Chapter Two
MEASUREMENT OF RIVER STAGE/
WATER DEPTH AND VELOCITY
Introduction
In any Engineering field, the observation,
compilation and validation of data is the most
important aspect which lays the foundation of further
activities.
The measurement of water level or stage at a gauging
station is perhaps the most fundamental activity in
hydrology.
Field practice and frequency of observation should
match with the data needs and the available
instruments.
Cont.
The greatest frequency of observation is required
when the water level and discharge is changing
rapidly, especially during the monsoon season.
The water levels are normally recorded using:
(a) Staff gauges (RCC Post/Wooden post cut to
edges).
(b) Stations with Radar/Pressure sensor (Digital
Water level Recorders)
Staff Gauges
(A) The gauge observer will read the water level at an
external staff gauge located directly in the river, and
record to the nearest 1 mm where the water has little
surface fluctuation.
Where the water level is unstable due to wind action or
turbulence, the observer will assess the mean
level by noting the level fluctuation over a period of
approximately 30 seconds and take the mean (average)
of the normal range.
Cont.
Any gauge maintained inside of a stilling well should
not be used as the primary water level measurement
gauge.
Observation will be made by making the closest
possible approach to the gauge in the river consistent
with safety.
Where the staff gauge is likely to become too distant
for accurate gauge readings during rising flood levels.
Cont.
(B) The frequency may also be used to record the
maximum and minimum water level during the day in
addition to hourly levels, is such additional data is
available.
In rapidly changing flows, the maximum level may
exceed the highest recorded hourly level, when it
occurs between the hourly observations.
Similarly, the minimum level may be lower than the
lowest hourly level.
Cont.
(C)The gauge reader is required to maintain good time
keeping and the hourly observation will not fall more
than 5 minutes before or after the hourly observation
time.
(D) The observer will note on the form whether the
gauge is the only gauge, the main gauge, or a
supplementary gauge, or gauges for assessing surface
water slope.
A separate form will be used for each supplementary
gauge in use.
Cont.
It is important that each gauge is clearly identified on
the form.
For supplementary gauges the observer will note
whether the gauge is upstream or downstream from
the main gauge.
Where supplementary gauges exist and are some
distance apart, the upstream gauge will be read first
and the downstream gauge as soon thereafter as is
consistent with safety.
Cont.
(e) During period of low flow or where the station is
equipped with a reliable automatic or digital method
of recording, the observer will take readings three
times daily at 08:00, 13:00 and 18:00 hours and
record on the standard form covering a period of one
month per form.
(f) When the gauge observer reads the gauge at other,
non-standard times, he must ensure that the actual
time of reading is recorded.
Cont.
(g) When the gauge observer is unable to visit the
station due to sickness or other reason, he/she will in
no instance attempt to estimate or interpolate the
missing value(s) but will leave the space blank or note
“M” and record in “Remarks” the reason for the
missing record.
(h) The observer will ensure that there is a direct
connection between the flowing water surface and the
gauge.
After flood siltation he/she will, if necessary, remove
sandbars or dig a trench from the gauge to free water.
Cont.
(i) The observer will note in “Remarks” all those
occurrences, which may influence the level as
observed at the gauges and especially those, which
may affect the level-discharge relationship. The
time/date and location of occurrences will be noted.
The following occurrences in particular should be
noted:
i) Damage or destruction of gauges due to flood or
other cause
ii) Scouring and lowering of the river bed level either
at the gauges or at the control site
Cont.
iii) Construction of bunds downstream to raise
water level for abstraction or diversion
iv) Extraction of sand or gravel from the river
channel
v) Blockage or partial blockage of the channel by
floating or other debris in flood.
vi) Significant weed growth in the channel or on
the weir and its subsequent removal.
Cont.
(j) The observer will record the level at which flow
ceases and the pool of water at the gauges becomes
static.
Where the river level falls below the level of the
lowest gauge but flow continues, the observer will
measure downward form the datum of the gauges
and record it as a negative stage
i.e. he/she will measure the distance from the zero
on the gauge to the water surface.
Cont.
The staff gage is either vertical or inclined.
The standard USGS vertical-staff gage consists of
porcelain-enameled iron sections 4 in. wide and 3.4
ft long and graduated every 0.02 ft.
The vertical staff gage is also used in stilling wells as
an inside gage.
Vertical-staff gages are set by leveling directly to the
gages.
Cont.
For example, if the distance from the gauge zero to
the water surface is 0.15 m, then the gauge reading
should be recorded as -0.15 m.
As soon as possible, the engineer in charge will re-
survey the station and reinstall the gauges with a
new datum, ensuring that survey details and the
change in datum are fully documented in the station
record.
Vertical Staff gages
Inclined staff gage
An inclined staff gage is used for an outside gage
and usually consists of a graduated heavy timber
securely attached to a permanent foundation.
Inclined staff gages built flush with the stream bank are
less likely to be damaged by floods, floating ice, or drift
than are projecting vertical staffs.
Inclined-staff gages must be individually calibrated by
leveling to several points along the length of the gage,
interpolating intermediate points, and marking these
points with a relatively permanent marking system.
Inclined staff Gages
Electric-Tape Gages
Attach the electric-tape gage to the instrument shelf,
and insulate it if the shelf is metal.
the negative terminal of the battery to the stilling
well if the stilling well is metal, such as a corrugated
metal pipe (CMP) or culvert-pipe well.
Attach the positive terminal of the electric-tape gage
to the positive terminal of the battery.
To determine the gage height of the water level, the
weight is lowered until it barely contacts the water
surface.
Cont.
Wire-Weight Gages
The type A wire-weight gage is usually attached to a
bridge handrail and is generally used as an outside
auxiliary gage.
At some sites it is used as a reference gage.
A type A wire-weight gage consists of a drum wound
with a single layer of cable, a bronze weight attached
to the end of the cable, a graduated disc, and a
Veeder counter, all within a cast-aluminum box.
Cont.
Float-Tape Gages
Historically, the float-tape gage consisted of a float, a
graduated steel tape, a lead or stainless-steel counterweight,
and a pulley.
The float pulley usually was a diameter of 6 in., was grooved
on the circumference to accommodate the tape, and was
mounted in a standard.
An arm extended from the standard to a point slightly
beyond the tape to carry an adjust able index.
The tape was connected to the float by a clamp that also
could be used for making adjustments to the tape reading, in
case they were too large to be accommodated by the adjust
able index.
Float-tape gagues
Crest-stage gage
The crest-stage gage is a simple, economical, reliable,
and easily installed device for obtaining the elevation
of the flood crest of streams.
Although many different types of crest-stage gages
have been tested, the most functional one is a
vertical piece of 2-in.
The bottom cap or a perforated tin cup or copper
screening in a cup shape attached to the lower end of
the staff contains regranulated cork.
Crest-stage gage
Bubble Gages
The term bubble gage is a general term that refers to
various configurations of instrumentation designed to
measure, or sense, the water level and stage on the
basis of pressure differentials.
A gas, such as nitrogen or air, is forced (bubbled)
through a fixed orifice mounted in the stream, and the
water pressure at the orifice is transmitted through the
gas tube to a pressure sensor located in the gage house
where it is converted to a measurement of stream
stage.
Cont.
Advantages of bubble over a float operated water stage
recorder listed as
There is no need for costly stilling wells
A large change in the stage, as much as 30m,
can be measured
The recorder assembly can be quite far away
from the sensing point
Stage data recording and analysis
Stage measurements are mainly made with gauges
Stage measurement can be inaccurate if there is
scouring
Basically there are two modes of stage
measurements:
The first is discrete stage measurements using
manual gauges
And the second is continuous stage measurements
using recorders
Stage data recording and analysis
The stage data is often presented in the form of a plot
of stage against chronological time known as stage
hydrograph.
Importance of stage data
Determination of stream discharge
Importance in flood warning and flood
protection works
To estimate the design peak river stages for
use in the design of hydraulic structures,
such as bridges, weirs, etc.
Quiz One
1. Name at least three instruments used for water level
measurement.
2. Write two importance of stage data.
Velocity Measurement
For the measurement of discharge, the mean
velocity is required at various vertical lines.
The following methods are commonly used:
Current meter method
Floating method
Ultrasonic method
Velocity measurement by Float
In this method, a straight and uniform reach of the
river is selected for the float to travel. Velocity =
distance /time
The time t taken by a float to travel a certain distance
L is measured.
Cont.
The surface velocity (Vs) is equal to 1.2(average
Velocity,V)
i.e, Vs = 1.2V and V = 0.8Vs.
There are three types of float commonly used in
practice :
Surface floats
Sub-surface floats of double floats
Velocity rods or rod floats
Cont.
Surface floats: They are made up of light
materials, such as cork.
Any object that can float can be used as surface float.
Subsurface float or double float: It consists of a
lighter surface float attached by cord to hollow metal
sphere or a cylinder which is another subsurface
float.
Rod Float: A velocity rod or a rod float consists of a
hollow metal tube or a wooden rod.
Restriction of floats
Used when high accuracy is not required
Used at uniform cross-section and free of surface
disturbances
The test section of the channel length is measured at
the beginning, midpoint and end.
A float is released at sufficient distance upstream to
attach the stream velocity before it enters the test
section
The time when the float passes each section is record
and the average velocity is determined. V= D/t
Velocity measurement by current meters
The most commonly used instrument in
hydrometery to measure the velocity at a point in the
flow cross – section is the current meter.
Consists of a rotating element which rotates due to
the reaction of the stream current with an angular
velocity proportional to the stream velocity.
Cont.
There are mainly two types of current meters which
are common use:
1. Cup type and
2. Propeller type current meter
The principle involved in both the meters is that the
water flowing past the rotating element of the meter
makes it revolve due to the unbalanced drag force
acting on it and the speed of the rotating element is
directly proportional to the velocity of water.
Current meter
It has a propeller which is rotated when
water hits it and is connected to magnets
which actuates recorders when the
propeller rotates
The velocity of water increases the
propeller rotation
The number of rotations are measured and
correlated to velocity using the formula
V = a +bN; where N is the rotation of the
propeller (revolutions per sec), a and b are
coefficients determined by calibration in
an experimental flume.
Velocity measurement by Ultrasonic method
An other method to measure velocity of a stream is the
use of ultrasonic sound wave moving in water from
one side of the channel to other.
Two transducers capable of emitting and recording
sound waves are placed at the same reduced level on
either side of the river banks, making an angle with
respect in the river bank.
Cont.
Cont.
When the transducer P2 sends ultrasonic signals, it is
received by p1
The signals move with their own velocity in the water
medium plus the velocity of water favouring it.
When P1 sends signals, it is received by P2 with
velocity of water opposing it.
Cont.
Where; L is the distance between P1 and P2
t1 and t2 are respectively represents the times taken
by sound wave to reach from P2 to P1 and from P1 to
P2.
Cross-sectional Area (A)
In wide and /or irregularly shaped channels, the
cross-sectional area is divide into several segments.
The area of each segment is the product of the width
of the segment and its average depth
Triangle area = d*w/2
Cont.
Areas of the segments are summed to determine
the total cross-sectional area
A = 𝑎𝑖
Determination of Discharges
The cross-sectional area of flow is then multiplied by
the average velocity to get the flow rate