8

Matrices
Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers (real or complex)
which may be represented as
 a11 a12 a13 .... a1n 
a a22 a23 .... a2 n 
A =  21 .
 .... .... .... .... .... 
a amn 
 m1 am 2 am3 ....
Matrix is enclosed by [ ] or ( ).
Compact form the above matrix is represented by [aij ]m × n or A = [aij ].

Element of a Matrix
The numbers a11 , a12 ,! etc., in the above matrix are known as the
element of the matrix, generally represented as aij , which denotes
element in ith row and jth column.

Order of a Matrix
In above matrix has m rows and n columns, then A is of order m × n.

Types of Matrices
(i) Row Matrix A matrix having only one row and any number of
columns is called a row matrix.
(ii) Column Matrix A matrix having only one column and any
number of rows is called column matrix.
(iii) Null/Zero Matrix A matrix of any order, having all its elements
are zero, is called a null/zero matrix, i.e. aij = 0, ∀ i , j.
(iv) Square Matrix A matrix of order m × n, such that m = n, is
called square matrix.
(v) Diagonal Matrix A square matrix A = [aij ]m × n is called a
diagonal matrix, if all the elements except those in the leading
diagonals are zero, i.e. aij = 0 for i ≠ j. It can be represented as
A = diag [a11 a22! ann ].
94 Handbook of Mathematics

(vi) Scalar Matrix A square matrix in which every non-diagonal

element is zero and all diagonal elements are equal, is called
scalar matrix, i.e. in scalar matrix, aij = 0, for i ≠ j and aij = k, for
i = j.
(vii) Unit/Identity Matrix A square matrix, in which every
non-diagonal element is zero and every diagonal element is 1, is
called unit matrix or an identity matrix,
 0, when i ≠ j
i.e. aij = 
1, when i = j
(viii) Rectangular Matrix A matrix of order m × n, such that m ≠ n,
is called rectangular matrix.
(ix) Horizontal Matrix A matrix in which the number of rows is less
than the number of columns, is called horizontal matrix.
(x) Vertical Matrix A matrix in which the number of rows is
greater than the number of columns, is called vertical matrix.
(xi) Upper Triangular Matrix A square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is
called a upper triangular matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i > j.
(xii) Lower Triangular Matrix A square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is
called a lower triangular matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i < j.
(xiii) Submatrix A matrix which is obtained from a given matrix by
deleting any number of rows or columns or both is called a
submatrix of the given matrix.
(xiv) Equal Matrices Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, if
both having same order and corresponding elements of the
matrices are equal.
(xv) Principal Diagonal of a Matrix In a square matrix, the
diagonal from the first element of the first row to the last
element of the last row is called the principal diagonal of a
matrix.
1 2 3
e.g. If A = 7 6 5 , then principal diagonal of A is 1, 6, 2.
 
1 1 2
(xvi) Singular Matrix A square matrix A is said to be singular
matrix, if determinant of A denoted by det (A) or| A| is zero, i.e.
|A|= 0, otherwise it is a non-singular matrix.
 Matrices 95

Algebra of Matrices
1. Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices each of order m × n. Then, the sum of
matrices A + B is defined only if matrices A and B are of same order.
If A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]m × n . Then, A + B = [aij + bij ]m × n .
Properties of Addition of Matrices
If A, B and C are three matrices of order m × n , then
(i) Commutative Law A + B = B + A
(ii) Associative Law ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C )
(iii) Existence of Additive Identity A zero matrix (0) of order
m × n (same as of A), is additive identity, if
A+ 0= A= 0+ A
(iv) Existence of Additive Inverse If A is a square matrix, then
the matrix (– A) is called additive inverse, if
A + ( - A) = 0 = ( - A) + A
(v) Cancellation Law A + B = A + C ⇒ B = C [left cancellation law]
B + A = C + A ⇒ B = C [right cancellation law]

2. Subtraction of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices of the same order, then subtraction of
matrices, A - B, is defined as
A - B = [aij - bij ] m × n ,
where A = [aij ]m × n , B = [bij ]m × n

3. Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

Let A = [aij ]m × n be a matrix and k be any scalar. Then, the matrix
obtained by multiplying each element of A by k is called the scalar
multiple of A by k and is denoted by kA, given as
kA = [kaij ]m × n
Properties of Scalar Multiplication
If A and B are two matrices of order m × n, then
(i) k( A + B) = kA + kB
(ii) ( k1 + k2 ) A = k1 A + k2 A
(iii) k1k2 A = k1( k2 A) = k2( k1 A)
(iv) ( - k) A = - ( kA) = k( - A)
96 Handbook of Mathematics

4. Multiplication of Matrices
Let A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]n × p are two matrices such that the
number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, then
n
multiplication of A and B is denoted by AB, is given by cij = ∑ aikbkj ,
k=1

where cij is the element of matrix C and C = AB.

 a a2   b b2
e.g. If A =  1  and B =  1 , then
a3 a4 b3 b4
 a b + a2 b3 a1 b2 + a2 b4 
AB =  1 1 .
a b
 3 1 + a b
4 3 a3 b2 + a4 b4

Properties of Multiplication of Matrices

(i) Associative Law ( AB)C = A( BC )
(ii) Existence of Multiplicative Identity A ⋅ I = A = I ⋅ A,
where, I is called multiplicative Identity.
(iii) Distributive Law A( B + C ) = AB + AC
(iv) Cancellation Law If A is non-singular matrix, then
AB = AC ⇒ B = C [left cancellation law]
BA = CA ⇒ B = C [right cancellation law]
(v) Zero Matrix as the Product of Two Non-zero Matrices
AB = O, does not necessarily imply that A = O or B = O or both A
and B = O.
Note Multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be
commutative.

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) If A and B are square matrices of the same order, say n, then both the
product AB and BA are defined and each is a square matrix of order n.
(ii) In the matrix product AB, the matrix A is called premultiplier (prefactor)
and B is called postmultiplier (postfactor).
(iii) The rule of multiplication of matrices is row columnwise (or Æ Ø wise) the
first row of AB is obtained by multiplying the first row of A with first,
second, third,... columns of B respectively; similarly second row of A with
first, second, third, ... columns of B, respectively and so on.
 Matrices 97
Positive Integral Powers of a Square Matrix
Let A be a square matrix. Then, we can define
(i) An + 1 = An ⋅ A, where n ∈ N .
(ii) Am ⋅ An = Am + n .
(iii) ( Am )n = Amn , ∀m , n ∈ N

Matrix Polynomial
Let f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n - 1 + a2x n - 2 + ! + an . Then,
f ( A) = a0 An + a1 An - 2 + ! + an I n is called the matrix polynomial.

Transpose of a Matrix
Let A = [aij ]m × n , be a matrix of order m × n. Then, the n × m matrix
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the
transpose of A and is denoted by A′ or AT .
A′ = AT = [a ji ]n × m

Properties of Transpose
For any two matrices A and B of suitable orders,
(i) ( A′ )′ = A (ii) ( A ± B)′ = A′ ± B′
(iii) ( kA)′ = kA′ (iv) ( AB)′ = B′ A′
(v) ( An )′ = ( A′ )n (vi) ( ABC )′ = C ′ B′ A′

Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices

(i) A square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is said to be symmetric, if A′ = A.
i.e. aij = a ji , ∀i and j.
(ii) A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric, if A′ = - A,
i.e. aij = - a ji , ∀i and j.

Properties of Symmetric and

Skew-symmetric Matrices
(i) Elements of principal diagonals of a skew-symmetric matrix are
all zero. i.e. aii = - aii ⇒ 2aii = 0 or aii = 0 , for all values of i.
(ii) If A is a square matrix, then
(a) A + A′ is symmetric. (b) A - A′ is skew-symmetric matrix.
(iii) If A and B are two symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrices of
same order, then A + B is also symmetric (or skew-symmetric).
98 Handbook of Mathematics

(iv) If A is symmetric (or skew-symmetric), then kA ( k is a scalar) is

also symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrix.
(v) If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then the
product AB is symmetric, iff BA = AB.
(vi) Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a
symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
1 1
i.e. Matrix A can be written as ( A + A′ ) + ( A - A′ )
2 2
(vii) The matrix B′ AB is symmetric or skew-symmetric according as A
is symmetric or skew-symmetric matrix.
(viii) All positive integral powers of a symmetric matrix are symmetric.
(ix) All positive odd integral powers of a skew-symmetric matrix are
skew-symmetric and positive even integral powers of a
skew-symmetric are symmetric matrix.
(x) If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then
(a) AB - BA is a skew-symmetric and
(b) AB + BA is symmetric.
(xi) For a square matrix A, AA′ and A′ A are symmetric matrix.

Elementary Operations (Transformations of a Matrix)

Any one of the following operations on a matrix is called an elementary
transformation.
(i) Interchanging any two rows (or columns), denoted by
Ri ←Æ R j or Ci ←Æ C j .
(ii) Multiplication of the element of any row (or column) by a
non-zero scalar quantity and denoted by
Ri Æ kRi or Ci Æ kC j .
(iii) Addition of constant multiple of the elements of any row to the
corresponding element of any other row, denoted by
Ri Æ Ri + kR j or Ci Æ Ci + kC j .

Elementary Matrix
A matrix obtained from an identity matrix by a single elementary
operation is called an elementary matrix.

Equivalent Matrix
Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent, if one can be obtained
from the other by a sequence of elementary transformation.
The symbol ≈ is used for equivalence.
 Matrices 99

Trace of a Matrix
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the
trace of A, denoted by trace (A) or tr (A).

Properties of Trace of a Matrix

(i) Trace ( A ± B) = Trace (A) ± Trace (B)
(ii) Trace ( kA) = k Trace (A)
(iii) Trace ( A′ ) = Trace (A)
(iv) Trace ( I n ) = n
(v) Trace (O ) = 0
(vi) Trace ( AB) ≠ Trace (A) × Trace (B)
(vii) Trace ( AA′ ) ≥ 0

Conjugate of a Matrix
The matrix obtained from a matrix A containing complex number as its
elements, on replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate
complex number is called conjugate of A and is denoted by A.

Properties of Conjugate of a Matrix

Let A and B are two matrices of order m × n and k be a scalar, then
(i) ( A ) = A (ii) ( A + B) = A + B
(iii) ( AB) = AB (iv) ( kA) = kA
n n
(v) ( A ) = ( A )

Transpose Conjugate of a Matrix

The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called transpose
conjugate of A and is denoted by Aθ or A* ,
i.e. ( A′ ) = ( A )′ = Aθ or A*

Properties of Transpose Conjugate of a Matrix

(i) ( A* )* = A (ii) ( A + B)* = A* + B*
(iii) ( kA)* = k A* (iv) ( AB)* = B* A*
(v) ( An )* = ( A* )n
100 Handbook of Mathematics

Some Special Types of Matrices

1. Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix of order n is said to be orthogonal, if AA′ = I n = A′ A
Properties of Orthogonal Matrix
(i) If A is orthogonal matrix, then A′ is also orthogonal matrix.
(ii) For any two orthogonal matrices A and B, AB and BA is also an
orthogonal matrix.
(iii) If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A-1 is also orthogonal matrix.

2. Idempotent Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be idempotent, if A2 = A .
Properties of Idempotent Matrix
(i) If A and B are two idempotent matrices, then
(a) AB is idempotent, iff AB = BA.
(b) A + B is an idempotent matrix, iff AB = BA = O
(c) AB = A and BA = B, then A2 = A, B2 = B
(ii) (a) If A is an idempotent matrix and A + B = I , then B is an
idempotent and AB = BA = O.
(b) Diagonal (1, 1, 1, ...,1) is an idempotent matrix.

3. Involutory Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be involutory, if A2 = I
4. Nilpotent Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix, if there exists a
positive integer m such that Am = 0. If m is the least positive integer
such that Am = 0, then m is called the index of the nilpotent matrix A.

5. Unitary Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be unitary, if A′ A = I
6. Periodic Matrix
If Ak+1 = A, where k is a positive integer, then A is known as periodic
matrix and k is known as period of matrix A.
 Matrices 101

Rank of a Matrix
A positive integer r is said to be the rank of a non-zero matrix A, if
(i) there exists at least one minor in A of order r which is not zero.
(ii) every minor in A of order greater than r is zero, rank of a matrix A
is denoted by ρ( A) = r.

Properties of Rank of a Matrix

(i) The rank of a null matrix is zero i.e. ρ(O ) = 0
(ii) If I n is an identity matrix of order n, then ρ( I n ) = n.
(iii) (a) If a matrix A does’t possess any minor of order r, then ρ( A) ≥ r.
(b) If atleast one minor of order r of the matrix is not equal to zero,
then ρ( A) ≤ r.
(iv) If every (r + 1)th order minor of A is zero, then any higher order
minor will also be zero.
(v) If A is of order n, then for a non-singular matrix A, ρ( A) = n
(vi) ρ( A′ ) = ρ( A)
(vii) ρ( A* ) = ρ( A)
(viii) ρ( A + B) ≤ ρ( A) + ρ( B)
(ix) If A and B are two matrices such that the product AB is defined,
then rank ( AB) cannot exceed the rank of the either matrix.
(x) If A and B are square matrix of same order and ρ( A) = ρ( B) = n,
then ρ( AB) = n
(xi) Every skew-symmetric matrix of odd order has rank less than its
order.
(xii) Elementary operations do not change the rank of a matrix.