Primary Storage

• Primary storage is directly accessible by the CPU , it includes RAM, Cache, and
ROM
• The purpose of Random Access Memory (RAM) is to store data, instructions
and software (including parts of the OS) currently in use
o RAM is also called main memory
o RAM has faster read/write speeds than secondary storage
o RAM is volatile which means it is temporary memory and all data will be
lost when the computer is switched off
o The larger the main memory, the more data the computer access quickly,
which can improve the computer's performance
o A standard desktop computer has between 4GB and 16GB of RAM
• The parts of the operating system currently in use will be stored in RAM
• The purpose of cache is to store frequently/recently used instructions and
data
o Cache has faster read/write speeds than RAM
o There are different levels of cache
▪ Level 1 cache is situated within the CPU
▪ Level 2 and 3 cache are situated on the motherboard
o If you increase the amount of cache you can store more frequently used
data and increase the performance of your computer
▪ If you have too much cache it will decrease the data access speeds
because the data requested will take longer to find
o Cache is volatile and all data will be lost when the computer is switched
off

Secondary Storage

• Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU

• It is used for permanent storage of data
• Secondary storage is non-volatile. This means data is stored even when power is
lost to the device
• Secondary storage is needed as primary storage (such as RAM ) is volatile and
will not retain data when the computer is turned off
• Unlike ROM, secondary storage can be read from and written to. ROM is read
only
• Common examples of secondary storage include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-
state drives (SSDs), external hard drives, USB flash drives, CDs,
DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. These can be used to store data to transfer it to
another computer
• Data access speeds for secondary storage devices are typically slower than
primary storage (such as RAM)
• Secondary storage devices often have large capacity (can store large amounts of
data)
 • Software such as the operating system is saved permanently on secondary
storage. The instructions and data that makes up the software then moves to
RAM when it is in use
• Secondary storage devices can be internal (inside the computer) and external
(outside the computer)

Diagram showing different internal and external secondary storage devices

Comparison of primary and secondary storage

Primary storage Secondary storage

Volatile / temporary Non-volatile /permanent

RAM and cache can be read from and written
to Secondary storage can be read from and
written to
ROM is read-only
Can be directly accessed by the CPU Cannot be directly accessed by the CPU

Smaller capacity Larger capacity

Data access speeds faster than secondary Data access speeds slower than primary
storage storage
Stores data and instructions Stores data and instructions

Magnetic

• Magnetic hard disk drives have been the main type of internal secondary storage
in personal computers for many years however solid state drives are increasingly
popular due to their durability, low power consumption and high read/write
speeds
 • A magnetic hard disk is made up of several metal discs coated with a magnetic
material
o These are called platters
o Iron particles on each platter are magnetised to represent a 0 or 1

A diagram showing the structure of a magnetic hard disk

• Each platter is divided by concentric circles creating several tracks and wedge
shaped sectors. Where they intersect is a track sector

A diagram showing how each platter is divided by tracks and sectors

• The hard drive spins the metal disk(s) at a high speed (typically around 5400-
7200 RPM) using a motor
• A read/write arm, controlled by an actuator, moves the head over the surface
of the disc to the location of the data
• The data is read/written using electromagnets

Solid State

• Solid State secondary storage is made of transistors that are arranged in a grid
layout
• It uses NAND and NOR gates in electrical circuits to persistently control the flow
of electrons
 • Current flowing is 1, no current is 0 - which is how electrical flow can represent
binary values
• A NAND gate will take in two inputs and produce an output (1/electrical current)
as long as both inputs are not 1

The truth table truth table for a NAND gate

InputA InputB Output

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

• A NOR gate will produce an output (1) only when both inputs are 0

The truth table for a NOR gate

InputA InputB Output

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Optical

• Optical devices include CDs, DVDs and Blu-rays

o Blu-rays have the largest capacity
o CDs have the lowest capacity
o CD-R are read-only (you cannot save data on to them)
o CD-RW can be written to and read from
o DVD-RW can be written to and read from
• All optical devices work by shining a laser at the disk and processing the
reflection
• An arm moves the laser across the surface of the disk
• In CD-Rs a laser burns the data, permanently on to the disk, by
creating pits and lands
• The laser is also used to read the data from the pits and lands
• When the laser light hits the point where the pit changes into a land or vice versa
the light scatters and is not reflected back as well. This is captured by a sensor
and can be interpreted as a change in the binary value
A diagram showing how data is burnt on to optical discs to create lands and pits
which can then be used

• In CD-RW the chemical composition of the disk is changed to represent 0s and

1s. This change can be overwritten

A diagram showing the parts of a computer system which are classed as primary
storage

• The role of Read-only memory (ROM) is to store the computer’s boot-up

sequence
o The boot-up sequence is a set of instructions the computer executes when
then computer is initially switched on
o This sequence will run a series of checks to ensure all of the
system hardware is working
o It will then load the operating system which will move from secondary
storage to RAM
• ROM is non-volatile which means data will be stored when the computer is
switched off
• ROM is read-only which means data cannot be written to ROM
 The difference between ROM and RAM

RAM ROM

Volatile Non-volatile
Can read and write data to RAM Read-only

Virtual Memory

• The purpose of RAM is to store current data and program instructions in use
• The amount of physical RAM available is limited. The average modern desktop
computer has between 4GB and 16GB of RAM. Some programs are larger than
this
• Virtual memory is part of secondary storage which acts as RAM when RAM is
full
• It prevents the computer system crashing when RAM is full
• Data that needs to be accessed by the CPU directly is switched by the operating
system from virtual memory into RAM and an inactive page from RAM replaces it
in virtual memory. This is called page switching

A diagram showing page switching between RAM and virtual memory

• The table describes the steps that are taken when a program is opened on a
computer

Step Description

1 • The memory manager software built into the Operating System

checks to see if there is sufficient space in RAM to move the new
program’s instructions into RAM, so that they can be directly
accessed by the CPU
 2 • If RAM is full, the memory manager will move out the most inactive
pages of data and put them in virtual memory until needed

3 • The new program instructions are moved into RAM

Cloud Storage

• Cloud storage is the concept of storing data on remote servers, that can be
accessed via the internet, instead of on a local storage device (such as
an SSD or HDD)
• The physical servers, where the data is stored, are owned and managed by a
hosting company

o Cloud storage warehouses often have thousands of servers containing

harddrives
o The hosting company provides services such backing up the data,
managing access to the data as well as general security
• The data can be accessed at any time, on any device, as long as there is an
internet connection
• The data is accessible using a web browser or dedicated software that connects
to the cloud storage service
• There is potentially limitless storage, although it does need to be paid for
• Online storage means it is easy to share data and collaborate with others
• If the internet connection is slow/lost the access to your data is affected

A diagram showing different devices connecting to remote servers

Advantages of cloud storage

• Cloud storage offers several advantages over storing data on a local secondary
storage device
 Benefit Explanation

Accessibility
• Data can be accessed from anywhere
• Data can be accessed by anyone with the relevant
permissions, making it quick to share files and
collaborate with others
• Data can be accessed on any device with an internet
connection

Scalability • Cloud storage providers allow customers to increase or

decrease their storage capacity as needed

Reliability • Cloud storage providers often use multiple servers to

store and backup data, reducing the risk of data loss due
to hardware failure

Security
• Cloud storage providers offer advanced security
features, such as data encryption and multi-factor
authentication multi-factor authentication, to protect
user data from unauthorised access
• There is no need to hire specialist staff as IT services
being provided by the cloud storage provider

• You also do not need to purchase local secondary storage devices

• One cloud storage centre is more environmentally friendly than millions of
individual servers
• There are some drawbacks to using cloud storage
o If the user has a slow or unreliable internet connection they would have
problems accessing their files
o If you are storing a lot of data it can be expensive
▪ You have to pay the cloud storage provider
▪ You may need to commit to an annual subscription
▪ You may have to pay for high download and upload data transfer
limits
o Data being sent over the internet has the potential to be intercepted
o Security is managed by the cloud storage provider which means the
user does not have complete control over it but is still legally
responsible for ensuring any personal and sensitive data is secure