Introduction to Fallacies
January 29, 2026
What is an Argument?
● An attempt to persuade someone or a group of people of something by giving reasons for
accepting a particular conclusion as being true.
● Arguments are composed of premises (points/main ideas) arranged in the right way to support
your claim/conclusion.
● The form and content support your conclusion
Deductive Reasoning (Jumps to conclusion quicker)
● Top Down Approach
● Theory -> Hypothesis -> Observation -> Confirmation
● Starts with a general case and you work your way down to a conclusion
All dogs have long tails
Rover is a dog
Therefore, Rover has a long tail Example
Inductive Reasoning (Takes more time to come to conclusion)
● Bottom Up Approach
● Observation -> Pattern -> Hypothesis -> Theory
● Starts with an observation or examples and you work your way to a theory by examining related
issues.
A 3 year old pit bull attacked a child in Florida.
A 2 year old pit bull mauled a small dog in California.
An 8 month old pit bull bit my cousin.
Therefore, all pit bulls have aggressive tendencies. Example
What are fallacies?
● An argument that is erroneous
● Mistake in reasoning
● Creation of some illusion that is not there
● It seems persuasive, but does not logically support its conclusion
2 = A Number
1 = A Number
________________
2=1 ✍️ Example
Ad Hominem
Definition:
● Attacking the individual instead of the argument, thus discrediting the argument
“You are not educated, you cannot possibly be right,”
“You are a loser. You cannot possibly run for class president.” Example
Bandwagon Appeal
Definition:
● Urging the hearer to accept the argument because the majority of people hold to it.
“Everyone is doing it. You should too!”
“A majority of people love drinking coffee, so coffee must be good for you.” Example
Hasty Generalization
Definition:
● Making assumptions or a sweeping statement about a whole group or range of cases based on
insufficient evidence. Often seen as stereotypes.
For example:
“Wealthy people are snobs.”
“My classmate said all biology classes are difficult, so my biology class is probably going to be
difficult as well.” Example
Circular Reasoning:
Definition:
● When the argument is restated rather than proven
A is true because B is true
B is true because A is true
The sky is blue, because the sky is known to be blue. Example
Slippery Slope: (Professor uses this a lot)
Definition:
● A conclusion based on the premises that one small step will lead to a chain of events resulting
in some significant event
“If you don’t study on Sundays, your grades will suffer, if your grades suffer you won’t graduate, you
won’t get a good job, then you won’t have somewhere to live.” Example
Straw Man
Definition: (Deflection with EXAGGERATION)
● When someone ignores an opponent’s position and substitutes it with an exaggerated and
distorted version of that argument.
Opponent’s position: The school lunch budget should be examined.
Straw Man position: This guy wants to STARVE our children!!! Example
False Dichotomy/False Dilemma
Definition: (Black and White Thinking)
● Argument presents two points while disregarding other arguments, in order to direct the
argument to their position.
If you do not donate toys to the needy during the holidays, then you are not a good person.
You are either on my side or my enemy’s side Example
Red Herring
Definition: (Same thing, not an exaggeration)
● Introducing a topic not related to the subject at hand. Deflecting the argument
The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families?
I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.
Example
How to avoid fallacies:
● Make sure your premises are clear
● The evidence supports your premises
● Avoid making your argument too general