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Antennas
Problem Set 3
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Note: Problems marked with the symbol † are considered advanced and are primarily
intended for students interested in exploring electromagnetic theory in greater depth.
Linear arrays
1.
Three isotropic sources spaced by a distance 𝑑 are placed along the 𝑧-axis. The excitation
coefficients of the sources follow the ratio 1:2:1. For an element spacing of d / 4 ,
determine:
(a) The array factor.
(b) The angles where nulls occur in the radiation pattern.
(c) The angles where maxima occur in the radiation pattern.
2. An array of 3 elements formed by isotropic radiators placed along the z-axis is such that the
position and current of each element satisfy:
#1: z 0, I j
#2: z d , I 1
#3: z d , I 1
The spacing between elements is d / 2 .
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(a) Determine the array factor.
(b) Determine all the zeros (nulls) of the array factor.
3. A uniform array has 100 elements spaced by / 2 .
Determine the main beamwidth between nulls (MBW) if the array is designed to operate as:
(a) a broadside array.
(b) an endfire array.
(c) an array where the direction of maximum radiation occurs at an angle of 45º with respect
to the axis of the array.
4. Consider a uniform linear broadside array made up of 𝑁 isotropic radiators arranged along
the 𝑥-axis, with element spacing of d /10 . Determine the integer number of elements 𝑁
such that, in the 𝑥𝑜𝑦 plane, we have:
(a) The half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is approximately 60º.
(b) The main beamwidth between nulls (MBW) is 60º.
5. Consider a progressive-phase array of 𝑁 isotropic antennas arranged along the 𝑥 -axis, with
d / 4 . The antennas are fed with currents of equal amplitude and a progressive phase shift
of / 2 between adjacent elements. Study the evolution of the array’s radiation pattern as
a function of the number of antennas: N=3,4,5,6. Use in this study the graphical construction
that allows you to obtain the spatial factor of the array from the function f u , indicating the
visible region.
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6. An array of two half-wavelength dipole antennas is
fed as shown in the figure. Assume that the spacing
between the antennas is half a wavelength ( d 0 / 2 ),
and that the length of the feed lines is also l 0 / 2 .
(a) Calculate the spatial factor (array factor) of the array
and show that it is an endfire array.
(b) Assuming that the self-impedances and the mutual
impedance are Z11 Z 22 73 j 42.5 and
Z12 13 j 29 , determine the field intensity gain
relative to a reference dipole antenna / 2 .
(c) Determine the maximum power gain of the array.
7. Consider an array consisting of two lossless half-wave dipoles, parallel and aligned, and
separated by d / 4 along the 𝑥-axis. The dipoles have independent feeding, and the feed
currents have equal amplitude, with the current in antenna 2 leading antenna 1 by 90º (in
quadrature).
(a) Determine the expression for the array (spatial) factor.
(b) Plot the array factor and the radiation pattern in the three principal planes.
8. Consider an array of two half-wavelength dipoles, spaced by d / 2 , and fed with
currents I 0 1[ A] and I1 e j 45º [ A] . Determine:
(a) The direction where the array factor is maximum.
(b) The zeros of the array factor.
(c) The side lobe level of the array factor.
(d) The electric field in the direction of maximum radiation.
9. An array of 10 half-wavelength dipole elements, oriented along the 𝑧-axis and fed at the
center, is arranged along the 𝑥 -axis as shown in the figure. The spacing between elements 5
and 6 is 3 , while the rest of the elements are spaced by / 2 . The feeding currents at the
antennas are equal in both amplitude and phase.
(a) Find the array spatial factor.
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(b) If the receiving antenna is a vertical half-wavelength dipole centered at a point with
coordinates r , , , obtain an expression for the open-circuit voltage induced at the
terminals of the receiving dipole.
10. For a broadside array of 𝑁 isotropic radiators spaced by 𝑑, such that kd 1 but with
Nkd 1 , show that the directivity of the array is approximately equal to 2 Nd / .
sin 2 x
Hint: dx .
x2
11. For an endfire array of N isotropic radiators spaced by d, such that kd 1 but with
Nkd 1 , show that the directivity of the array is approximately equal to 4 Nd / .
12. ( † )
sin Nu / 2
2
N 1
1 2
(a) Using the identity 2 N m cos mu , show that the directivity
N sin(u / 2) N N m 1
of a uniform array of 𝑁 isotropic radiators spaced by a distance 𝑑 and with a progressive
phase shift of is given by:
1
D
1 2 N 1
N m sin
2
N N
m 1 mkd
mkd cos m
(b) Sketch the directivity curve as a function of d / for N=10.
(c) What is the directivity when the spacing is an odd multiple of / 2 ?
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Dolph-Chebyshev array
13.
(a) Determine the relationship between the excitation currents of a 4-element array that
radiates an optimal broadside radiation pattern with a beamwidth between nulls of 120º.
Assume the spacing between the elements is / 2 .
(b) Determine the side lobe level (SLL).
(c) Compare the result from the previous item with that of a uniform 4-element array with the
same beamwidth between nulls.
(d) Sketch the radiation pattern of the array factor for the optimal array.
14. Design a Dolph–Chebyshev broadside array with 3 elements and a side lobe level of 0.1.
Indicate the relationship between the excitation currents and the beamwidth between nulls.
Sketch the radiation pattern. Assume the spacing between elements is / 2 .
Planar arrays
15. A uniform planar array of 4 20 elements placed in the xoz plane, with element spacing
of 0.25 , is designed so that the direction of maximum radiation is along the 𝑧-axis.
(a) Determine the phase shifts between the elements in the 𝑥 and 𝑧 directions.
(b) Sketch the radiation pattern, indicating the direction in which the beam is narrowest.
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16. A square 12 × 12 phased-array antenna made of identical isotropic elements is mounted
flat on the deck of a patrol vessel. The array lies in the horizontal 𝑥−𝑧 plane, its centre is the
origin (0,0,0) and the + 𝑦 direction points vertically upward. The operating frequency is 6
GHz and the element spacing is d 0.50 .
While scanning, the radar detects an echo from a drone when the phase shift between the
feeding currents in the x and z directions is such that x 45º and z 60º . At the same
instant the drone reports, via its own telemetry, that it is flying at a height 300m above sea
level (the array plane). Find the drone coordinates (x, y, z) relative to the array centre.
Solutions:
1 (a) f 2 2 cos cos (b) nenhum. (c) 90º .
2
2 (a) f j 1 2sin cos (b) 99.6º e 146.4º
3 (a) 2.29º. (b) 22.96º. (c) 3.24º.
4 (a) N=9 (solução N=8.9) (b) N=20.
5
6 a) f 2 cos cos
I1 4 4
cos cos
b) E 2 , cos cos sin
2 cos cos
E0 4 4 sin
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Y
2
XOY: E 2 cos cos
E0 4 4
1
0 X
-1
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2
Z
cos cos 2
YOZ: E 2
2
E0 sin
0 Y
-1
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2
XOZ:
Z
2
cos cos
E 2
2 cos sin
E0 4 4 sin
1
0 X
-1
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2
6 a) f / I 2 sin cos . b) G
1 f , /2 1.3 sin cos . c) Gm 2.77 .
2 2
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8 (a) 105.5º (b) 41.4º (c) SLL=0.38 (d) E 120 / r [V/m]
9
5
sin cos sin
(a) 2 cos 5 cos sin
F 2
sin cos sin
2
2
5
cos cos sin cos sin
(b) 240 I 0 2 2 cos 5 cos sin
Voc
k0 r sin
sin cos sin
2
12 (c) D=N (na realidade, também é válido para múltiplos pares de / 2 ).
13 (a) 1: 2.83 : 2.83 :1 b) SLL = 0.0037. c) SLL = 0.27
(d) (note-se que os lobos secundários são desprezáveis)
14 Correntes: 1:1.64 :1 MBW=107.3º
16 (82.4, 300, -109.8) [m]
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15º e -90º em x e z respectivamente. b) feixe mais estreito na direcção x
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