × 12 = 1.44 kWh
Now for the next 12 hours only bulb A would remain ON hence,
Power = 60 watts Energy = 60 × 12 = 0.72 kW h
In this scenario, the power consumed during the whole day varies as one bulb is turned ON
for only 12 hours, so we have to calculate average power,
Average Power = Total energy consumed / Total time taken
Average Power = (1.44 + 0.72) / 24 = 0.092 kW

Page 16 of 34
 Science Development Office
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools
You must have noticed that electrical components and energy meters in homes use a
unit called kWh (kilowatt-hour), which stands for 1 kilowatt of power has been
consumed every 1 hour, where kWh is the unit of energy.

Unit four
Waves

Lesson Page
Lesson 1: types of wave 18
Lesson 2 : types of mechanical waves 21
Lesson 3: sound waves 23
Lesson 4: light 26
Lesson 5: reflection and refraction of light 30
Lesson 6: total internal reflection 33
Dear student, By the end of this chapter you should have the following skills and
knowledges:

Lesson 1
Types of waves
Introduction
Concept of motion
Page 17 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
The object is said to be at rest when the position of the object does not change with respect to
the time. While the object that changes its position as the time passes, the object is said to be
in motion.
Motion is the change in the position of the object with respect to a fixed point as the time
passes.
Motion can be classified into two types:
1- The Translational (Translatory) motion: is the motion which is characterized by having
a starting point and end point in a certain path. Such as motion in a straight line, projectile
motion, and transportations.
2- Periodic motion: is motion of an object that regularly returns to a given position after a
fixed time interval, such as vibrational (oscillatory) motion , wave motion and circular
motion
Note
The circular motion is the motion that repeats itself over equal intervals of time. Such as
motion of earth around its axis and around Sun
The vibrational motion is the motion that repeats itself over equal intervals of time. Such as
motion of simple pendulum forth and back
Wave motion

Introduction
Many of us enjoy watching waves on the surface of
water pushing a fishing float or a boat up and down, or
even making waves by throwing a pebble in a pond or
still water. Each pebble becomes a source of
disturbance in the water, spreading waves as concentric
circles.
You encounter waves all the time in your daily life. For
example, you can see because of visible light waves and
hear because of sound waves.
Examples
Waves on the surface of liquid, sound waves, waves on stretched strings
Electromagnetic radiations, such as light, x-rays, radio waves, infrared and ultraviolet
radiation
Wave is a disturbance that propagates and transports energy in the direction of its
propagation through medium or space.

The world is full of waves, the two main types being mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical waves
It is the disturbance that propagates through a medium, such as sound waves, water waves.
(Some physical medium is being disturbed; in our pebble example, elements of water are
disturbed.)
Electromagnetic waves

Page 18 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
It is the disturbance that propagates through a medium or space, such as light waves,
television signals, x- rays, radio waves and γ – rays (They do not require a medium to
propagate)
Wave motion: energy is transferred over a distance, but matter is not.
Wave characteristics:

The following important definitions about waves and wave motion:

1) The displacement x
The distance of a point on the wave from its undisturbed position or equilibrium position
2) The amplitude A
The maximum displacement of any point on the wave from its undisturbed position
Note
The amplitude of a wave on the sea is measured in units of distance. The greater the
amplitude of the wave, the louder the sound or the rougher the sea
3) The wavelength λ
The distance from any point on a wave to the next exactly similar point (the two points are in
phase) (e.g. crest to crest)
(The Greek letter lambda) The wavelength of a wave on the sea is measured in units of
distance
4) The period ( periodic time ) T
(The time taken for one complete oscillation of a point in a wave)
OR
(It is the time taken for a point to move from one particular position and return to that
same position, moving in the same direction)
It is measured in units of time
5) The frequency f
(The number of oscillations per unit time of a point in a wave)
The frequency of a wave is measured in units of reciprocal time (Hz)

Notes
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝛌=
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐬

Page 19 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐬
𝐟=
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝟏
𝐓= =
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐟

Types of waves
Mechanical Waves Electromagnetic Waves

Mechanical waves need a material Electromagnetic waves do not need any

medium for their propagation. material medium for their propagation.

These waves are produced due to the They are caused due to change in electric
vibrations of the particles of the medium. and magnetic fields.

In this type of wave motion, the particles In this type of wave motion, the particles
of the medium vibrate along or of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the
perpendicular to the direction of direction of propagation of the wave
propagation of the wave

They have low speed They have high speed

It is formed from Longitudinal and It is formed from transverse waves only

transverse waves

Ex. Water waves, Sound waves. Ex. Radio waves, light, and X-rays

Lesson 2
Types of Mechanical Waves

Page 20 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

A Mechanical wave is a disturbance that travels through some material or substance called
the medium for the wave. As the wave travels through the medium, the particles that make
up the medium undergo displacements of various kinds, depending on the nature of the wave.
There are two types of wave, longitudinal and transverse. Both can be demonstrated using a
slinky spring.
Push the end of the spring back and forth; the segments of the spring become compressed
and then stretched out, along the length of the spring. Wave pulses run along the spring.
These are longitudinal waves.
Waggle the end of the slinky spring from side to side. The segments of the spring move from
side to side as the wave travels along the spring. These are transverse waves. So the
difference between longitudinal and transverse
waves is as follows:
1) In longitudinal waves, the particles of the
medium vibrate along (parallel to) the
direction of the wave velocity. Such as
sound waves and a wave travelling along a
spring when it is pushed or pulled
2) In transverse waves, the particles of the
medium vibrate perpendicular to (at right
angles) the direction of the wave velocity.
Such as waves formed on the surface of
water and waves along a stretched string
Wave energy
It is important to realize that, for both types of mechanical wave, the particles that make up
the material through which the wave is travelling do not move along – they only oscillate
about a fixed point. It is energy that is transmitted by the wave. Each particle vibrates; as it
does so, it pushes its neighbor, transferring energy to it. Then that particle pushes its
neighbor, which pushes its neighbor. In this way, energy is transmitted from one particle to
the next, to the next, and so on down the line.

In transverse waves

Page 21 of 34
 Science Development Office
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools
a) The particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular (up and down) to the direction of wave
motion
b) The wave is propagated in the form of crests and troughs
c) The wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs.

Note
Crest: it is the maximum displacement (amplitude) in the positive direction
Trough: it is the maximum displacement (amplitude) in the negative direction

In Longitudinal Waves
a) The particles of the medium vibrate along (parallel to)
(forth and back) the direction of wave motion
b) The wave is propagated in the form of
compressions and rarefactions
c) The wavelength is the distance between centers of
two successive compressions or two successive
rarefactions.

Note
Compression: areas of high pressure (the particles close to each other)
Rarefaction: areas of low pressure (the particles away from each other)

Lesson 3
Sound waves
Sound wave
Sound is a form of energy that travels in the form of a longitudinal
mechanical wave in the form of compressions and rarefactions. Sound
can travel through any medium, but it cannot travel through a vacuum.
There is no sound in outer space.

Page 22 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
Sound is produced by of vibration of sounding bodies. All sounding bodies vibrate but not all
vibrating bodies cause sound. Because audible sounds
Humans are generally capable of hearing sounds between 20 Hertz and 20000 Hertz
(20 kHz). Sounds with frequencies above the range of human hearing are called ultrasound.
Sounds with frequencies below the range of human hearing are called infrasound.
Sound travels through air or any medium in all direction as spherical waves. Sound is a
variation in pressure. A region of increased pressure on a sound wave is called a
compression. A region of decreased pressure on a sound wave is called a rarefaction
Notes
For a gaseous medium
a) Speed of sound depends on the density of the medium that inversely proportional to the
1
root of density of the medium vα
ρ
b) The temperature of the medium also affects the speed of sound. As the temperature
becomes higher, the density of the medium decreases, this make the sound waves travel
faster.
Intensity
The term intensity has a meaning in physics. The intensity of a wave is defined as the rate of
energy transmitted (i.e. power) per unit area at right angles to the wave velocity.
power
intensity =
cross sectional area

Intensity is measured in watts per square meter (W m−2).

Intensity and amplitude
The intensity I of a wave is related to its amplitude A. In fact, intensity is proportional to the
square of the amplitude:
Intensity α amplitude2 (I α A2)
Higher amplitude, higher wave intensity and vice versa
So, if one wave has twice the amplitude of another, it has four times the intensity. This means
that it is carrying energy at four times the rate.
The intensity of a wave generally decreases as it travels along. There are two reasons for this:
a) Spreading of the wave (As a wave spreads out, its amplitude decreases)
b) Absorption or Scattering of the wave
Measuring frequency
You can measure the frequency of sound waves
using a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.). The
opposite figure shows how. A microphone is
connected to the input of the c.r.o. Sound waves are
captured by the microphone and converted into a
varying voltage which has the same frequency as
the sound waves. This voltage is displayed on the
c.r.o. screen. It is best to think of a c.r.o. as a
voltmeter which is capable of displaying a rapidly
varying voltage. To do this, its spot moves across
Page 23 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
the screen at a steady speed, set by the time-base control. At the same time, the spot moves
up and down according to the voltage of the input. Hence the display on the screen is a graph
of the varying voltage, with time on the (horizontal) x-axis. If we know the horizontal scale,
we can determine the period and hence the frequency of the sound wave
Exercise
The opposite Figure shows the trace on an
oscilloscope screen when sound waves are detected
by a microphone. The time-base is set at 1 ms/ div.
Determine the frequency of the sound waves

Standing (stationary) Waves:

Consider a string, such as a guitar string,
that is stretched between two clamps.
Suppose we send a continuous sinusoidal
wave of a certain frequency along the
string, say, toward the right. When the
wave reaches the right end, it reflects and
begins to travel back to the left. That left-
going wave then overlaps the wave that is still traveling to the right. When the left-going
wave reaches the left end, it reflects again and the newly reflected wave begins to travel to
the right, overlapping the left-going and right-going waves. In short, we very soon have many
overlapping traveling waves, which interfere with one another. For certain frequencies, the
interference produces a standing wave pattern (or oscillation mode) with nodes and large
antinodes like those in Fig

Standing Waves
The interference of two identical sinusoidal
waves moving in opposite directions produces
standing waves
All standing wave patterns consist of nodes and
antinodes where the nodes are produced at
locations where amplitude vanishes and
antinodes are produced at locations where the
amplitude is a maximum

Variation of standing wave patterns

Page 24 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

The relation to calculate the frequency of a tone produced from stretched string

For a stretched string of length L with fixed ends, the frequency of a tone is given by

𝐧 𝐅𝐓
𝐟= √
𝟐𝐋 𝛍
n: The number of segments (1, 2, 3,……)
L: The length of the string (measured in meter)
FT: tension force (measured in Newton)
µ : mass per unit length (measured in kg/m)
The oscillation mode corresponding to n = 1 is called the fundamental mode or the first
harmonic; the mode corresponding to n = 2 is the second harmonic; and so on.

Lesson 4
Light
Introduction:
Electromagnetic waves:
They are vibrating electric and magnetic
fields in phase, perpendicular to each
other and perpendicular to the direction of
their propagation.
Page 25 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office

By the end of the 19th century, several types of electromagnetic wave had been discovered:
1) radio waves – these were discovered by Heinrich Hertz when he was investigating
electrical sparks
2) infrared and ultraviolet waves – these lie beyond either end of the visible spectrum
3) X-rays – these were discovered by Wilhelm Rontgen and were produced when a beam of
electrons collided with a metal target such as tungsten
4) γ-rays – these were discovered by Henri Becquerel when he was investigating radioactive
substances.

Properties of electromagnetic waves:

1) They are vibrating electric and magnetic fields that moves through space or any other
medium.
2) They are transverse waves only.
3) They don't need medium to travel through it.
4) They propagate in space (as in air) at the same speed (c) = 3 × 10 8 m/s while varying in
frequency (and wavelength) and propagate in material media with a smaller velocity
depending on the medium.

Light
Light is an Electromagnetic wave that occupies a small range in the electromagnetic spectrum

*Range of wavelength of light is between 400nm and 700nm.

*light (visible light) consists of 7 colors (red-orange - yellow- green-blue –indigo -
violet)
*red has maximum wavelength while violet has minimum wavelength
The speed of light
James Clerk Maxwell showed that the speed c of electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum (free
space) was independent of the frequency of the waves. In other words, all types of
electromagnetic wave travel at the same speed in a vacuum. In the SI system of units, c has
the approximate value for the speed of light in a vacuum
(Often used in calculations) is 3×108 m /s.
The wavelength λ and frequency f of the radiation are related by the equation:
c=fλ
Page 26 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
When light travels from a vacuum into a material medium such as glass, its speed decreases
but its frequency remains the same, and so we conclude that its wavelength must decrease.
We often think of different forms of electromagnetic radiation as being characterized by their
different wavelengths, but it is better to think of their different frequencies as being their
fundamental characteristic, since their wavelengths depend on the medium through which
they are travelling.
Light ray
To describe the directions in which light propagates, it’s often convenient to represent a light
wave by rays rather than by wave fronts. Rays were used to describe light long before its
wave nature was firmly established. In a particle theory of light, rays are the paths of the
particles. From the wave viewpoint a ray is an imaginary line along the direction of travel of
the wave. The rays are always straight lines normal to the wave fronts. At a boundary surface
between two materials, such as the surface of a glass plate in air, the wave speed and the
direction of a ray may change, but the ray segments in the air and in the glass are straight
lines

We briefly describe these different types of electromagnetic waves, in order of decreasing

wavelengths.
Radio waves
Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires. They
are used in radio and television communication systems. They are generally in the frequency
range from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz. The AM (amplitude modulated) band is from 530
kHz to 1710 kHz. Higher frequencies upto 54 MHz are used for short wave bands. TV waves
range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz. The FM (frequency modulated) radio band extends from 88
MHz to 108 MHz. Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit voice communication in the
ultrahigh frequency (UHF) band.
Microwaves
Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), with frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz) range,
are produced by special vacuum tubes (called klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn diodes). Due
to their short wavelengths, they are suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
Radar also provides the basis for the speed guns used to time fast balls, tennisserves, and
automobiles. Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic application of these waves. In
such ovens, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to match the resonant frequency of
water molecules so that energy from the waves is transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy
of the molecules. This raises the temperature of any food containing water.

Infrared waves
Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules. This band lies adjacent to the low-
frequency or long-wave length end of the visible spectrum. Infrared waves are sometimes
referred to as heat waves. This is because water molecules present in most materials readily
absorb infrared waves (many other molecules, for example, CO2, NH3, also absorb infrared
waves). After absorption, their thermal motion increases, that is, they heat up and heat their
surroundings. Infrared lamps are used in physical therapy. Infrared radiation also plays an
important role in maintaining the earth’s warmth or average temperature through the
greenhouse effect. Incoming visible light (which passes relatively easily through the
Page 27 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
atmosphere) is absorbed by the earth’s surface and reradiated as infrared (longer wavelength)
radiations. This radiation is trapped by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water
vapor. Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for military purposes and to observe
growth of crops. Electronic devices (for example semiconductor light emitting diodes) also
emit infrared and are widely used in the remote switches of household electronic systems
such as TV sets, video recorders and hi-fi systems.
Visible rays
It is the most familiar form of electromagnetic waves. It is the part of the spectrum that is
detected by the human eye. It runs from about 4 × 1014 Hz to about 7 × 1014 Hz
or a wavelength range of about 700 – 400 nm. Visible light emitted or reflected from objects
around us provides us information about the world. Our eyes are sensitive to this range of
wavelengths. Different animals are sensitive to different range of wavelengths. For example,
snakes can detect infrared waves, and the ‘visible’ range of many insects extends well into
the utraviolet.
Ultraviolet rays
It covers wavelengths ranging from about 4 × 10–7 m (400 nm) down to 6 × 10–10 m (0.6 nm).
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot bodies. The sun is an
important source of ultraviolet light. But fortunately, most of it is absorbed in the ozone layer
in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 40 – 50 km. UV light in large quantities has harmful
effects on humans. Exposure to UV radiation induces the production of more melanin,
causing tanning of the skin. UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass. Hence, one cannot
get tanned or sunburn through glass windows.
Welders wear special glass goggles or face masks with glass windows to protect their eyes
from large amount of UV produced by welding arcs. Due to its shorter wavelengths, UV
radiations can be focused into very narrow beams for high precision applications such as
LASIK (Laser assisted in situ keratom ileusis) eye surgery. UV lamps are used to kill germs
in water purifiers.
Ozone layer in the atmosphere plays a protective role, and hence its depletion by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) gas (such as Freon) is a matter of international concern.
X-rays
Beyond the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies the X-ray region. We are familiar
with X-rays because of its medical applications. It covers wavelengths from about 10–8 m (10
nm) down to 10–13 m (10–4 nm). One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal
target by high energy electrons. X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a
treatment for certain forms of cancer. Because X-rays damage or destroy living tissues and
organisms, care must be taken to avoid unnecessary or over exposure.
Gamma rays

Page 28 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
They lie in the upper frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum and have wavelengths
of from about 10–10 m to less than 10–14 m. This high frequency radiation is produced in
nuclear reactions and also emitted by radioactive nuclei. They are used in medicine to destroy
cancer cells.

Page 29 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
Lesson 5
Reflection and Refraction of light
Introduction:
When a light wave strikes a smooth interface separating
two transparent materials (such as air and glass or water
and glass), the wave is in general partly reflected and
partly refracted (transmitted) into the second material.
Part of the light is reflected by the surface, forming a
beam directed upward toward the right, traveling as if
the original beam had bounced from the surface. The
rest of the light travels through the surface and into the
water, forming a beam directed downward to the right.
Because light can travel through it, the water is said to
be transparent; that is, we can see through it.
Reflection of light:
Reflection is defined as the bouncing back (return) of a ray of
light into the same medium, when it strikes a surface (such as
mirrors).
Reflection can occur with either transparent materials or
opaque materials that do not transmit light

Laws of reflection:
1- Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
2-The incident ray , the reflected ray & the normal to the
surface of reflection at the point of incidence , all lie in one
plane perpendicular to the plane of the reflecting surface.
Refraction of light
(It is the bending of a light wave when it passes from one
medium to another at the surface separating the two media
due to the change of speed of light in different media of
different densities)
The travel of light through a surface (or interface) that separates
two media is called refraction, and the light is said to be
refracted. Unless an incident beam of light is perpendicular to
the surface, refraction changes the light’s direction of travel. For
this reason, the beam is said to be “bent” by the refraction

Page 30 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
The index of refraction of an optical material (the refractive index)
The refractive index (n): It is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed in the
material:
c sin θair
n= =
v sin θmedium
Light always travels more slowly in a material than in vacuum, so the value of (n) in anything
other than vacuum is always greater than unity. For vacuum, n = 1.
Wave speed and index of refraction
Keep in mind that the wave speed is inversely proportional to the index of refraction the
greater the index of refraction in a material, the slower the wave speed in that material
Laws of refraction:
1) The ratio between the sin the angle of incidence to sin the angle of refraction is constant
and is known as the refractive index between the two media (n12)

v1 sin θ1
n12 = =
v2 sin θ2
OR
n1 × sin θ1 = n2 × sin θ2 (Snell’s law)
n1: absolute refraction index of the first medium
n2: absolute refraction index of the second medium
v1: speed of light in the first medium
v2: speed of light in the second medium
θ1: angle of incidence in the first medium (The angle of incidence is measured with respect to
the normal at the refractive boundary)
θ2: angle of refraction in the second medium (The angle of refraction is measured with
respect to the normal at the refractive boundary)
2) The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal to the separating surface at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane

Page 31 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
Notes
v1 sin θ1
n12 = =
v2 sin θ2
To compare the angle of refraction θ2 with the angle of incidence θ1, we can then see that the
relative value of θ2 depends on the relative values of n2 and n1:
1. If n2 is equal to n1, then θ2 is equal to θ1 and refraction does not bend the light beam,
which continues in the undeflected direction, as in figure below.
2. If n2 is greater than n1, then θ2 is less than θ1. In this case, refraction bends the light beam
away from the undeflected direction and toward the normal, as in figure below
3. If n2 is less than n1, then θ2 is greater than θ1. In this case, refraction bends the light beam
away from the undeflected direction and away from the normal, as in figure below.

Page 32 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
Lesson 6
Total internal reflection
The two figures below show rays of monochromatic light from a point source S in glass
incident on the interface between the glass and air. For ray a, which is perpendicular to the
interface, part of the light reflects at the interface and the rest travels through it with no
change in direction. For rays b through e, which have progressively larger angles of incidence
at the interface, there are also both reflection and refraction at the interface. As the angle of
incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases; for ray e it is 90°, which means that the
refracted ray points directly along the interface. The angle of incidence giving this situation is
called the critical angle θc. For angles of incidence larger than θc, such as for rays f and g,
there is no refracted ray and all the light is reflected; this effect is called total internal
reflection.

i.e.
1) When a ray of light passes from an optical medium of greater
refractive index (n1) (such as water or glass) to an optical
medium of lower refractive index (n2) (such as air). It refracts
away from the normal by increasing the angle of incidence in
the first medium, the angle of refraction in the second medium
increase also.
2) When the angle of incidence reaches certain value, the corresponding angle of refraction
reach 90° and hence the ray emerges along (parallel to) the separating surface. In this case
the angle of incidence in the first medium is known as (The critical angle θc)

The critical angle

(It is the angle of incidence in the medium of greater refractive index (1st medium) that
corresponds to an angle of refraction in the medium lower refractive index (2nd medium)
equal to 90°)

Page 33 of 34
Administration and Operation Unit of Applied Technology Schools Science Development Office
To find the critical angle θc
n1 × sin θ1 = n2 × sin θ2

θ1 = θc (the critical angle) if θ2 = 90o

n1 × sin θc = n2 × sin 90o

Application of total internal reflection:

The optical fibers:
Structure:
a) The optical fibers is a fine hollow tube of a transparent
material (glass or plastic) of high refractive index (small
critical angle)
b) When a ray of light enters the tube, it suffers successive
reflections. (Since the angle of incidence is greater than
the critical angle).Till it emerges from the other end of the tube without loss of energy.
Functions:
1) Fiber-optic devices have found a wide range of medical
applications in instruments called endoscopes, which can be
inserted directly into the bronchial tubes, the bladder, the colon,
and other organs for direct visual examination.
2) A bundle of fibers can even be enclosed in a hypodermic needle
for studying tissues and blood vessels far beneath the skin.
3) Fiber optics also have applications in communication systems, in
which they are used to transmit a modulated laser beam. The rate
at which information can be transmitted by a wave (light, radio, or
whatever) is proportional to the frequency.
To see qualitatively why this is so, consider modulating (modifying)
the wave by chopping off some of the wave crests. Suppose each crest
represents a binary digit, with a chopped-off crest representing a zero and an unmodified
crest representing a one. The number of binary digits we can transmit per unit time is thus
proportional to the frequency of the wave. Infrared and visible- light waves have much higher
frequency than do radio waves, so a modulated laser beam can transmit an enormous amount
of information through a single fiber-optic cable.
4) Fiber-optic cables play an important role in long-distance telephone, television, and
Internet communication. The advantage of optical fibers is that they can be made thinner
than conventional copper wire, so more fibers can be bundled together in a cable of a
given diameter. Hence more distinct signals (for instance, different phone lines) can be
sent over the same cable. Because fiber-optic cables are electrical insulators, they are
immune to electrical interference from lightning and other sources, and they don’t allow
unwanted currents between source and receiver.
Note that:
Each fiber coated with a thin layer of a material of lower refractive index
a) To keep the light rays inside the core without escaping
b) To reflect any rays escaping from the core to keep the intensity of light without decrease.

Page 34 of 34