Force/Torque Measurement

Lever arm balances

 Equal arm balance

 Unequal arm balance
 Bent lever balance
 Compound lever balance
Equal arm balance
Unequal arm balance

w1  l1  w2  l2
Unequal arm balance
 Ws  a W  h ca
 W  .Ws  k  Ws
b e bh
Compound lever balance
Hydraulic force meter (Load cell):
Signal flow diagram
Specification

 Range : 0 – 30000N (0 – 5 million Newtons

also available)
 Accuracy : +/- 1% FSD
 Resolution : 0.02%
 Overload limit : 300%
Advantages

 The range is very high and can high overload

without loss of accuracy (upto 300 –400%)
 Trouble free operation for long time.
 It is an active instrument and does not require any
external power. Hence, suitable for hazardous
area.
 It has very good dynamic response. It has very
high natural frequency.
 The instrument is insensitive to temperature
variations.
Pneumatic load cell
Signal flow diagram
Alternate arrangement of pneumatic
load cell
Specification

 Range : (0 – 25N) to (0 – 12000N)

 Accuracy : 0.5% FSD
Advantages

 Pneumatic load cell does not contaminate

due to leakage unlike hydraulic load cell.
The effect of temperature is negligible. As
the working medium is air, it can be used
safely in an explosive and hazardous
environment.
Disadvantages

 The air must be free of water vapour and dry

to prevent condensation.
 The dynamic response is low hence not
suitable for testing operations.
Elastic Element Load cell
Column type strain gauge load cell
Advantages

 It gives electrical output signal and thus

suitable for control application where
microprocessor / computer interface is
involved.
 It is small in size and price
 It can measure deflections up to 0.25 mm
 It is maintenance free.
 It has good dynamic response.
Disadvantages

 Care should be taken to avoid angular loads

and non-axial loads
 Overloading may permanently deforms
strain gauge grid.
Application

 Weighing bridge
 Tool force dynamometer.
Proving Ring Working Principle

 When a thin elastic ring is subjected to force,

it deflects. The deflection is proportional to
applied force. By measuring the deflection
force can be measured.
Proving Ring
Signal flow diagram
Specification

 Range : 0.005 kgf to 50,000 kgf

 Output : 5 – 200mV / volt of
excitation
 Linearity : +/- 0.1%
 Repeatability : +/- 0.05%
Advantages

 Accuracy is high.
 Measuring range is wide.
 It gives output signal level compared to
strain gauge column type load cell.
 Resolution is very high.
 Hystersis is very low.
Disadvantages

 Sensitive to stray magnetic field.

 Performance of the LVDT is affected by the
temperature.
Diaphragm – LVDT type load cell

 Working Principle
 A diaphragm converts force to be measured
into a proportional displacement. LVDT
measures the displacement and gives a
proportional electrical output. By measuring
the voltage, we can calculate the unknown
force.
Signal flow diagram
Piezo electric load cell

 Signal flow diagram

Specification:

 Piezo-electric material : Silicon crystal, quartz.

 Non-linearity : +/- 1%
 Natural frequency : 10 kHz to 300 kHz
 Cross access sensitivity : 5% of axial sensitivity
 Range : 1000 N Tension – 5000 N Compression (for smaller units)
 4000 N Tension – 16000 N Compression ( for larger units)
Advantages

 Small in size and rugged

 Natural frequency is high
 Dynamic response is very good. Suitable
for dynamic force measurement.
 It gives an electrical output.
 It has high frequency output.
Disadvantages

 The instrument is sensitive to change in

temperature.
 It is sensitive to cross access sensitivity.
 It is subjected to hystersis error.
Electromagnetic Balance

 The amount of current required to bring back

the lever to the original position is measure
of force.
Signal flow diagram
Electromagnetic Balance
Digital Force Transducer
Digital Force Transducer
Torque Measurement
 T  F r
Torque
Need for torque measurement

 The main purpose of torque measurement is to

calculate mechanical power transmitted by a shaft
 In rotating cylinder viscometer, measurement of
torque helps in measurement of Viscosity.
 In an automated assembly line where screw and
bolts are used for assembly, electrical or pneumatic
screwdrivers are used. Applying over will spoil the
tread of the fastener. Calibration of such devices
requires torque measurement.
Types of torque measuring devices

 Stroboscopic type torque meter

 Proximity torque sensor
 Strain gauge torsion meter
 Optical torsion meter
Stroboscopic method

 When torque is applied to a shaft between its

ends it is twisted with respect to each other.
The amount of twist is proportional to the
torque applied. By measuring the amount of
twist at one end with respect to another end
the torque can be determined
Signal flow diagram
Diagram
Advantages

 Simple and inexpensive method

 Power of the shaft can be calculated.
Limitations

 It can be used only with shafts rotating at

constant speed.
 The variation in speed affects the sensitivity.
 The accuracy is low due to small
displacement of the pointer.
Strain Gauge Torsion Meter

 When a shaft is subjected to torque, it is

twisted due to shear stress. There will be
maximum strain in the principle axis direction
of the shaft. By measuring the strain which
proportional to the torque, we can measure
the torque.
Strain Gauge Torsion Meter
Strain Gauge Torsion Meter
Proximity Torque Sensor
(Magnetic/Photoelectric torsion meter)

 There is a relative displacement between two

slotted discs due to applied torque. This
relative displacement is measured using
photoelectric or magnetic pickup. There is a
proportional phase shift in the phase
generated / received by proximity pickup.
The phase shift becomes a measure of the
torque.
Signal flow diagram
Diagram
Electromagnetic torque meter

 The amount of current required to bring shaft

to standstill is measure of torque
Signal flow diagram
Electromagnetic torque meter
Thank You
Pressure Measurement
Pressure
Static pressure and Dynamic pressure
Different faces of pressure – An
illustration
Head as a measure of pressure

P  gh
Classification of pressure gauges
1. Gravitational transducer
a) Manometer
b) Dead weight tester
2. Elastic transducer
a) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
b) Elastic diaphragm pressure gauge
c) Bellows type pressure gauge
3. Electrical transducer
a) Variable resistance type
b) Strain gauge type
c) Variable capacitance type
d) LVDT type
4. Thermal transducer
a) Thermocouple type
b) Pirani gauge
5. Piezo- electric transducer
6. Miscellaneous
a) McLeod vacuum gauge
b) Ionisation gauge
Selection of Pressure gauge
 Low vacuum and ultra high pressure
 McLeod vacuum gauge.
 Thermal conductivity gauge.
 Ionisation gauge.
 Low Pressure
 Manometer.
 Medium and High Pressure
 Bourdon tube pressure gauges.
 Diaphragm gauge.
 Bellows gauge.
 Very high pressure
 Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
 Diaphragm gauge.
 Bulk modulus pressure gauge.
 U- tube manometer

P  1 gh1  Patm   2 gh2

P1  Patm  (  2 gh2  1 gh1 )

Advantages
1. Simple in construction and easy to
fabricate.
2. Accurate result.
3. Many fluids are available such as
mercury, water.
4. Maintenance is very less.
Disadvantages
 1. Leveling is needed.
 2. Error is introduced if the diameter of the tube
is less due to capillary action.
 3. As the glass tube is fragile, may break during
transport.
 4. The accuracy of the reading depends on
temperature, gravity.
 5. Interfacing with electronic/computer systems
is difficult.
 6. Skilled persons are required to use, as the
meniscus height has to be taken carefully.
Applications
 1. Used in Venturi-meter and other flow
meters.
 2. Used as level devices to sense liquid
heads.
 3. Used as primary standards for the
measurement of pressure.
Dead weight tester
Advantages
 Simple in construction and easy to use.
 Calibrates wide range of pressure gauges.
 Fluid pressure can be easily varied by
adding weights (or) by changing the
piston-cylinder arrangements.
Disadvantages
 Accuracy is affected due to the friction
between the piston and cylinder. This is
due to the uncertainty of the valve of
gravitational constant ‘g’.
Application
 To calibrate all kinds of pressure gauge
such as industrial pressure gauge, engine
indicator and Piezo-electric transducer.
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
 0.1 N/mm2 to 7 N/mm2 Phosphor
bronze
 7 N/mm2 to 600 N/mm2 Alloy steel,
stainless steel etc.,
 The tubes are drawn, machined, heat
treated and coated (if corrosion is a
problem).
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
Advantages
 Cost is low
 Simple in construction
 Accurate results, Accuracy is high at high
pressures.
 Can be modified to give electrical output
 Calibration is easy.
 It is capable of measuring gauge pressure,
absolute pressure and differential
pressure.
Disadvantages
 They respond slowly to change in
pressure.
 Hystersis is more.
 Sensitive to shock and vibrations and
hence readability is poor.
 As the closed end displacement is small,
greater amplification is needed for better
accuracy.
Elastic diaphragm pressure gauge
Elastic diaphragm pressure gauge
 metallic, non-metallic, animal membranes,
and synthetic materials like polythene,
Teflon etc

 The metallic diaphragms like nickel,

chromium, alloy steels are cold rolled and
can be used up to 2750 kN/m2, whereas
the non-metallic type can be used up to
100 kN/m2
Bellows type pressure gauge
 The materials used
are phosphor bronze,
stainless steel, copper
alloy and brass alloy
Bellows type pressure gauge
Capacitive Pressure Sensor
Capacitive Pressure Sensor

y max 
 
3  Pmax 1   2 r 4
16  Et 3

P – Differential pressure (P1-P2)

 - Poisson’s ratio for diaphragm material
r – Radius
E – Bulk modulus
T – thickness of diaphragm
Pirani Gauge
Vibration Measurement
Vibration
What to measure?
Displacement, velocity and acceleration
Displacement, velocity and acceleration
 The instantaneous displacement ‘x’ is
given by
x  A sin 2ft
 On differentiating with respect to time, we
get velocity, which is given by,
v  A2f  cos 2ft
 Again differentiating with respect to time,
we get acceleration, which is given by,

a  A4 2 f 2  sin 2ft

Displacement, velocity and acceleration
Typical machinery and its signal
Classification of Accelerometers
 Elementary accelerometers
 Mechanical Lever type
 Acceleration level indicator
 Brittle member acceleration level indicator
 Seismic accelerometers
 Acceleration measurement using stroboscope
 Electrical type accelerometers
 Strain gage type
 Capacitance type
 Variable inductance type
 LVDT type
 Eddy current type
 Piezoelectric accelerometers
Mechanical Lever Type Elementary
Accelerometer
Advantages
 The trace of the vibration signal is
available
 It is inexpensive and self-generating type
Disadvantages
 Mechanical lever type does not give electrical
output and hence cannot be used with electronic
systems and computers.
 Due to high inertia of the mechanical systems, it
can be used only for low frequency applications
and requires high amplitude.
 Due to movement of mechanical parts, it is prone
to wear and leads to vibrating structure
 As the plunger is constrained to one direction, it
is direction sensitive.
Acceleration level indicator
Brittle member acceleration level
indicator
Seismic Accelerometer
Strain Gauge Type Accelerometer
Specification
 Weight: 750g
 Diameter: 65 mm
 Natural Frequency: 65 Hz.
 Sensitivity: 10-4 microstrain per g.
 Frequency range: 0 - 355 Hz.
 Measuring range: up to 15g.
 Damping: 1.8
Capacitance Type Accelerometer
Inductance Type Accelerometer
LVDT Type Accelerometer
Piezo-electric Type Accelerometer

quartz,
Rochelle salt,
barium
Titarate, lead
zirconate

temperature ranges to 315 °C 5000 - 25000 Hz

Construction
Design Variation
Mounting
 Glue mounting
 Stud mounting
 Magnetic mounting
Advantages
 It has wide frequency and dynamic range.
 Good linearity throughout the ranges.
 Robust and Reliable
 No moving parts to wear out
Specification of a Piezo-Electric
Accelerometer
 Dynamic Characteristics

 Charge sensitivity: Typical: 3.0 pC/g

(Minimum: 2.0 pC/g)
 Resonance Frequency: 50 kHz
 Amplitude response: 1 to 10,000 Hz ± 5%
 Transverse sensitivity: 5%
 Amplitude linearity: 1 % Per 500 g, 0 to
5000 g
Specification of a Piezo-Electric
Accelerometer
 Electrical Characteristics
 Output Polarity: positive output
 Resistance: 20G
 Capacitance: 770 pF
 Grounding: Signal return connected to
case. Case isolated from mounting surface
by insulated screw assembly
Specification of a Piezo-Electric
Accelerometer
 Environmental Characteristics
 Temperature Range: -50°C to + 250°C
 Sinusoidal vibration limit:1000 g pk
 Shock limit: 5000 g pk
 Base strain sensitivity: 0.05 equiv. g/µ
strain
Specification of a Piezo-Electric
Accelerometer
 Physical characteristics
 Dimensions: given in outline drawing
 Weight: 3.1 g
 Case material: stainless steel
 Connector: 6 - 40 unf-2a thread, mates
with Endevco 3091f Cable assembly or
equivalent
 Mounting torque: 0.57 Nm
Advantages
 Extremely wide dynamic range, almost free of
noise - suitable for shock Measurement as well as
for almost imperceptible vibration
 Excellent linearity over their dynamic range
 Wide frequency range, high frequencies can be
measured
 Compact yet highly sensitive
 No moving parts - long service life
 Self-generating - no external power required
 Great variety of models available for nearly any
purpose
 Integration of the output signal provides velocity
and displacement.
Thank you