CHAPTER NO 05

NETWORK COMMUNICATION AND PROTOCOL

NETWORK
DEFINATION:

“A network is a collection of computers or nodes that

communicate with each other on a shared network medium is known as
computer network”.

OR

“When two or more then two computers connected with each other
through wires/wirelessly for the purpose of resource sharing, data
sharing or data communication is known as computer network”

Data communication:
Definition:
“ A processes of transforming data (audio,video,image,text) form one
computer to other computer is known as data communication”

OR

“It is the transfer of data between two points either in analog or digital
form via a communication media is known as data communication”

Why Do We Use Computer

Networks?
We use computer networks because they make work easier, faster, and
more efficient. Here are the main reasons:
1. Resource Sharing

Share printers, scanners, storage devices, etc.

Saves cost.

2. Data and File Sharing

Easily share files, documents, images, and videos between devices.

3. Communication

Email, chat, video calls, social media—all depend on networks.

Why Do We Use Computer Networks? Count;;

4. Internet Access

A network allows computers to connect to the internet.

5. Centralized Management

Easier to manage data, users, and applications from one place.

6. Better Collaboration

Multiple users can work on the same project or document.

Basic Components of a Network

1 Sender:

“The sender is the device or person that creates and sends the data or
message over the network to another device.. It decides what to send, when to
send it, and how to transmit it through the communication medium.”

Example: A computer sending an email.

2 Receiver:

“The receiver is the device or person that gets the data or message sent by the
sender. It accepts and processes the received information.”
Example: A laptop receiving the email.
Basic Components of a Network

Message:

“The message is the actual data or information that is being communicated

between sender and receiver.”

OR

“A message is the information or data that is being communicated between

devices. It can include text, audio, video, images, or any digital content that
the sender wants to deliver to the receiver”

Example: The content of the email, text, or file.

Basic Components of a Network

4. Medium (Transmission Medium)

“A medium is the physical or wireless path through which a message

travels from the sender to the receiver. It carries the data signals and enables
communication between different network devices.”

Example: Internet cables, Wi-Fi signals, or Bluetooth connection.

Basic Components of a Network

Protocol:

“Protocols are the rules that define how data is sent, received, and interpreted
over the network.”

OR

“A protocol is a set of rule or guide lines that govern the data communication
between two computers is known as protocol”

Note: Without the protocol two devices may connect with each other but
cannot perform the data communication
Example: HTTP for web pages, SMTP for email, or FTP for file transfer

Diagram
Transmission modes
Definition:

“Transmission modes also known as communication modes, define how data

is transferred between devices in a network or bus system”

They are classified into three types:

1. Simplex Mode

2. Half-Duplex Mode

3. Full-Duplex Mode.

Transmission modes

Simplex Mode
Definition:
“In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only
receive.”

The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in
one direction.

Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce
input, the monitor can only give the output.

Pros of Simplex Mode

It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication

channel.

There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving

devices, which simplifies the communication process.

Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response

is not required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.

Cons of Simplex Mode

Only one-way communication is possible.

There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.

Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional

communication.

Half-Duplex Mode
Definition:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa.

The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for

communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each direction.

Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages

are sent in both directions.

Full-Duplex Mode
Definition:

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. It

is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions. Here, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link
with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:

Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one
for sending and the other for receiving.

Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same
time.

Transmission Media in Computer

Networks
Definition:

“Transmission media is the physical medium or wireless through which data

is transmitted from one device to another within a network. These media can
be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends on factors like distance,
speed, and interference.”

OR

“A path/channel/route through which data can be travel form send to

receiver in a network is known as transmission media”

Types of transmission media

Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media
Definition:

Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.

OR

A type of communication media in which data can be travel through the

physical medium (wires) is used is known as guided communication media

Types of Guided communication media

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

1. Twisted Pair

2. Coaxial

3. Optical Fibber Cables

Features of guided communication

media
Guided media are communication channels where signals travel through a
physical path such as cables.

1. Uses a Physical Path

Data travels through wires or cables, making the path fixed and controlled.

2. High Security

Since signals stay inside the cable, they are less likely to be intercepted than
wireless signals.

3. Less Interference

Guided media suffer very little noise and interference, especially fiber optic
cables.

Features of guided communication media

4. Higher Speed

Many guided media (especially fiber optics) support very fast data
transmission speeds.

5. More Reliable

Because the path is fixed and protected, the communication is stable and
dependable.

6. Longer Distance (Fiber Optic)

Fiber optics can transmit data over hundreds of kilometers without signal
loss.

Features of guided communication media

7. Cost Depends on Type

Twisted pair → Cheap

Coaxial → Moderate

Fiber optic → Expensive but fastest

8. Installation and Maintenance Needed

Requires proper installation, physical handling, and regular maintenance.

1.1 Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath.
They are the most widely used Transmission Media.

The wires are twisted together to reduce the interference because when they
twisted together the cancel the effect of each other and the EMI effect will be

Decrease.

The bandwidth of the twisted pair cable is less as compare to coaxial cable
and fibber optic cable.

Types of twisted pair cable

They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two
types:

(a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

(b)Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)

(a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

It is most widely used in networking

It is inexpensive flexible and lightweight thus make it very easy to work with.

The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jackets.

Equality of UTP may vary from the telephone grade by to the extremely high
speed cable

The UTP provided a bandwidth of 100 kilobits per second (CAT 1)to the 1000
MBPS (Cat 7).

The standard connector for the UTP cabling is an RJ-45 connector.

(b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Shielded twisted pair cable uses the extra metallic shield wrapped on the
cable.

STP can help to extend the maximum distance of cables.

Advantages:

The metallic shield is use to protect the wire agaist the electromagnetic
interference EMI due to which the following transmission impairment is
produce like (cross talk, distortion, attenuation ).

Data rate is 16-155 MBPS

Disadvantages :

It is costly

Coaxial cable(coax)
What Is a Coaxial Cable?
• A coaxial cable (often just “coax”) is a type of electrical cable used to
carry high-frequency signals. Its name “coaxial” comes from the fact
that it has a common axis — the inner conductor and the outer shield
are concentric.

• It is a guided transmission line, meaning the signal is confined within

the cable rather than radiating freely.

• Solid single copper wire data move form sender to reciver

Internal Structure / Construction

A coaxial cable is made of multiple layers, each serving a specific purpose:

1. Center Conductor

This is the core wire where the signal travels. Usually made of copper, or
copper-clad steel

It carry signal form sender to receiver

2. Dielectric Insulator

Surrounds the center conductor.

Made of insulating material (plastic, foam, or other dielectric) to maintain a

constant spacing between the conductor and shield — critical for signal
integrity.

3 Shield (Outer Conductor)

• Around the dielectric is a metallic shield (could be braided copper or

foil).

• This shield blocks external electromagnetic interference (EMI) and also

prevents the signal from radiating out.

• Often, coax cables have multiple shield layers to improve performance.

4 Outer Jacket / Sheath

 • The outermost layer, usually a plastic or PVC jacket that protects the
internal parts from physical damage, moisture, etc.

• Also defines environmental durability: indoor, outdoor, plenum-rated

types, etc.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

• High Bandwidth : Coax can carry a lot of data.

• Good Shielding / Interference Resistance : The outer conductor

(shield) protects the signal from EMI and keeps the signal inside.

• Relatively Low Loss : signal loss is relatively less as compare to

twisted pair cable.

• Easy Deployment :For many TV and internet systems, coax is well-

established and relatively simple to install.

Disadvantages / Limitations
Coaxial cables are expensive.

The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.

As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by

hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fibber Cable

“A fibber optic cable is a communication cable that transmits data using
light signals instead of electrical signals. It is made of thin glass or plastic
fibbers which allow data to travel very fast with almost no interference.”
Composition of Fibber Optic Cable:
A fiber optic cable mainly has three major parts:

1. Core

2. Cladding

3. Outer jacket

Composition of Fiber Optic Cable

1. Core

The central thin glass or plastic fiber where light travels.

It carries the actual data in the form of light signals.

2. Cladding

A protective optical layer surrounding the core.

It reflects the light back inside the core using a process called total internal
reflection, so the signal does not escape.

3. Outer Coating / Jacket

A strong plastic layer around the fiber.

Protects the fiber from moisture, bending, and physical damage.

How Fibber Optic Cable Works

A light source (LED or laser) sends data in the form of light pulses into the
core.

The core and cladding have different refractive indexes, so the light keeps
bouncing inside the core (total internal reflection).

This bouncing keeps the light moving forward without escaping.

The light reaches the other end, where a receiver converts the light back into
electrical signals (data).

This method allows extremely fast and reliable data transmission.

Diagram

Advantages
Increased capacity and bandwidth

Lightweight

Less signal attenuation

Immunity to electromagnetic interference

Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:
Difficult to install and maintain

High cost

What is Unguided Communication

Media?
Definition:
“Unguided communication media, also known as wireless media, is a method
of transmitting data from one device to another without the use of any
physical medium like cables or wires. Instead, it uses electromagnetic
waves that travel through the air or space (like a vacuum).”

Advantages/Disadvantages:
Advantages of Unguided Media
• No physical cables needed

• Easy and fast to install

• Supports mobile communication

• Covers large areas (especially radio & microwave)

Disadvantages of Unguided Media

• Affected by weather (rain, dust, storms)

• More security risks (signals can be intercepted)

• Interference from other wireless devices

• Limited bandwidth compared to fiber optics

How Unguided Media Works

The sender converts data into electromagnetic signals.

An antenna transmits these signals into the air.

The signals travel freely through space.

The receiver’s antenna captures the signals and converts them back into data.
There is no physical path, so signals are sent through the open
environment.

Types of unguided communication

media
There are three main types of unguided communication media

1. Radio wave

2. Micro wave

3. Infrared wave

Radio wave
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave used for wireless
communication.
They travel through the air in all directions and can pass through walls,
buildings, and obstacles.
They are commonly used for long-distance and medium-distance
communication.

The frequency range of radio wave is 10 KHz to 1 GHz

Key Features of Radio Waves

1. Low Frequency, Long Wavelength

Radio waves have lower frequency and longer wavelengths than

microwaves and infrared.

2. Travel in All Directions

They spread out in every direction from the antenna (omnidirectional).

3. Can Penetrate Obstacles

They can pass through walls, making them useful for broadcasting and mobile
communication.

4. Used for Long Distances

Their signals can travel very far—sometimes hundreds of kilometres—

especially when bounced by the atmosphere.

Common Uses of Radio Waves

• Radio broadcasting (FM/AM)

• Television broadcasting

• Mobile phones (some frequencies)

• Walkie-talkies

• Wi-Fi

• Bluetooth

• Emergency communication systems

Advantages/Disadvantages:
Advantages
• Cover large areas

• Can pass through walls

• Cheap and easy to use

• Useful for broadcasting to many people at once

Disadvantages
 Prone to interference
  Less secure (signals can be intercepted)
 Lower data rate compared to microwaves and fibber optic

Micro wave
“Microwaves are high-frequency electromagnetic waves used for wireless
communication, especially over long distances.”

It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need
to be properly aligned with each other.

The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of

the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz - 300GHz.

Key Features of Microwaves

1. Higher Frequency, Shorter Wavelength

They have a higher frequency than radio waves, allowing them to carry more
data.

2. Line-of-Sight Transmission

Microwaves move straight from one antenna to another, so the antennas

must be placed high and directly facing each other.

3. Limited Penetration

They do not easily pass through buildings, mountains, or large obstacles.

4. Long-Distance Capability

Using tall towers and satellites, microwaves can cover very long distances.

Advantage/Disadvantages
Advantages
 High data transmission speed
  Suitable for long-distance communication
 Less interference compared to radio waves
 Supports large bandwidth

Disadvantages
 Requires line-of-sight
 Affected by weather (rain, fog, storms)
 Expensive to set up towers and satellite systems
 Cannot pass through large obstacles

Common Uses of Microwaves

• Satellite communication

• Mobile phone networks

• Wi-Fi

• Bluetooth

• Radar systems

• Microwave links between buildings (telecom towers)

Infrared wave
Definition:

“Infrared waves are wireless communication signals that travel in the form of
electromagnetic waves. They are used for short-range communication and
require direct alignment between the sending and receiving devices. They
cannot penetrate walls.”

Frequency: Just below then visible light

Example:
When you press a button on a TV remote, it sends an infrared signal to the
TV. The TV receives the signal and performs the action.

Features / Characteristics
Range: Short distance (a few meters)

Speed: Very fast for small data transfer

Interference: Less interference compared to radio/microwave

Security: More secure because signals stay in one room

Line of Sight: Required (no walls or objects in between)

Network Topology
Definition:

“A network topology is the arrangement of devices (nodes) and connections

(links) in a computer network. It shows how computers, servers, and other
devices are connected and how data flows between them. ”

Star Topology
“In a Star Topology, all the nodes (PCs, printers and peripherals) individually
connected are connected to a single central device, typically a hub or a
switch. . It has a central connection point, like a hub or switch. In star
topology each device is connected with central hub.”

This arrangement visually resembles a star, with the central device at the
core and the other devices radiating outwards like the points of a star.

Key Characteristics and Functionality

 • Centralized Connection: All communication in the network must pass
through the central device. If one device wants to send data to another,
it first transmits the data to the central hub/switch, which then routes
or broadcasts it to the destination device.

• Point-to-Point Links: Each peripheral device has a dedicated,

individual cable connection to the central device.

• Central Device Role:

• Hubs passively broadcast data to all connected devices.

• Switches intelligently send data only to the intended recipient, making

them more efficient and enhancing network performance.

Ring topology
Definition:
“In the ring topology each device is in a network is connected to its
succeeding and proceeding node make a ring Like structure”

• Each device connects to its neighboring devices, forming a circular

network.

• Data is move form source computer to destination computer by using

the token ring that is move form Node to node until its reaches to the
destination.

• Data flows in a single direction, either clockwise or counterclockwise.

 • Every device functions as a repeater, amplifying the signal and passing
it to the next device.

• In a large network with many nodes (like 100), the signal becomes
weak while traveling long distances. So repeaters are needed to boost
the signal and keep the data strong.

Bus topology
The Bus Topology is one of the simplest and most traditional network
configurations. It is defined by all devices being connected to a single,
common communication cable, often referred to as the backbone also
known as bus.

Key feature of bus topology

  Each device connected to bus(common wire) using the T-connector.
 Terminator is used at the both end of cable to terminate the dump
messages.
 Only two device communicate with each other at a time in bus topology
to avoid the collision.
 Bus topology is passive topology where each node sit and listen and
when transmission is free they transmit the data.
 A CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple accesses with collision detection) is
used to avoid dead lock(like the traffic jam scenario and no data
communication is done)

Mesh topology
Mesh topology is a network setup where every device is connected to every
other device directly.
This creates a mesh of wires with multiple paths for data to travel.

Types of Mesh Topology

Full Mesh

 Every device has a direct connection with all other devices.

 Highest number of links → very reliable.

1. Partial Mesh

 Only some devices are fully connected.

 Others are connected to 1–2 key devices.
 Cheaper than full mesh but still reliable.

Key Characteristics & Features

• Multiple paths between devices.

• If one path fails, data automatically uses another path (fault

tolerance).

• Data transmission is fast and direct — no central device needed.

 • Provides point-to-point links for accurate and secure communication.

• Highly stable network → no single point of failure.

Communication devices:
“Communication devices are used for communication between the computers
and other devices. “

They facilitate data transmission, regulate traffic flow, provide

interconnectivity between heterogeneous networks, and enforce security
policies.

 Types of communication devices

1. Switch

2. Router

3. gateway
a. Switch
“A network switch is a networking device that connects networking devices
to a central location. “

 Switch operates on Data Link layer of OSI model.

 Network switches are identical to network hubs but a network switch

forwards data only to one or multiple devices that need to receive it,
rather than broadcasting the same data to each of its ports.

 Switch maintain MAC table, which is used to store MAC addresses of

networked devices.

 Each node that you connect to your network has a unique MAC address
assigned to it by the device’s manufacturer.

 So Switch forwards data packets to their destination by the help of

MAC address of that device.

b. Router
 Router is a device that forwards data packets across different
networks.

 A router performs traffic directing functions on the internet. Router

operates on Network Layer of OSI Model.

 Function of router:

 Routing : in routing it route each data packet to its destination.

 Path determination: is select best suitable path to deliver data to its

destination

 When a data packet comes in, the router reads the destination address
(IP Address) and using routing table directs the packet to the next
network.
  A data packet is passed from node to node until it reaches the
destination.

 A Router determines the best route for the packets towards their
destination.

 A router connects at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs

or a LAN and its ISP's network. For example a router can be used to
distribute one internet connection to many computers in a lab of
college LAN.

c. Gateway
 A gateway is hardware device that allows communication between
networks with dissimilar hardware architecture of protocols.

 A gateway operates at the Application Layer of OSI Model but can

operate at the network or session layer of the OSI Model.

 A gateway is also called protocol converter.

 The Gateways are very intelligent devices.

 A gateway can translate information between different network data

formats or network architectures.

 It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers supporting TCP/IP

can communicate with Apple brand computers.

Network Architecture
Definition:

“Network architecture is the complete framework of any computer network.

It refers to logical and structural layout of a network, consisting of hardware,
software, connectivity and communication protocols and modes of
transmission.”

There are following two important network architecture.

 a. Client Server Network Architecture

b. Peer to Peer Network Architecture

a. Client Server Network

Architecture
Client Server network architecture divide processing tasks between Clients
and Server.

i. Server

ii. Client

Server:

Server is a computer in a network which provides resources to Clients

on their requests. Server is also called console, server computer have server
operating system installed on it, which provides services to control network
resources. Sever provides centralized control over the entire network and
Client Server network works under the control of Sever

Client:

Client is a network computer which request for network resources from

Sever. Client is also called terminal. In a network environment clients are
totally dependent on Server; if server provides network resources then they
can use it. Otherwise they will wait for network resources.

This exchange of resources may require authentication and identification

of data file to be transferred. Server computers typically are more powerful
than clients. Data transfer from a client to a server is called upload and data
from a server to client is referred as download.

Advantages of Client Server Network

Architecture
  Ø Security: Strong central security.

 Ø Centralized data storage: Central file storage, which allows all

users to work from the same set of data and provide easy backup.

 Ø Resource sharing: Ability to share expensive equipment such as

laser printer.

 Ø Scalable Network: it is possible to add or remove clients without

affecting the operation of the network.

 Ø Flexibility: New technology can be easily integrated into the system.

Disadvantages Of Client Server

Network Architecture
 Ø Expensive: Expensive due to extra hardware like Server. Expensive
network operating system.
 Ø Maintenance: A Network Administration is required for
management of network.

b. Peer-To-Peer Network
Architecture
 Peer to Peer is a type of network in which all the computers share
network resources equally.

 Those computers which behave sometimes like a Client and sometime

as a Server are called peers.

 There is no central Server in Peer to Peer network. There is no central

security control. There is no central login process.

 The peer to peer network allows users to share resources and files
located on their computer and access shared resources found on other
 computers. All the users have same abilities to use the resources
available on the network.

 The peer to peer networks are designed for small to medium Local
Area Networks.

 All modern operating systems, such as Macintosh, Linux and Windows

support Peer to Peer Network.

Advantage of Peer-To-Peer Network

Architecture
 Ø No extra investment on server hardware and software.
 Ø Easy setup.
 Ø No network administrator required.
 Ø Ability of resource sharing.
 Ø No reliance on other computers for their operations.
 Ø Lower cost for small network.

Disadvantages for Peer To Peer

Network Architecture
 Ø Additional load on computers because of resource sharing.
 Ø Lack of central storage which make data hard to find.
 Ø No central point of storage.
 Ø Weak security.