Department of Aerospace Engineering
Module- V
Dimensional Analysis & Model Studies:
Units and Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, Dimensional Analysis-Rayleigh's
Method, Buckingham's π-Theorem, Dimensionless numbers. Model Analysis, Types of
Similarities and Similitude, Similarity Laws.
Introduction to Compressible Flows:
Stagnation Properties, One- Dimensional Isentropic Flow, Mach number, Mach Cone.
Vijaykumar M Patil
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS— INTRODUCTION
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the
study of the dimensions for solving several engineering problems.
Uses of dimensional analysis:
1. To test the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion.
2. To derive rational formulae for a flow phenomenon.
3. To derive equations expressed in terms of nondimensional parameters to
show the relative significance of each parameter.
4. To plan model tests and present experimental results in a systematic
manner, thus making it possible to analyse the complex fluid flow
phenomenon.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 2
ADVANTAGES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS:
1. It expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensionless
terms.
2. In hydraulic model studies it reduces the number of variables involved in a
physical phenomenon, generally by three.
3. By the proper selection of variables, the dimensionless parameters can be used to
make certain logical deductions about the problem.
4. Design curves, by the use of dimensional analysis, can be developed from
experimental data or direct solution of the problem.
5. It enables getting up a theoretical equation in a simplified dimensional form.
6. Dimensional analysis provides partial solutions to the problems that are too
complex to be dealt with mathematically.
7. The conversion of units of quantities from one system to another is facilitated.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 3
Quantities used in Fluid Mechanics and their Dimensions
Fundamental Quantities
Dimensions
M-L-T System F-L-T System
1 Mass, M kg M FL-1T2
2 Length, L m L L
3 Time, T s T T
Geometric Quantities
4 Area, A m2 L2 L2
5 Volume, V m3 L3 L3
6 Moment of Inertia m4 L4 L4
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 4
Quantities used in Fluid Mechanics and their Dimensions
Fundamental Quantities
Kinematic Quantities Dimensions
M-L-T System F-L-T System
7 Linear velocity, u, V, U m/s LT–1 LT–1
Angular velocity, ω;
8 rps T–1 T–1
rotational speed, N
9 Acceleration, a m/s2 LT–2 LT–2
10 Angular acceleration, α Radians/s T–2 T–2
11 Discharge, Q m3/s L3 T–1 L3 T–1
12 Gravity, g m/s2 LT–2 LT–2
m2/s or Stoke (10-4 m2/s ) or
13 Kinematic viscosity, v L2 T–1 L2 T–1
centistokes (10-6 m2/s )
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 5
Quantities used in Fluid Mechanics and their Dimensions
Fundamental Quantities
Kinematic Quantities Dimensions
M-L-T System F-L-T System
14 Stream Function (ψ) m²/s L²T⁻¹ L²T⁻¹
15 Vorticity (ω) 1/s T⁻¹ T⁻¹
Dynamic Quantities
Force (F)-
16 N or kg-m/s² MLT⁻² F
F= mass* acceleration
17 Density (ρ) kg/m³ ML⁻³ FL⁻⁴T²
18 Specific Weight (γ) N/m³ ML⁻²T⁻² FL⁻³
19 Dynamic Viscosity (μ) Pa·s or Ns/m² ML⁻¹T⁻¹ FL⁻²T
20 Pressure (P) Pa ML⁻¹T⁻² FL⁻²
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 6
Quantities used in Fluid Mechanics and their Dimensions
Fundamental Quantities
Dynamic Quantities Dimensions
M-L-T System F-L-T System
21 Modulus of Elasticity Pa ML⁻¹T⁻² FL⁻²
22 Momentum (MV) kg·m/s MLT⁻¹ FL⁻¹T
23 Angular Momentum kg·m²/s ML²T⁻¹ FLT
24 Work / Energy J ML²T⁻² FL
25 Torque N·m ML²T⁻² FL
26 Power W ML²T⁻³ FLT⁻¹
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 7
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
Dimensional homogeneity states that every term in an equation
when reduced to fundamental dimensions must contain identical
powers of each dimension.
Applications of dimensional homogeneity:
The principle of homogeneity proves useful in the following ways:
1. It facilitates to determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.
2. It helps to check whether an equation of any physical
phenomenon is dimensionally homogeneous or not.
3. It facilitates conversion of units from one system to another.
4. It provides a step towards dimensional analysis which is
fruitfully employed to plan experiments and to present the results
meaningfully.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 8
METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The methods of dimensional analysis are based on the
Fourier’s principle of homogeneity. The methods of
dimensional analysis are:
1. Rayleigh’s method
2. Buckingham’s π-method
3. Bridgman’s method
4. Matrix-tensor method
5. By visual inspection of the variables involved
6. Rearrangement of differential equations.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 9
Rayleigh’s method
Rayleigh’s method is used for determining the expression
for a variable which depends upon maximum three or four
variables only.
In case the number of independent variables becomes
more than four, then it is very difficult to find the
expression for the dependent variable.
This method gives a special form of relationship among the
dimensionless groups, and has the inherent drawback that
it does not provide any information regarding the number
of dimensionless groups to be obtained as a result of
dimensional analysis.
Due to this reason this method has become obsolete and is
not favoured for use.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 10
Rayleigh’s Method
In this method a functional relationship of some variables is expressed in the
form of an exponential equation which must be dimensionally
homogeneous. Thus, if X is a variable which depends on X1, X2, X3, ...Xn; the
functional equation can be written as:
X = f (X1, X2, X3, ..... Xn) ………………....(1)
In the above equation X is a dependent variable, while X1, X2, X3, ....Xn are
independent variables. A dependent variable is the one about which
information is required while independent variables are those which govern
the variation of dependent variable.
Eqn. (1) can also be written as:
𝑿 = 𝑪 𝑿𝒂𝟏 , 𝑿𝒃𝟐 , 𝑿𝒄𝟑 , … . 𝑿𝒏𝒏 ………….(2)
where, C is a constant and a, b, c,... are the arbitrary powers. The values of a,
b, c,... n are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental
dimensions on both sides. Thus, the expression is obtained for dependent
variable.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 11
Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D,
moving with a uniform velocity V in a fluid density ρ and dynamic
viscosity µ.
The force drag F is a function of
(i) Diameter D, (ii) Velocity V, (iii) Fluid density ρ, and (iv) Dynamic
viscosity µ.
Mathematically, F = f (D, V, ρ, µ) or F = C (Da . Vb . ρc . µd )
where, C is a non-dimensional constant,
Using M-L-T system the corresponding equation for dimensions is:
MLT–2 = [CLa . (LT–1) b . (ML–3 ) c . (ML–1 T–1 ) d ]
For dimensional homogeneity the exponents of each dimension on
both sides of the equation must be identical. Thus:
For M: 1 = c + d …………......(i)
For L: 1 = a + b – 3c – d …..(ii)
For T: –2 = – b – d ………….(iii)
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 12
Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D, moving with a
uniform velocity V in a fluid density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ.
There are four unknowns (a, b, c, d) but equations are three in number.
Therefore, it is not possible to find the values of a, b, c and d. However, three
of them can be expressed in terms of fourth variable which is most important.
Here the role of viscosity is vital one and hence a, b, c are expressed in terms
of d (i.e. power to viscosity)
∴ c = 1 – d ... from (i)
b = 2 – d ... from (iii)
Putting these values in (i), we get:
a = 1 – b + 3c + d = 1 – 2 + d + 3 (1 – d) + d = 1 – 2 + d + 3 – 3d + d = 2 – d
Substituting these values of exponents in eqn. (1), we get: F = C[D2 – d . V2 – d
. ρ1 – d . µd ]
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 13
Buckingham’s π-Method/Theorem
“If there are n variables (dependent and independent variables) in a
dimensionally homogeneous equation and if these variables contain m
fundamental dimensions (such as M, L, T, etc.) then the variables are
arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms. These dimensionless terms are
called π-terms.”
Mathematically, if any variable X1, depends on independent variables, X2, X3, X4,
....Xn; the functional equation may be written as:
X1=f(X2, X3, X4,….XN)………….1
Rewriting above equation.
f1(X1, X2, X3,…..XN)=0………….2
It is a dimensionally homogeneous equation and contains n variables. If there are m
fundamental dimensions, then according to Buckingham’s π-theorem, it [eqn. (7.4)]
can be written in terms of number of π-terms (dimensionless groups) in which
number of π-terms is equal to (n-m). Hence, eqn. (2) becomes as:
f1(π1, π2, π3,….. πn-m)=0 ………….3
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 14
Buckingham’s π-Method/Theorem
Each dimensionless π-term is formed by combining m variables out of the
total n variables with one of the remaining (n-m) variables i.e. each π-term
contains ( m + 1) variables. These m variables which appear repeatedly in
each of π-terms are consequently called repeating variables and are
chosen from among the variables such that they together involve all the
fundamental dimensions and they themselves do not form a dimensionless
parameter.
Let in the above case X2, X3 and X4 are the repeating variables if the
fundamental dimensions m (M, L, T) = 3, then each term is written as:
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
π1 = 𝑿𝟐 , 𝑿𝟑 , 𝑿𝟒 … . . 𝑿𝟏
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
π2 = 𝑿𝟐𝟏 , 𝑿𝟑𝟏 , 𝑿𝟒𝟏 … . . 𝑿𝟓
" …..𝟒
"
𝒂 𝒃
πn−m = 𝑿𝟐𝒏−𝒎 , 𝑿𝟑𝒏−𝒎 , … … … … , 𝑿𝒏
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 15
Buckingham’s π-Method/Theorem
where a1, b1, c1; a2, b2, c2 etc. are the constants, which are
determined by considering dimensional homogeneity.
These values are substituted in eqn. (4) and values of π1,
π2, π3 ....πn– m are obtained. These values of π’s are
substituted in eqn. (3).
The final general equation for the phenomenon may then
be obtained by expressing anyone of the π-terms as a
function of the other as:
π1 = 𝝓 π2, π3,π4, … … … … . πn−m
ൠ…..𝟓
π2 = 𝝓 π1, π3,π4, … … … … . πn−m
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 16
Selection of repeating variables
The following points should be kept in view while selecting m
repeating variables:
1. m repeating variables must contain jointly all the
fundamental dimensions involved in the phenomenon.
Usually the fundamental dimensions are M, L and T.
However, if only two dimensions are involved, there will be
2 repeating variables and they must contain together the
two dimensions involved.
2. The repeating variables must not form the non-
dimensional parameters among themselves.
3. As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be
selected as repeating variable.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 17
Selection of repeating variables
4. No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
5. The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that
one variable contains geometric property (e.g. length, l; diameter,
d; height, H etc.), other variable contains flow property (e.g.
velocity, V; acceleration, a etc.) and third variable contains fluid
property (e.g. mass density, ρ; weight density, w dynamic
viscosity, µ etc.).
The choice of repeating variables, in most of fluid mechanics
problems, may be:
(i) l, V, ρ (ii) d, V, ρ (iii) l, V, µ (iv) d, V, µ
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 18
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
Following are the limitations of dimensional analysis:
1. Dimensional analysis does not give any clue regarding the
selection of variables. If the variables are wrongly taken, the
resulting functional relationship is erroneous. It provides
the information about the grouping of variables. In order to
decide whether selected variables are pertinent or
superfluous experiments have to be performed.
2. The complete information is not provided by dimensional
analysis; it only indicates that there is some relationship
between parameters. It does not give the values of co-
efficients in the functional relationship. The values of co-
efficients and hence the nature of functions can be obtained
only from experiments or from mathematical analysis.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 19
MODEL ANALYSIS
In order to know about the performance of aerospace structures (e.g.
aircraft, spacecraft, missiles etc.) or aerospace machines (e.g. turbines,
compressors, propulsion systems etc.) before actually constructing or
manufacturing them, their models are made and tested to get the
required information. The model is the scaled replica of the actual
structure or machine. The actual structure or machine is called
Prototype.
The models are not always smaller than the prototype, in some cases a
model may be even larger or of the same size as prototype depending
upon the need and purpose (e.g. the airflow over a wing section or the
combustion in a jet engine can be studied in a large-scale model).
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 20
Advantages of model testing:
The following are the advantages of model analysis:
1. The model tests are quite economical and convenient (because the
design, construction and operation of a model may be changed several
times if necessary, without increasing much expenditure, till most suitable
design is obtained).
2. With the use of models the performance of hydraulic structures/hydraulic
machines can be predicted in advance.
3. While designing a particular portion of the structure if clear cut
analytical and reliable method is not available then in such cases it
becomes absolutely necessary to know about the safety and reliability of
such parts which is possible by means of model testing.
4. Model testing can be used to detect and rectify the defects of an existing
structure which is not functioning properly.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 21
Applications of the model testing:
Model testing in aerospace engineering is applied to aerodynamic,
structural, propulsion, and environmental studies, enabling accurate
prediction of performance, safety, and efficiency before building full-scale
prototypes.
Following are the important fields where applications of the model testing
is of great use:
1. Civil engineering structures such as dams, spillways, weirs, canals etc.
2. Flood control, investigation of silting, and scour in rivers, irrigation
channels.
3. Turbines, pumps and compressors.
4. Design of harbours, ships and submarines.
5. Aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.
6. Tall buildings (to predict the wind loads on buildings, the stability
characteristics of the buildings and airflow patterns in their vicinity).
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 22
Applications of the model testing:
1. Aerodynamic Testing – Scaled aircraft/wing models in wind tunnels
to study lift, drag, stability, and control.
2. Supersonic & Hypersonic Flow Studies – Models used to analyze
shock waves, Mach cones, and compressibility effects.
3. Structural Testing – Wing sections or fuselage panels tested for
stress, vibration, fatigue, and material performance.
4. Propulsion System Analysis – Engine combustors, turbine blades,
and rocket nozzles modeled for combustion, cooling, and efficiency.
5. Spacecraft & Launch Vehicle Testing – Models used to predict
aerodynamic heating, plume behavior, and ascent stability.
6. CFD & Simulation Models – Digital models act as virtual prototypes
for turbulence, thermal loads, and flow separation.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 23
Applications of the model testing:
1. Noise & Environmental Studies – Scaled models tested for jet noise,
sonic boom, and vibration effects.
2. Control & Stability Evaluation – Models checked for handling
qualities and response to control inputs.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 24
SIMILITUDE
In order that results obtained in the model studies represent the
behaviour of prototype, the following three similarities must be
ensured between the model and the prototype.
1. Geometric similarity,
2. Kinematic similarity, and
3. Dynamic similarity
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 25
1. Geometric similarity
For geometric similarity to exist between the model and the
prototype, the ratios of corresponding lengths in the model and in
the prototype must be same and the included angles between two
corresponding sides must be the same.
Let, Lm = Length of model, Hm = Height of model, Dm = Diameter
of model, Am = Area of model, Vm = Volume of model, and, Lp, Bp,
Hp, Dp, Ap and Vp = Corresponding values of the prototype.
For geometric similarity, we must have the relation:
𝐿𝑚 𝐵𝑚 𝐻𝑚 𝐷𝑚
= = = = 𝐿𝑟 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐿𝑝 𝐵𝑝 𝐻𝑝 𝐷𝑝
Similarly,
𝐴𝑚 2
𝑉𝑚
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 𝐿𝑟 ; 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 𝐿3𝑟
𝐴𝑝 𝑉𝑝
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 26
2. Kinematic similarity
Kinematic similarity is the similarity of motion. If at the
corresponding points in the model and in the prototype, the
velocity or acceleration ratios are same and velocity or
acceleration vectors point in the same direction, the two flows are
said to be kinematically similar.
Let,
(V1)m = Velocity of fluid at point 1 in the model,
(V2)m = Velocity of fluid at point 2 in the model,
(a1)m = Acceleration of fluid at point 1 in the model,
(a2)m = Acceleration of fluid at point 2 in the model, and
(V1)p , (V2)p, (a1), (a2)p = Corresponding values at the
corresponding points of fluid velocity and acceleration in the
prototype.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 27
2. Kinematic similarity
for kinematic similarity, we must have:
𝑉1 𝑚 𝑉2 𝑚
൘𝑉 = ൘𝑉 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
1 𝑝 2 𝑝
𝑎1 𝑚 𝑎2 𝑚
൘𝑎 = ൘𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
1 𝑝 2 𝑝
• The directions of the velocities in the model and prototype
should be same.
• The geometric similarity is a prerequisite for kinematic
similarity.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 28
3. Dynamic similarity
Dynamic similarity is the similarity of forces. The flows in the model
and in prototype are dynamically similar if at all the corresponding
points, identical types of forces are parallel and bear the same ratio. In
dynamic similarity, the force polygons of the two flows can be
superimposed by change in force scale.
Let, (Fi )m = Inertia force at a point in the model, (Fv)m = Viscous force
at the point in the model, (Fg)m = Gravity force at the point in the
model, and, (Fi )p, (Fv)p, (Fg)p = Corresponding values of forces at the
corresponding points in prototype.
Then for dynamic similarity, we have:
𝐹𝑖 𝑚 𝐹𝑣 𝑚 𝐹𝑔
𝑚
൘𝐹 = ൘𝐹 = ൙ = 𝐹𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑖 𝑝 𝑣 𝑝 𝐹𝑔
𝑝
The directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points
in the model and prototype should also be same.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 29
Dimensionless numbers and their significance
The dimensionless numbers (also called non-dimensional
parameters) are obtained by dividing the inertia force
(which always exists when any mass in motion) by viscous
force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension
force or elastic force.
The important dimensionless numbers are :
1. Reynolds number
2. Froude’s number
3. Euler’s number
4. Weber’s number
5. Mach’s number.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 30
Dimensionless Groups/Numbers
Sl. Dimensionless Aspects
No. number Symbol Group of Significance Field of application
variables
1. Reynolds Re 𝝆𝑽𝑳 Inertia force Laminar viscous flow in
number 𝝁 Viscous force confined passages (where
viscous effects are significant)
2. Froude’s Fr 𝑽
Inertia force Free surface flows (where
number 𝑳𝒈 Gravity force gravity effects are important
3. Euler’s number Eu 𝑽
Inertia force Conduit flow (where pressure
𝑷/𝝆 variations are significant)
Pressure force
4. Weber’s We 𝑽 Small surface waves, capillary
Inertia force
number σ/𝝆𝑳 and sheet flow (where surface
Surface Tension tension is important)
5. Mach’s number M V High speed flow (where
Inertia force
compressibility effects are
K/𝝆 Elastic force significant).
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 31
Reynolds number
It is defined as the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force.
Inertia force (Fi ) = Mass × acceleration
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 32
Reynolds number- Importance
Reynolds number signifies the relative predominance of the inertia to the
viscous forces occurring in the flow systems.
This number is taken as the criterion of dynamic similarity in the flow
situations where the viscous forces predominate; examples being:
(i) Motion of submarine completely under water,
(ii) Low velocity motion around automobiles and aeroplanes,
(iii) Incompressible flow through pipes of smaller sizes, and
(iv) Flow through low speed turbomachines.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 33
Froude’s number (Fr )
Froude’s number (Fr ) It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the
inertia force and the gravity force.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 34
Euler’s Number (Eu)
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force to the
pressure force.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 35
Weber Number (We)
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force to the
surface tension force.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 36
Mach Number (M )
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force to the
elastic force.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 37
Model or Similarity laws
To ensure dynamic similarity between the model and prototype it is
necessary that the ratio of the corresponding forces acting at the
corresponding points in the model and prototype be made equal.
The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are
called model or similarity laws; these are:
1. Reynolds model law,
2. Froude model law,
3. Euler model law,
4. Weber model law, and
5. Mach model law
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 38
Reynolds Model Law
In flow situations where in addition to inertia, viscous force is the
other predominant force, the similarity of flow in the model and its
prototype can be established if Reynolds number is same for both the
systems. This is known as Reynolds law and according to this law.
where,
ρm = Density of fluid in model, Vm = Velocity of fluid in model,
Lm = Length or linear dimension of the model, µm = Viscosity of fluid
in model, and ρp, Vp, Lp and µp are the corresponding values of
density, velocity, linear dimension and viscosity of fluid in prototype.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 39
Reynolds Model Law
Following are some of the phenomena for which
Reynolds model law can be a sufficient criterion for
similarity of flow in the model and the prototype:
(i) Motion of air planes,
(ii) Flow of incompressible fluid in closed pipes,
(iii)Motion of submarines completely under water, and
(iv)Flow around structures and other bodies immersed
completely under moving fluids.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 40
Froude Model Law
When the gravitational force can be considered to be the only
predominant force which controls the motion in addition to the
inertia force, the similarity of the flow in any two such systems
can be established if the Froude’s number for both the systems is
the same. This is known as Froude Model Law.
Vm = Velocity of fluid in model, Lm = Length (or linear dimension)
of the model, gm = Acceleration due to gravity (at a place where
model is tested), and Vp, Lp and gp are the corresponding values
of the velocity, length and acceleration due to gravity for the
prototype
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 41
Froude Model Law
Some of the phenomena for which the Froude model law can be
sufficient criterion for dynamic similarity to be established in the
model and the prototype are:
(i) Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, sluices etc.;
(ii) Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle;
(iii) Where waves are likely to be formed on the surface;
(iv) Where fluids of different mass densities flow over one another
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 42
Euler Model Law
In a fluid system where pressure forces alone are the
controlling forces in addition to the inertia force, the
dynamic similarity is obtained by equating the Euler
number for both the model and its prototype. This is
known as Euler model law.
According to this law: (Eu)model = (Eu)prototype
If, Vm = Velocity of fluid in model, pm = Pressure of fluid
in model, ρm = Density of fluid in model, and Vp, pp, ρp
are the corresponding values in prototype.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 43
Euler Model Law
This law is applied in the following flow problems:
(i) Enclosed fluid system where the turbulence is fully
developed so that viscous forces are negligible and
also the forces of gravity and surface tension are
entirely absent;
(ii) Where the phenomenon of cavitation occurs.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 44
Weber Model Law
In a fluid system where surface tension effects predominate
in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity is
obtained by equating the Weber number for the model and
its prototype, which is known as Weber model law.
According to this law:
Where the phenomenon of cavitation occurs.
(We)model = (We)prototype
𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝑷
=
𝝈𝒎 /𝝆𝒎 𝑳𝒎 𝝈𝑷 /𝝆𝑷 𝑳𝑷
If, Vm = Velocity of fluid in model, σm = Surface tension force
in model, ρm = Density of fluid in model, Lm = Length of
surface in model, and Vp, σp, ρp, Lp are the corresponding
values of fluid in the prototype.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 45
Weber Model Law
Weber model law is applied in the following flow
situations:
(i) Flow over weirs involving very low heads;
(ii) Very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface;
(iii)Capillary waves in channels;
(iv)Capillary rise in narrow passages;
(v) Capillary movement of water in soil.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 46
Mach Model Law
When in any fluid system only the forces resulting from
elastic compression are significant in addition to inertial
force, then the dynamic similarity between the model
and its prototype may be achieved by equating the Mach
numbers, which is known as Mach model law.
According to this law: (M)model = (M)prototype
𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝑷
=
𝑲𝒎 /𝝆𝒎 𝑲𝑷 /𝝆𝑷
where, Vm = Velocity of fluid in model, Km = Elastic stress
for model, ρm = Density of fluid in model, and Vp, Kp, ρp
are the corresponding values for prototype
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 47
Mach Model Law
The similitude based on Mach model law finds
application in the following:
(i) Aerodynamic testing;
(ii) Phenomena involving velocities exceeding the speed of
sound;
(iii)Hydraulic model testing for the cases of unsteady
flow, especially water hammer problems; and
(iv)Under-water testing of torpedoes
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 48
All the best.
29 November 2025 MOF- BAS3030, V M Patil, Department of Aerospace Engineering, S J C Institute of Technology, Chickballapur 49