10M – 4 thinkers

20M – 6 to 7 thinkers
Mention the study and the book
Counter argument
Contemporary relevance
First write an answer content then if you remember any thinker, report, etc. mention it.
If question is based on thinker, then first mention thinker and if question demand is the
Causes of violence, then first right causes and then write thinker.

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Cate system

#Perspective
#Features
#Untouchability

Caste system

Caste vs Caste system

Caste system
 Caste among non-Hindus
 Caste outside India

Features of caste system

 Jajmani system
 Endogamy: 1. Anuloma 2. Pratiloma
 Varna vs jati: Gotra

Approaches:
1. Attributional approach
2. Interactional approach

Perspective of caste system

Theories of origin of caste

Transformation of caste system:

 Caste vs class
 Role of caste in politics
 Caste mobility

Untouchability:
 Forms
 Perspective
 Contemporary Reality

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Caste vs Caste system

Caste system is a system of a social stratification consisting of hierarchically arranged closed

endogamies strata, where membership is ascriptive, contact is restrictive and mobility is
theoretically impossible.

*Endogamy: Marrying within the defined kin-group, be it clan, village or social class.
Exogamy: Marriage outside the kin group or decided boundaries.

Caste Caste system

 Endogamous group  It refers to frame work of social
 Specific occupation stratification which govern how
 Hereditary membership different caste which interact with each
 Rules other in ritual and secular sphere.
1. Feeding pattern
2. Social engagement

{*Caste feats Weber’s concept of status group because

- each caste has a distinct socials status in the hierarchy
- It practices endogamy to preserve the status
- It in forces distinct life style rules (diet, dress, occupation, etc.)}

Origin of this word Casta is a form Portuguese word this mean Lineage. Casta borrow from
Latin word Castus which is mean pure. Caste determines purity of lineage.

There is no unanimous definition of caste. Different scholar has different perspective.

Scholar Perspective
Andre Beteille Caste is a social group with hereditary membership, endogamy and
specific way of life.
Dr. B. R. Caste is a system of graded inequality where caste is arranged
Ambedkar hierarchal based on social and religious status.
C. H. Coolie When class becomes strictly hereditary it can be called Caste.

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Features of caste system

Ascriptive

Caste councils/
panchayat Endogamy

Features
of caste
Social system Occupational
segmentation Division of
labour

Commensality Hierarchy

Ascriptive:
 The caste of an individual is determined at birth.
 According to G S. Ghurye caste status is ascriptive and fixed for life.
 According Louis Dumont individuals’ caste is heredity and immutable.
 E.g. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar despite been educated face untouchability and undiscriminating.

Endogamy:
 Endogamy is the practice of marrying within one's own social, ethnic, or religious group,
which helps maintain cultural identity and social cohesion.
 In order to maintain a purity of lineage, marriage out-side the cast is restricted.
 According to Louis Dumont, endogamy reinforces purity, pollution, and hierarchy.

Anuloma (Hypergamy) Pratiloma (Hypogamy)

 Upper caste man marries with women  Women of upper caste tries to marry
of lower caste lower caste is not allowed.
 According to Ghurye: It finds mention in  According to Dumont, it threatens the
ancient text, but is only tolerated but purity – pollution hierarchy
not considered ideal.  E.g. Honour Killing, Sairat Movie

Hierarchy:
 Caste is ranked in hierarchy order with Brahmins constituting top strata.
 According to Louis Dumont, hierarchy is core principle of the caste system with ritual
purity determining their rank.
 Dr B. R. Ambedkar, caste hierarchy is not only social but also religious.
 E.g. In 2022 Rajasthan Jalore District a Dalit by beaten to death for drinking to water
from upper caste plot.

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Occupational division of Labour:
 Each caste traditionally is link with specific occupation.
 According to Ghurye, there exist occupational heredity.
 According to M. N. Srinivas, occupational mobility has increase however caste based
occupational clustering still persist.
 According to Ministry of social justice and empowerment, Manual Scavengers 97.25%
belong to SC community.

Commensality:
 There is strict rule to regulate to inter caste interaction.
 Louis Dumont: purity, pollution dichotomy governed caste relation.
 E.g. Separate seating arrangement in midday mile

Social segmentation:
 Class operates like close groups with strong group loyalty.
 Ghurye: Caste System is defined as segmental division of society with each segment
functionality autonomously.
 Andre Beteille: They are close status group with clear boundary’s, internal solidarity and
strong collective identity
 E.g.
- Patidar community in Gujrat have strong internal cohesion and mobilising for political

Varna

Jati

Sub-caste

Gotra

Surname

Cast
e Panchayat and caste council
 Ghurye: Caste panchayat act as local self-governing bodies ensuring endogamy,
occupational purity and internal dispute resolution.
 Rajni Kothari: Caste panchayats Act, both as traditional and political institution
regulation social and political behaviour.
 e.g. All India Kshatriya Mahasabha

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Civil and religious disability
 Ghurye: Lower caste suffers from multiple disability both civil and religious sphere
 E.g. of civil disability: Deny the access to public well, road, school, riding horses in
marriage, etc.
 E.g. of religious disability: temple entry, participation in religious ritual, deny the reading
and learning ancient text, etc.

Q) Features of Caste system. (M10 W150) (UPSC)

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Jajmani System

Concept
 Jajman and Kamin are hereditary exchange of services.
 Kamin provided services to Jajman: Ritual, Personal, Occupational
 Jajman pay to Kamin: Grain, Cloth, Protection
 Traditional socio-economic arrangement which involves hereditary exchange of services.
 Client – patron services

Features

 Functional inter changeability: Under this system flexibility ensures continuity of the
services even the when particular caste is absent.
E.g. Madhopur village studied by Bernand Cohan also perform swiping duty. According to
Joan Mencher caste-based roles are not always rigid and was dependent on
demographic condition.
 Temporal continuity: Jajmani relation lasted across generation. According to William
Wiser this continuity reduce competition, ensure economic security and also social
stability.
 Role reversal possibility: It allow some caste to be Jajman in one relation and Kamins in
another.
E.g. Study by F. G. Bailey in Bisipara village found a black smith serve Brahmins but hired
a sweeper clean his own house.
 Economic and ritual integration:
According to Louis Dumont Jajmani system is an economic manifestation of ritual
hierarchy where ritual purity and pollution dictated service relation.
That is certain task were reserve for lower caste.
 Redistributive exchange system:
According Louis Dumont, it is constituting redistributive economy.
E.g. Wealth, Grain, resources accumulate by Jajman is redistributed to Kamins through
gift, reward, payment, etc.
According to Ghurye this hereditary division of labour insures both economic stability
and ritual order
 Moral and social obligation:
Jajman’s where expected to provide protection during conflict, medical help during
illness, gifts and special payments during marriage, funeral, etc. (Pauline Kolenda).
 Gender aspect of Jajmani:
According to Lila Dube, women faced double exploitation as labours and women with in
patriarchal household. (e.g. midwifery performed by Dalit is part of Jajmani packet)

Perspective:
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Functional perspective:
According to William Wiser, Jajmani system was mutually beneficial as each caste group was
dependent on each other for economic and ritual function. He conducted a study of
washerman community in Karim-Pure village. Observation – reciprocity and stability,
economic stability, social integration.
He was criticised for romanticizing mutuality.

Conflict perspective:
Juvan: conducted extensive field work in Tamil Nadu and bottom-up approach that is
Jajmani not a system of reciprocal benefit but a system of exploitation and political control.
It was observed that cumin’s where economical exploited, socially subordinate and political
marginalised. However, this view point criticized it under stated the agency of lower caste.

According to Andre Beate, some time lower caste negotiated on better terms.
According to Xaxa, many migrated to cities for better opportunity.

Q) Critically evaluate the significance of Jajmani system in traditional India society. (UPSC)

Jajmani system (Hero Play game)

H > Hereditary (lack of opportunity for social mobility)
E > Exchange of services (Unequal)
R > Religious justification (Louis Dumont: Jajmani system is economic manifestation of ritual
hierarchy
O > Oppression through social control (Jajman have land, water, grains)
P > Political subordination (Joan Mencher: lack of Negotiation power and special
segregation)
G > Gender exploitation (Gail Omvedt: Women are subjected to sexual abuse)

Disintegration of Jajmani System:

Factors Explanation
Economic Factor  Introduction of cash crop
 Commercialisation of Agriculture
 Monetization of ruler economy
 Capitalist agriculture
 Market based relation
 Transport and technology > weakening of caste-occupation
linkage
Land reforms  Abolition of zamindari system > economic base of Jajman (upper
caste landlords) was dismantle
 Land redistribution programs e.g. Bhoodan movement

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 Caste in politics  Lower caste got numerical strength > able to mobilise for land
right, reservation and dignity. E.g. Dalit Panther Movement –
challenge the traditional Jajmani system and raised demand for
dignified employment opportunity
Urbanisation,  Rural urban migration specially to the sector of construction,
migration transport or service sector has disrupted traditional caste
occupational linkage.
 Case study: workers from Punjab and Tamil Nadu shifted to cities
for better wages (Surendar Jodhka)
 Dalit Youth from Bihar and UP migrated to cities like Delhi to work
in factories or gig worker completely braking away from
hereditary roles
Education and  Post independence the education opportunity and affirmative
reservation action policy enabled lower caste youth to enter modern
occupation. E.g. Nandu ram’s study on Mobile Schedule Caste
highlights how education and reservation created a Dalit middle
class reducing Jajmani type dependence.
Legal and Social  Abolition of Untouchability (Article 17, Constitution of India)
reforms  Bonded Labour Abolition Act,1976
 SC and ST Prevention of Atrocity Act,1989
 MGNEREGA
 Caste Study: Mirchpur Dalit Boycott (2010) – Dalit refuse to work
under traditional Jajmani obligation after caste violence
 In Bundelkhand Dalit agriculture worker refuse to unpaid service
obligation post MGNEREGA

Criticism and Limitations:

Louis Dumont Over emphasize on mutual benefits

Juvan Menchur Ignored economic exploitation and caste subjugation
Gail Onvedt Did not account for caste-based violence and coercion
M. N. Srinivas Overlook the role of external market in undermining of Jajmani
system
McKim Marriott Assumption of Homogeneity across region

All thus this are disintegrated but

1. According to Surendra Jodhka even in commercial agriculture heiring pattern reflect
caste preference.
2. According to survey by Action Aid NGO in 25% of served villages Dalit labours were are
not allowed to work on land as casual labour.

Q) Discuss the role of Jajmani system in perpetuating in caste inequality in the ruler India.
Q) How far an economic development in rural India undermines tradition Jajmani relation.
(2016 M10 W150)
Q) Examine the changing nature of Jajmani system in the context of ruler transformations.
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 Caste Systems
Varna and jati:
Varna and jati are 2 sperate concept. Senart for the first time brought out the conceptual
difference between the two.

Varna Jati
 M. N. Srinivas
 Book view  Field view
 Single Pan Indian – Hierarchy  Regional/localise
 Fixed immutable  Varies region to region
 Fixed in number 4  Thousands of jati
 Ritual aspect and hence does not  Occupational specialisation and
reflect economic and political aspect endogamy

M. N. Srinivas, Dipankar Gupta and Surendra Jodhka argues that varna has the distorted
the reality as it is over simplified Brahmanical idealisation which does not account for
complex jati plus social order. E.g.
1. Not all brahmans are same.
2. Shudra community is also very wide. On one hand, land owning dominant caste.
Whereas the other hand land less.
3. It does not account for untouchable which is integral to the actual caste system

The varna scheme only refer to broad categories of society which does not account for lived
reality. E.g. In Rampura brahmins have ritual superior but Okkaligas (a dominant peasant
caste) controlled local politics and economy.

Q) “Varna scheme has discarded pitcher of caste” comment.

Gotra:

Meaning Gotra refers to clan/lineage, from where family forces the origin
Inheritance Gotra is inherited from father side
Marriage rules Gotra exogamy
Purpose Genetic diversity, wider social network
Religious role Often spoken during marriage, religious rituals and funeral
Current +  Gotra rules have weakened in cities but persist in village
Contemporary  Honour killing and khap panchayat

Theories of origin of Caste

 According to D. N. Majumdar, there are exist as many theories as the perspective on the
subject.

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 The census of India in 1931. Refer to 5 theories of caste
1. Divine origin theory
 As per Purusukta hymn of Rig Veda caste system emerged when Brahamaji self-
disrupted,
1. Brahmins come from mouth
2. Shatriya comes from hands
3. Vaishya comes from thighs
4. Shudra comes from foot
 According to Manu smriti different Caste emerge due to inter caste unions and non-
observation of sacred rituals. However this criticises, Leu Dumont dismiss this as
mythological justification rather than historical fact.

2. Karma and transmigration

 According to this belief individuals are born in higher or lower caste according to
there past Karma i.e. good Karma > higher caste and foolish act > lower caste
 Dr. Ambedkar argued that this theory invented to maintain upper caste dominance.

3. Occupational theory
 Nesfield occupation was the primary factor in the development in the caste system.
Priesthood not exclusive to Brahman but as ritual becomes complex a specialised
group emerge as Brahmans. This theory highlights economic specialisation as the key
driver of caste formation.
 Criticise: Fails to explain caste hierarchy (Dipankar Gupta)

4. Tribes and religious

According to Risley, 4 key process were are responsible for integration of tribal into
Hindu caste system
i. Social mobility through land and power. E.g. Gonds (central India)
ii. Religious conversion and adoption of Hindu identity. E.g. Halbas of
Chhattisgarh converted to Vaishnavism and accruing Hindu identity (Shatriya
Status)
iii. Formation of new caste within Hindu society e.g. Rajbangsi claiming Shatriya
linage
iv. Gradual assimilation e.g. Santhal they retain their name but gradually adopted
Hindu customs
5. Senart exogamy theory
Senart argues that exogamy is main factor in caste formation. Risley supported this view
stating Aryans avoided inter marriage but could not entirely prevented leading to gradual
caste divisions.

Racial Theory of Caste System:

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 Racial theory given by Herbert Risley
 Aryans (Fair)
 Non-Aryans (Dark)
 Racial Theory was proposed by Risley in the book ‘People of India’ according to this
theory racial differences and endogamy marriages played a crucial role in origin and
evolution in a caste system in India. The Indo-Aryans migrated from Persia and got 4 class
social structure.
1. Brahman
2. Kshatriya
3. Vaishya
4. Shudra
 To maintain their superior status, they practice endogamy. However, hypergamy
encourage but Pratiloma marriages are forbidden.
 In order to justify theory, he argued varna means colour which shoes racial classification.
 However, criticised by Irawati Karve who believe varna means class rather than colour.
 Risley also claim that higher class narrow noes and lower caste have broad nose.
 G. S. Ghurye describe caste system as Brahmanical system that believes non Aryan race
become Shudra who were not allowed to participate in religious and social activities of
Aryans.
 Majumdar believes clash of culture and contact of races lead to the social grouping with
3 superior classes maintaining their superior status and their occupation and debarring
other people from practicing such occupation. These are few theories which considers
race as the basis of caste system.

Q) Write a short note on racial theory of caste system in India.

A. L. Kroeber: Race can be one of the bases of caste evolution but is not the only criteria.
(Religious, cultural and occupation factors also influence caste formation.)

Q) Is Caste a form of Racism?

For Against
 Both are fixed and  Romila Thapar: (the Past before US, 2013)
intergenerational Caste is a social and economic system rather
 Both are socially stigmatised than racial
 Restricted mobility both w.r.t.  Dipankar Gupta: Caste is social construct and
social and economic sphere not a social reality
 Gail Omvedt: Dalit struggle has  Dipankar Gupta: Caste system is fluid adopts
global parallel of racial struggle. to social economic changes. E.g. A certain
 Christopher Jeffrelot: Caste caste better access to better opportunity
discrimination in India is similar to gains higher status then it contradicts racial
racial discrimination in US, South theory.
Africa.  Andre Beteille:
1. With in the caste there exist racial

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 difference hence no uniform racial type for
any caste in India.
2. There exists regional - The caste system is
not same across India
3. Caste position is determined by social
hierarchy which in turn ritual practices and
economic function.
 Dr. B R Ambedkar: caste is not about race but
about enforcing hierarchy. Caste system is
created by Brahmin to establish dominance
over lower caste. Endogamy is the real bases
of caste. Social and religious discrimination
created untouchability not race.

Q) Critically examine the interrelationship between caste and race.

Risley identified six processes through which cate may have formed over time:
1. Integration of tribes in Hindu society. E.g. Gonds of central India adopted the Rajput
identity and claim Kshatriya status.
2. Occupation. E.g. A Teli caste emerge due to their occupation of oil extraction.
3. Sub division to occupational change. E.g. Vaishyas the traditional caste split into
groups due to trade specialisation. Agarwal into grain and banking business and
Oswal in jewellery business.
4. Ceremonial Practices. E.g. Some Kshatriyas of Bengal when didn’t follow the Vedic
ritual were reclassified as Shudras.
5. Preservation of old tradition E.g. Nambudiri’s Brahman of Kerla strictly follow the
orthodox customs to maintain their unlike identity
6. Religious and sectoral movement. E.g. Ravidassia community a devotional set
developed endogamic class structure.

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Perspective

Karl Marx Economic base of Caste. Caste is rooted in Land ownership and Economic role.
There are 2-fold division in the society 1. Landowning Caste 2. Artisan and service caste.
There exists exchanged based relationship between caste and hence and its promote
harmony. He defined this system as village republic.

Weber: Caste is a status-based hierarchy where there exists particular social status, distinct
life style (food habits, occupation, etc.) and restriction to preserve the status.

According to Celestine Bougle, caste is viewed from the perspective of hierarchy and
separation of contact and occupational division of labour.

Ritual Religious
Secular Political, Economic, Social

Attributional Approach: Interactional Perspective:

Approach: It discusses the features of Approach: It takes into account how caste
caste system of what makes it different actually rank w.r.t. one another in local
from other forms of social stratification. empirical context.

Scholars: Scholar:
G. S Ghurye Louis Dumont
J. H. Hutton F. G. Bethy
M. N. Srinivas Macron Marinate

Subject matter: Subject matter:

It focusses on inherent and inalienable It explores caste relationship within a
features of caste. e.g. Purity, endogamy, specific context. E.g. Commensality, food
occupation, etc. habit, etc.

Aim: To preserve caste identity through Aim: The interactional approach highlights
maintain caste attributes. the role of rituals and religious value in
shaping caste ranking.

Q) Analyse the differences between attributional and interactional approach in studying

the caste system? (2023 M20 W250)

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G.S Ghurye

Background:
 His academic reputation was built on his doctoral dissertation at Cambridge, which later
published as Caste and race in India (1932)
 His work drew attention as it addressed the major concern of Indian anthropology. i.e.
critique of dominant theories which established relationship between race and caste.

Premise:
 Ghurye initially entertained Risley’s perspective i.e. human being can be divided into
different racial groups based on distinct physical traits such as circumference of Skull,
Length of nose or the volume of Skull.
 According to Risley cast is based on racial difference i.e. Upper caste > Aryan Trait and
Lower caste > Non-Aryan Traits.
 Based on differences in average measurement of physical features Risley suggested that
racial differences were bases of caste system. However, Ghurye found his argument
partially correct.
1. Ghurye pointed out the flaw in using the averages without considering the variation
with in the given community.
2. Risley thesis of upper caste being Aryan and Lower caste was non-Aryan is applicable
to northern India.
3. In other regions the differences in measurements between the group was not very
significant. According to him endogamy help preserving racial purity in north India in
other parts caste groups were already racially mixed before adopting endogamy. E.g. In
Maharashtra Mahar community are overlapping physical feature with upper caste
making it difficult to racial Distington’s (B. R. Ambedkar)

Theory:
Ghurye gave 6 features of Caste:

Segment
Divisions
Restriction
on social Occupational
interaction restriction
Features
of Caste
Differential Restriction
rights and on marriage
duties
Hierarchy

Segmental Division:

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 1. Caste is divided into several close and mutual.
2. Each Caste function as a separate functional compartment.
3. Caste membership is ascriptive by birth and it cannot change.

Hierarchy: Every caste is strictly unequal to other and caste system is structure in a rank
hierarchy. They are arranged in top – down fashion. No two castes are ever equal.

Restriction on social interaction: food shearing is regulated by purity and pollution rule.
Even concept of untouchability enforces this restriction.

Differential rights and duties: Caste have different rights and duties which apply in both
religious and secular context. In some villages lower cast individuals have to remove their
footwear in front of upper caste in a sign of respect.

Occupational restriction: occupation is hereditary and caste base and caste function as a
rigid form of division of labour.

Restriction on marriage: Endogamy rule insures reproduction of the caste system.

Ghurye as extensively analyse caste system in India highlighting both its integrative role and
the potential to cause this harmony.

Caste as a mechanism of social integration:

According to Ghurye caste system integrated diverse group into unified social structure.
The pivotal role was played by Brahman due to there authorship in religious scripture. The
religious feature provides the guidelines for assimilating different communities into cohesive
entities.

Caste as a source of conflict:

Emergence of caste-based association often lead to inter caste conflict this association work
to protect their specific interest causing competitions and disharmony.

Criticism:
S. E. Dubey  Criticized Ghurye’s approach for presenting Brahmanical view of
India.
 He also criticised reliance on textual sources which lead to static and
over simplified petrel of India society
Sujata Patel  Brahman’s is not ritually superior in all parts of India.
Carol Upadhya  Ghurye was not an empirical sociologist.
M. N. Srinivas  He criticized static view of caste and introduced concept like
Sanskritization to explain fluidity

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Contemporary relevance of Ghurye’s view on Caste:
 According to India human development survey inter caste marriages below 5% despite
incentives.
 Occupational segregation still exists: 2019 study by Assim Premji university found that
less than 5% Dalit hold senior position hold in India corporate sector
 Restriction on social interaction specially in rural area. Study by Surendra Jodhka shown
how jati based settlement pattern still persist in rural areas
 Oxfam India report 2021 found that SC/ST community faced discrimination in health care
with Dr less likely to attained Dalit patient in Rural area
 D. Kartike in 2018 study Dalit capitalism is on the rise. However, caste-based
discrimination still hinders the business opportunity.

Q) Write a short note on Ghurye’s conception of caste in India. (UPSC 2019)

M. N. Srinivas

Background:
 Stalwart of Sociology and Anthropology
 Significant contribution to discipline of sociology study caste, social exchange and power
structure.
 Credited with initiating central functionalism in sociology and sociology anthropology
 Also credited with introducing generalization on micro-anthropological insight through
fieldwork
 He was in favour in studying in a contextual perspective rather than theoretical
 He was critical of book view and textual analysis

Perspective on Caste
 Caste is interdependent in nature.
 He used attributional approach to the study of caste

Endogamy

Hierarchy Caste
Panchayat
Features
of Caste

Occupational Restriction on
division of dress, customs,
labour commensality,etc.

17
 He also talks about how Jajmani system act as vertical unity of caste
 Subcaste is the real unit of caste system
 According to Srinivas, caste is a complex phenomenon. Which cannot be reduced to a
single variable.
 Criticisam of Louis Dumont, Louis Dumont primarily focus on ideological aspect of caste
emphasizing the opposition between pure and impure. He treated ritual status sole
determinant of caste hierarchy ignoring the role of power and economic factor
 Criticism of Marx analysis: Marxist scholar tended to reduce the class to the class
dynamics and so caste operation as economic exploitation
 According to Srinivas caste is complex inter play of ritual and secular hierarchy (Dual
hierarchy)

Sanskritization
Concept
 Sanskritization is the process by which lower caste, tribe or any group changes its
customs, ritual, ideology, lifestyle, in the direction of the higher that is Twice borne caste.

Features of Sanskritization
 Imitations of higher caste customs. E.g. Lingayat Community in south India move towards
vegetarianism to align with Brahmanical norm
 Shift in religious practices. E.g. Adopting wedding rituals of Brahman
 Use of Sanskritic name and titles to claim higher status. E.g. Using title like Sharma to
associate with Brahman
 Adoption purity norms. E.g. Dalit community of Rajasthan abundant leather work
occupation to reduced stigma and claim higher status.

Conditions for Sanskritization

 A caste is more likely to Sanskritic when it acquire economic and political power
 Caste can claim higher ritual status depends upon the recognition by other caste.
 E.g. Raj Gond’s in central India (Tribal group adopted Kshatriya practices decent from
Rajput rulers and integrated into caste system
 E.g. Kurmi caste traditionally agricultural community started using Kshatriya title,
following vegetarian diet to claim and elevated status.

Limitations of Sanskritization
 Sanskritization only bring a shift in individual caste ranking (positional change but leaves
the caste structure – it does not bring about structural change)
 Sanskritization does not weaken the caste system rather reinforces it.

18
 According to Gail Omvedt, higher caste often resists or reject the claim of Sanskritization
of caste. It is often manifested in the form of increase Violence against on the Dalit due
to counter

Criticism of Concept
 Social mobility is exaggerated
 Endorsing the culture or the customs of the upper caste
 Exclusion of lower caste
 Reinforcing regressive practices
 Erosion of Dalit culture

Sanskritization vis-à-vis Westernization

Aspect Sanskritization Westernization

Process of Mobility By emulating the practices of upper By emulating western ideas,
caste values, technology,
institution, etc.
Outlook It has ritual outlook It has secular outlook
w. r. t. caste Mobility within caste framework Mobility outside the caste
framework
Culture Practices Pure vegetarianism Encourage freedom w. r. t.
food choices. E.g. Non-veg

 Westernization and Sanskritization seen contradictory. However, Westernization facilized

Sanskritization:
- Media such as television and online platform are promoting religious rituals and text
reinforcing the Sanskritic values
- Western values like equality and secularise imbedded in Indian constitution have
open religious shrine to all caste hence increasing participation in rituals
- Expansion of railways and modern transport has made religious pilgrimage more
accessible adding Sanskritization.
- Culture vacuum is created by westernization hence lower caste faces less resistant in
practicing Sanskritization.

Alternative views
 De-Sanskritization: D. N. Majumdar argue upper caste giving out there tradition due to
western influence a phenomenon, he term as De-Sanskritization’s.
 Dalitization: Kancha Iliah – It is popular adoption Dalit cultural practices and it is a
counter force to Sanskritization E.g. Dalit assertion movement, celebration of Dalit icons,
rejection of upper caste rituals
 Defiance: Harold Gould – Argues that Sanskritization is not simply an imitation of upper
caste culture but a form of defiance that is challenging caste monopoly’s

19
Q) How far Sanskritization modernising force or traditionalising force in understanding caste
system? (10M 2015)

Dominant Caste
Concept
 Irrespective of position in traditional caste hierarchy, it came to dominate the society or
region due to numerical strength, political domination and economical influence.

Features
 Wealth
 Land ownership
 Numerical strength
 Political power
 Education and administration
 Ritual status
 Dominant caste according to Srinivas was found at regional level and not confines to one
village. E.g. Maratha in Maharashtra, Yadavs in UP, Patidar in Gujrat, Jat in Haryana,
Okkaligas in Karnataka, Khama Reddy in Andhra
 According Adrian C. Mayer study of Ramkheri Village he found out Jat dominate
economic structure; Rajput dominate political structure and Brahman dominate ritual
structure.
 Oscar Lewis: Rampura village found Rajput dominate in secular sphere and often look
down upon brahman, hence rise in secular hierarchy questions Brahmanical supremacy.

Function
 Control over resources
 Representation on state administration
 Watchdog of culture
 Overseeing despite settlement
 Nodal point of development projects
 Facilitate Sanskritization by acting as the reference group

Criticism
 According to Pauline Kolenda, Srinivas borrows the concept from Evans Pritchard study
of Nuer tribe in Sudan.
 Similarly, Pocock argued that Srinivas borrows the idea from African anthropological
study on dominate tribe and simply replace tribe with caste.
 According to D. Majumdar and Dipankar Gupta was criticized for over emphasizing has a
numerical strength as a criteria for Dominance.
 S. C. Dube advocates there are no dominant caste but dominate individuals.

20
 Land reforms and social political changes had diluted the dominance of single caste in
many villages
 Marxist sociologist like Ghanshyam Shah called this dominant caste a class for
mobilisation as they are driven by common economic and political interest

Q) What are the features of M. N. Srinivas concept of dominant caste. How effective
it is in today’s reality. (UPSC)

Srinivas: contemporary Status of Caste

 Wrote “An obituary of caste as a system”
- Decline in ritual hierarchy and Sanskritization
- Interdependence ends (disintegration of Jajmani system)
- Persistence due to secularisation and adaptation
- Shift from ascriptive to Instrumental

Q) Why Dominant caste is demanding reservation. Critically Discuss.

Louis Dumont
Background:
 French sociologist
 Significant contribution to study of cast in his seminal work Homo Hierarchicus.
 Presented structuralist and Indologist approach to study of caste as an ideological system
rather than just a system of social stratification
 Indologist: As he made reference to text, scriptures, literature, etc.
 Structuralist: society as a system, in which the element (caste, religion, power) are
connected in a specific structure.

21
 Hence, caste system can be referred as structure ideology based on purity and pollution
which maintain social hierarchy. Caste is not about economic or political power but a
belief which help in organising people into hierarchy.

Theoretical Influence
 Levi Straus: The idea of Binary opposite of pure and impure
 Celestin Bougle: Dumont was influences by the cultural explanation by caste by Bougle.
According to which, caste has 3 features: Hierarchy, Separation of Contact and
Occupational DOL.

Perspective on caste
 According to Dumont, caste is defined as a system of ideas and values, it is a formal,
comprehensible and rational system.
 Caste is unique to Indian social society which has no other historical parallel

based on
Ideology
Hierarchy Purity and
pollution
Who core
essence is

 Caste is based on
 Hierarchy refered to
1. Subordination: Lower caste are placed below the higher caste in the social order
2. Transcendent: the higher caste is seen as superiour not just socialy but ritualy and
motraly
3. Interdependence: even though caste are rank but they dependent on each other for
different function
Hieracrchy is lader of command where the caste group are arranged in comparatively
superiour or inferriour to one another. E.g. Brahman status has no meaning unless
compare to Kshatriyas.
 Purity and pollution
 Manifested
a. Sepration
E.g. Endogamy, residential sepration, Dietry restriction or commonsality, civil
and religious disability, etc.
b. Absorption
E.g. Manual scavanging, midwife, washerman, Nahi (Biber)
 Types of Impurity
1. Permanent: Thus born into intouchable caste are consider permanentlu impure.
There occupation are consider ritualy polluting.

22
 2. Temperory: Higher caste can also become temperory impure deu to
- Contact with lower caste
- Birth and death in the family
- Mansiration
However this impurity can be removed through ritual purification
 Transmission: Impurity is contigious an is considered to spread through
1. Physical touch
2. Shearing of food and water
 According to Dumont ritual status is superious vis-a-via secular power according to him
ritual purity is independent of wealth and power. E.g. A king may hold political power
and wealth is ritualy suboedinate Brahman. Even the lower caste accept caste hierarchy
beacause they also belives in impurity and pollution. According to him ranking is relgious
in nature where power is subordinated to status. Hence ritual hierarchy is the pure
hierarchy.

 Westen scholar:
Criticised Dumont perspective on caste for being irrational and exploitative.
Dumont reply: western societies are different from India society.

Aspect Homo Equalis Homo Hierarchicus

Values Equality/individualism Hierarchy/collectivism
Status Merit/Achievement Birth/ascriptive
Mobility Open system – High Closed system – low
Economic Open market/Skill based Hereditary occupation
Religious role Exist outside the social Influence caste-based
order order
Marriage Open across all classes Endogamy

Substantialisation of caste
 Dumolt acknowledges that modernisation has changes caste but argues caste
ideologist remains intake. Earlier caste interdependent for services however know they
are acting as self-sufficient group computing for job, political power, etc. E.g. Jat,
Maratha, Patel are demanding reservation and competing with Dalit etc.
 Political party’s giving tickets based on caste number (Politicisation of caste)
 Many castes form their association to lobby for benefits

Scholar Criticisms
Andre Dumont Ideas are too idealistic and they ignore the real caste dynamics
Beteille
Gerold Caste is about domination not purity and pollution
Berreman
Dipankar Criticises Dumont assumption that Brahmins are universal respected in

23
 Gupta fact He’s study Jat in north India shows the Brahmin as lassie and greedy
Yogender He criticises Dumont for focusing too much on caste integration and
Singh ignoring caste conflict
Hira Singh Dumont too focus on religion and neglects economic reality

Despite criticism, T. N. Madan says Indian sociology must have been poorer without Dumont
contribution.

PYQ
Q) Critically evaluate Lieu Dumont Homo hierarchies. (20M)
Q) Dumont perspective on Indian caste system.
Q) How do you justify Dumont deliberate stress on ideology.
Q) How relevant Dumont theory on caste is relevant contemporary India.

Andre Beteille
Concept of Caste
Small, named group characterised by
 Endogamy
 Hereditary occupation
 Distinct lifestyle
 Ascriptive membership

Critical of Earlier theories:

 Ghurye was know for his historical and textual analysis
 He is critical to Dumont Brahmanical superiority
 Srinivas - Sanskritization

Seminal Work
Cast, Class and Power
 Caste is on objective reality
 Need to be studied empirically
 Focus on real life interaction rather than textual
(Refused to Ghurye)

He conducted filed research in Sripuram village in Tamil Nadu. He found three major caste
group Brahmins, Non-Brahman and Adi-Dravidian. (The relation between them is not
harmonious but characteristic by competition and power struggle)(refused to Dumont)

There cast groups are not homogenous, hence intra-caste relations also needs to be studied.
E.g. Brahman 1. Sri-Vaishnav and 2. Smartha and they both have there ritual and social
boundaries > Endogamy.

24
There existed a peasant class (Mudaliars) which after gaining of economic wealth > house
renovation, education, political representation > but had no intention to Sanskritization
(Refuse to Srinivas)

He also observed, the 3 process of forming social structure

 Unequal access to wealth (Class)
 Unequal access to Power (Power)
 Unequal access to Status (Caste)
Hence, Caste dynamics needs to be extended to incorporate class and power to understand
the stratification in Indian Society.

Andre Beteille suggested India should be studied from stratification perspective considering
caste, class and power rather than caste alone.

He challenged the Brahmanical superiority model of Dumont, he criticized Sanskritization of

Srinivas. He highlighted how ownership, education, political participation shape social
ranking more than ritual purity.
Advocated for multidimensional approach to social inequality.

Harmonic and Disharmonic system:

Ideology and Reality is Sync = Harmonic

Ideology and reality not in sync = Disharmonic
Caste has been deeply imbedded feature of Indian society. Andre Beteille has offered and
alternative classification of society harmonic and disharmonic system in his book harmonic
and disharmonic social system he criticised for categorising simply as egalitarian.

Harmonic social system:

Harmonic society is one where ideology aliens with actual social structure that is no
contradiction between normative and existential order.
E.g. Traditional Indian society
Normative order: Hierarchy, Inequality
Existential order: Caste based discriminations
E.g. Primitive tribal society
Normative order: equality
Existential order: equality

Disharmonic social system:

25
It is where the ideology contradicts the actual social structure. Societal instability due to
contradiction between ideals and reality.
E.g. Western society
Normative order: Promotes egalitarian principal
Existential order: Economic and social hierarchy exist

Beteille framework can apply to caste showing how caste system creates harmonic social
structure but it challenged by disharmonic influences. E.g. Democracy, constitutional rights
introduced the ideal of equality in modern India.

Reservation policy’s, education, urbanisation, challenged the caste system but discrimination
still persist. Hence there exist ideals of equality Vs. Realities of caste discrimination >
Disharmonic system.

Q) In context of changing Indian society How do you view Andre Beteille conception of
Harmonic and disharmonic social structure. (UPSC M10)

Andre Beteille view on cumulative inequality: He highlighted how caste class and power
were cumulative in premodern society i.e. higher class meant wealth and political and lower
class meant poverty and subjugation. These cumulative inequalities reinforce rigid social
hierarchy E.g. Zamindari system, Varna system.

With Industrialisation, urbanisation, modernisation and political democratisation cumulative

inequality know has been replaced disperse inequality i.e. higher caste person can be poor
and lower caste person can be wealth and political powerful. E.g. Dalit entrepreneur, Dalit
politician, economical distress among forward caste, etc.

Q) Discuss Andre Beteille account of the relation ship between class, caste and power as
change from Symmetrical to asymmetrical
Q) Critical analyse Dumont perspective on caste system in India.

Caste; old and new

 Traditionally, caste system was rigid and caste hierarchy was fixed.
 Status, occupation was pre-determined by birth
 Hence, with Industrialisation, urbanisation and modernisation. The motion of purity and
pollution was questioned
 Indian society should be studied from following perspective
 System of hierarchical gradation (some group ranked higher due to ritual believes,
Brahman Vs Shudra)

26
  Interdependent of mobility (Dalit capitalist or pollution gaining power shows social
mobility, where as traditional occupation like Baber, barber, potter still depend upon
each other showing interdependences)
 Hierarchical gradation of values (Economic success know computes with caste in
deciding social status for e.g. different values like education, wealth, political power are
know been use redefining status)
 Beteille argued that India has never fully imbursed modernity as describe Yogendra Singh
nor remain confined to absolute tradition as suggested by Dumont. Hence, he believes
caste has transform rather than completely being replaced by class.

Backward class and new social order

 Class is known for similar market situation
 OBC > neither similar economic and occupational background in fact they have
differential access to resources and opportunities. Hence, clubbing their communities
under the OBC is flawed empirically.
 Reservation > to correct historical injustice, equality of opportunity, redistributive
agenda of state
 Politics of reservation > anti-democratic, anti-meritocratic and anti-equality

Andre criticality analyses the extension of reservation policy to OBC.

1. According to him the caste consists of people shearing same market position, but in
India OBS do not share uniform economic and occupational background and hence
clubbing them under single category’s is empirical incorrect. E.g. Treating dominate
OBC at par with marginalised causes imbalance in affirmative actions.
2. He argued that present day reservation policy is driven by vote bank politics rather
than social justice concerns
3. Reservation is deepening caste-based divisions and is faster the new social
polarisation.

Reservation originally creates to

1. to correct historical injustice,
2. equality of opportunity,
3. redistributive agenda of state
However, He question the current beneficiary of reservation.

He considers this approach as antidemocratic, antiegalitarian and antimeritocratic.

Therefore, he advocates for a modern merit base democracy. (Access to quality school
universal health care, job security and shift from caste based identity politics to citizenship
equality)

27
India’s destiny is not Caste in stone

Andre in the article argued due to modernisation and economic change influence of caste in
commensality marriage and occupation is decline.
1. Caste and electoral politics:
 According to Andre, caste has dislodged from ritual domain and has enter the psyche
of the people during the electoral politics. Which is also high due to media.
 Counter argument: Scholars like Christophe Jaffrelot argue that caste based political
mobilisation had also led to empowerment and representation of marginalise group
and hence rise of Dalit and OBC leader reflect a shift in power dynamics rather than
political opportunism.
2. Erosion of caste practices in Everyday life:
 Andre View – The rigid norms related to purity and pollution and inter dining has
decline.
 Counter argument: Based on caste matrimonial advertisement, separate utensil for
Dalit (Satish Deshpande), over representation in manual scavenging, etc.
3. Caste and economic mobility:
 Industrialisation has created diverse job opportunity and has loosen the historical link
between caste and occupation
 Counter argument:
 According to Amit Thorat, SC and ST continue to have lower income and land
ownership compare to upper caste
 Study by Ashwini Deshpande revels that Dalit faces wage discrimination and under
representation in high paying private jobs
4. Structural violence and caste discrimination:
 Andre: Media exarate caste conflict.
 However counter opinion says violence against Dalit is on the rise. (NCRB data)

According to Satish Deshpande they are no signs of death of the caste in the near future.
“Jati Kabhi Nahi Jati”

Q) Is caste system changing, weakening or disintegrating in India? (20M)

Q) Discuss the interrelationship between caste, class and power?
Q) Write a short note on following
1. Dumont concept of Homo hierarchical
2. Andre definition of caste
3. positional and structural change
4. Features of Caste system
5. Dumont perspective of caste system
Q) Perspective on the study of caste by N. M. Srinivas and Andre.

28
Transformation of Caste System
Traditional (Based on Forces of Change Contemporary Reality
Purity and pollution)
 Hierarchy  Industrialisation  Diverse job opportunity > driven
 Occupational Division  Urbanisation by skills rather than the caste >
of Labour  Modernisation caste neutral job
 Separation of contact  Role of State  Urbanism > heterogeneity +
 Article 14 to 16, Anonymity = Secular pattern of
19, 23 living
 Modernisation > Rationality >
Logic/scientific temper > It
questions hierarchy
 Article: address caste
discrimination


Dr. B. R. Ambedkar: Legal reform is not sufficient need for social, cultural and economic
changes.
Affirmative action: Irrespective of status on caste hierarchy access to higher education,
government job, political representation that is opportunity for mobility vis-a-via secular
hierarchy.
Post mobility on secular hierarchy one can improve ritual status through process of
Sanskritization this is only positional change not a structural change.
The benefits of affirmative action were not equally reaped by all. Hence led to emerges of
class within caste.

Land reforms: With land reform there was emerges of a section which dominated in the local
regional context irrespective of there status in traditional caste hierarchy known as
dominant caste.

Mandala Commission Report: with implementation of Mandala commission there was

emergence of modern avatar of Caste Where instance of vertical arrangement based on
Purity and pollution. There was horizontal competition for Backwardness without any stigma
to have better access to resource and better opportunity.

Q) Examine the influence of industrialisation on caste

Q) Explain the concept of Dominant caste and vote bank by giving e.g.
Q) What kind of cultural and structural changes since independent.

Caste in Politics:
Pre-independent Post-independent
 Christan missionary spreading message  Phase I 1950-60): Land reform (abolition

29
 of Christianity as a reforming movement of Zamindar) > dominant caste >
against dogmatic practices Struggle for power between the
 English language > Secular education > entrench and ascendant caste.
Emergence of educated elite, who  Phase II (1960-70): It was characterised
wanted to reform society against by politicisation of caste that is
regressive practices (caste system) > mobilisation of people on caste line to
Threatened hegemony of upper caste strengthen the vote bank. E.g.
Distribution of ticket, portfolio
distribution, supporting to particular
caste group.
 Phase III (1980 onward): With secular
education, caste neutral jobs, multi
caste alliances > Caste system to exist.
Upper caste able to reap the benefits of early opportunity offered by Britishers as a result
they were not only ritually dominating but also dominating in secular sphere.

Q) What is the caste politics? Comment on increasing influence of caste on politics. (20M)

Rajani Kothari view on caste in Politics:

 He highlighted caste and politics do not exist in isolation
 Caste is dynamic and constantly adopting to economic and political and social changes.
 Caste provided ready made networks for political mobilisation.
 Leaders could trap existing caste loyalty turning them in political support
 We have move from ritual hierarchy to political bargaining

Rajani Kothari: Democracy broken the monopoly of upper caste, but it has increase caste
consciousness in the process
Caste has emerge as a single most important instrument of source of social mobilisation and
political participation in contemporary India.

Caste as a double edge sward in Indian democracy:

Positive Negative
 Enhance political participation  Fragmentation of society (Rajani
(Christopher Jaffrelot perspective and Kothari- shift from issue-based politics
Srinivas concept of Caste) to primordial identities)
 Political awareness and assertion (Rise  Caste conflict – Gail Omvedt – Backword
of DMK, Dalit panther movement in caste assertion triggers upper caste
Maharashtra, Surendra Jodhka back clash
‘Perspective’- caste based mobilisation  Casteism – caste-based mobilisation
have shifted from ritual hierarchy a reduces politics to identity number
social and economic justice) game. Where representation value over
 Subaltern empowerment and social competence and merit is sideline by
mobility caste loyalty’s
 Perspective of Joya Hasan caste-based  G. Aloysius: Caste based parties are

30
 politics created demands for inclusive vehicle for patronage rather than agent
developments for transformation.

Q) How caste system hindered Democracy in India. Give Example.

 Caste endogamy
E.g. IHDS – 95% marriages within the sub caste
 Role of Caste with respect to identity
E.g. Pew research centre - 98% of Indian associate with their caste
 Caste based residential segregation
 Ghanshyam shah (Bhuj) – Article in EPW caste in earthquake rehabilitation –
Uppercaste refuse to stay in Dalit community.
 Bhalaswa (Delhi) Delhi slum demolition report Dalit from central Delhi were evicted
and send to landfill area.
 Rina Ram Deva (2011) (City, caste and politics of space) – In urban planning document
categorically areas are mapped on map for Dalit habitation. E.g. Dalit Basti

 Caste vis-a-via Education

 According to IIT PhD enrolment paper (2022) – Top 5 IIT only 10% = SC and 2% = ST
 Mid-day meal scheme – Discrimination of caste
 Sukhdev Thorat (AIIMS, Delhi) – AIIMS Delhi – How faculty member have
discriminated against student from marginalise community.

 Caste w.r.t. job/economic opportunity
 THERE EXIST CASTE CLUSTERING IN INFORMAL SECTOR 97.255 manual scavenger
from SC community.
 ILO (2023) – Overrepresentation of SC/ST community in low paying jobs and informal
sector.
 Emergence of Caste based associations
Political Maratha Kranti Morcha, BSP, SP, Bhim sena
Economic National schedule caste Finance and development Corporation, Marwadi
Business network
Social Brahmin Matrimony, Rajput Matrimony
Education Dalit Sahitya, Vaishya educational society

31
Casteism
 Loyalty to one’s caste
 Supremacy of one’s own caste
 Discrimination on the bases of caste against lower caste

Q) “Casteism is the modern edition of the caste system” do you agree with this statement.
Discuss with argument.

Reification of caste: It refer to the process where the something abstract becomes concrete
or real That is caste know become a natural aspect of society rather than manmade system.

Caste Mobility: According to Srinivas, one of the avenues of mobility was emulating the
cultural practices of upper caste which is referred as Sanskritization.
However, he believed, it is not the only way to ensure mobility, there exist other avenue.
 Gaining political power (Reddy’s after they become powerful land lord with support of
Brahman they claim higher status.
 Economic wealth and landownership 9e.g. Vellalar (TN) after acquiring huge tracts land,
they claimed higher status.
 Kings patronage – Gain the support and reward > use to grant them higher status in
caste hierarchy
 Education and jobs (Kayastha community there status improves under British period)
 Westernisation (Ideas, technology, values, of west)
Post Independence
Reservation Nandu Ram – Mobile scheduled caste – emergence of Dalit caste
middle class
Land reforms Srinivas concept of dominant caste
Electoral politics Raja Kothari

32
Contemporary Time
Neo-mobility and identity assertion
 Neo-mobility
Neo-mobility: New ways of attaining mobility
 Education
 Private job
 Media and technology
 Business, market

 Identity assertion: When we take pride in our caste identity and assert it to gain respect
representation and dignity it is referred as identity.
 Dalit Panther movement
 Jat agitation
 Patidar Movement

Untouchability

Concept
Defined a social process of exclusion, discrimination based on ritual impurity rooted in the
caste system.
Dimension
According to T.K. Oommen’s typology 3 dimension of untouchability
1. Exclusion. (Social ostracization)
2. Humiliation. (denial of dignity in public place, Landless)
3. Exploitation. (Bonded labour)
Perspectives on Untouchability
 DR. B. R. Ambedkar – “Broken man theory”
According to primitive society tribal in nature with passage of time some settled with
agriculture and few remain Nomadic. Soon the battles took place between settle and
nomadic tribes. Nomadic were need of food and shelter were as settled were need of
protection. A bargain between the two were broken man agreed to do the work of watch
and ward and settle tribe agreed to give them food and shelter.
 Nomadic tribe were settled out-side the village
 They embraced Buddhism and settle people accepted supremacy of Brahman
 Despite convergence to Buddhism nomadic tribe continue Beef eating which further
push them out-side the society.
 Manus mix caste theory – As per Manu smriti untouchables originated from union
between different varnas E.g. Chandal’s Born Brahman women and Shudra men. This
offspring was assigned to ritually impure task and dent entry to temples and public
spaces.

33
 Racial theory by Risley – according to it Aryans subjugated the Dasas who were push to
the margins and treaded as untouchables. Dr. Ambedkar called this story Sudo Historical.
 Religious perspective – Joytiba Fulle in Gulamgiri. According to it Shudras were the
original habitants, while Brahman were the outsider who manipulate the religious to
dominate the native population.
 Functional Perspective – This theory explains untouchability as a functional system were
occupation is inherited and competition was reduced since each group had a role it
created stability however this was criticised for normalising discrimination.
 Marxist perspective – According to Ghansham Shah untouchability is not about the
religion and caste it is connected to economy. It functioned to control a surplus labour
with lower caste forced into ritually impure task. The upper caste used religious to
normalise this discrimination and people were tolled its were Dharma to follow caste
rules
 Louie Dumont – Cultural theory – Untouchables are at the lowest level because of there
association with impurity.

Q) Define untouchability. Elaborate on different perspective on untouchability.

Forms of Untouchability
Robert Marton concept of Latent and Manifest helps to identify a layers of caste based
discrimination
Manifest Latent
 Separate untenses  Token representation that is inclusion of
 Deny of temple entry Dalit in Institution without giving them
 Separate well and water resources in meaningful role
village  Urban housing discrimination - Deny of
 Segregated dining practices houses on rent
 Physical violence and atrocity’s  Ritual based on purity and pollution
 Caste based of occupational division of practice in the garb of tradition.
labour  Language based discrimination – used
 Deny entry in household of castles learn in private conversation
 Educational discrimination or digital space.
 Opposition to reservation using the idea
of merit hides the caste privilege.
 Segregation in common spaces e.g. Elite
class membership, school group, etc.
 Stereotyping and cultural exclusion e.g.
Dalit culture, literature, heroes are
marginalised, etc.
 Institutional biases e.g. Dalit facing
discrimination in private sector jobs
despite qualification, etc.
 Dr. Ambedkar described untouchability
as the most inhuman practice sustain by

34
 societal norms.
 According to Gail Omvedt urbanisation
has masked caste system rather than
eliminating.
 Ananda Teltumbde: Emphasise the
institutional and class-based dimensions
of caste exclusion

Q) Explain different forms of untouchability in India

B. R. Ambedkar view on caste

 Features of caste system

 Caste is not just inequality but graded system of inequality (Hierarchy)
 Caste assigns profession by birth not aptitude (Occupational DOL)
 He saw endogamy as the essence of caste
 Restriction on social interaction
 Lack of vertical mobility
 Religious sanction
 Caste system is upheld by religious text like Manu smriti
Om Vedet Ambedkar was the first modern sociologist
of caste
Jaffrelot Describes Ambedkar though as a moral
sociology of caste
Andre Agreed with his observation of caste as
graded inequality

Aspects Other mainstream perspective Ambedkar’s perspective

Function DOL DO labourers
Origin Purusukta hymn of Rig Veda Social construct to enforce
inequality (graded)
Reform Within the religion Annihilation of caste and
discreating the religious text
Mobility Some mobility possible E.g. Sanskritization Fixed, rigid, innate nature
Morals Stability, harmony Inequality, discrimination

Solution to abolish Caste system

 Inter caste marriage – he stated a real remedy to breaking caste is inter caste marriage.
Gail Omvedt argues that Ambedkar promoted marriage reform as a radical challenge to
end caste endogamy.
 Destroying the authority of Manu smriti – He argued that scriptural bases of caste have
to be tagged ha legitimises caste hierarchy
 Rejected the varna system

35
 Conversion to Buddhism – Eleanor Zelliot called it’s the most successful religious protest
against a caste
 Promoting the education and rationality – educate, agitate and organise. Gopal Guru saw
this emphasis on education saw collective weapon on caste
 Political empowerment of Dali – Rajani Kothari called the Ambedkar the architect of
political assertion among Dalit
 Constitutional safe guard – Marc Galanter term this provision as an attempt to historical
injustices

Q) How has Ambedkar defined feature of caste system? How is it different from main stream
treatment of Caste?
Q) Main features of Ambedkar on annulation of caste

36
Tribals
Definition of problem
Geographical spread colonial policy
Issue of integration and autonomy

Who are tribals?

What makes tribes different from others?
Tribe Vs. Caste
Class element within the tribes

Problem associated with tribe?

Definition of problem
PVTG
Tribal identity
Problem vis-a-via geographical spread

Policies w.r.t. Tribes

Isolation
Assimilation
Integration

Issues w.r.t. integration education autonomy

37
Who are tribals?

Characteristic features
1. Tribes: Adivasis (Adi: original and Vasis: inhabitants)
2. Geographical isolated: Living in inaccessible stretches e.g. hills, forest, desert, etc.
3. Pre-Agriculture level of technology and tools: hunting, gathering, collection, etc.
4. Subsistence economy: absence of surplus
5. Lack of hierarchy: Egalitarian Community
6. Distinct Culture: Language, dressing style, etc.
7. Strong kinship bonds: Extended family where everyone is connected by blood or
marriage
8. Religious belief: Animism, totemism, nature of worship
9. Politically autonomous: Minimum external interference
10. Racial features

What makes tribal distinct from other

1. Social structure:
 Tribals are kinship based egalitarian society which does not have class base
occupational division of labour does not exist among tribals.
 Tonnes: Gemeinschaft (closed, informal, cooperation)
 Gesellschaft: Distant, self-interest, formal
2. Economic practices:
 According to Mandel Baum, Tribal engage in hunting, gathering, shifting
cultivation, pastoralism, community landownership.
 According to Karl Polanyi’s substantial approach reciprocity rather than the
market.
 According to Watter Fernandes: Because of penetration of market, money, and
state, it is because to their economic integration in the mainstream society.
3. Political organisation:
 According to N. K. Bose there exist decentralised structure, where decision are
made by elders/wise people and it is made collectively.
 Hendry Maine theory: Status Vs. Contract theory
 Matrilineal structure
4. Religious practices
 Animism: Belief that every thing in nature has spirit tribes often prey to this spirit
for protection rain, crops, good health, etc. E.g. Santhal believes in Bong spirit
which is live in hills, forest
 Totemism: Every tribe believes they have spiritual connection to animal and plant
called a totem. Totem is sacred e.g. Munda claim tiger has there totem.
 Tribes do not have formal scripture or priest so ritual are conducted by older and
shaman

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  Religious is oral and practice based is passed by story telling, tradition, etc.
 Language: According People linguistic study of India many tribal laungvages are
facing extinction as they are often unwritten

Aspect Tribes Caste

Social structure Egalitarian, based on strong System of social tratification
kinship bonds based on principal of purity
and pollution
Hierarchy Absent, but present then it Ritual hierarchy
is based on kinship, ascent
and gender
Economic activities Hunting. Gathering, shifting, Occupational division of
cultivation, community land labour (Jajmani system)
ownership
Mobility Flexible Rigid stratification, mobility
is not possible as status is
ascriptive (Dumont)
Religious beliefs Animism, totemism, nature Institutionalised religious
worship, etc. based on scripture
Territorial significance Strong attachment with land Movement exist but with in
the caste hierarchy
Habitat Hills, forest, desert Cities, plains, villages
Status of women Better status Strong hold of patriarchy

Scholarly views:
Max weber – Tribe is a local group. Caste is a social group. When tribes loses its territorial
significance, it behaves like caste.
Andre Beteille – Tribes are distinct as they are relatively isolated and have distinct religion
and language.

Tribes and caste continuum

 Pure tribe and pure caste
 Pastoralism > Gujjar – Caste and Gaddis - Tribe
 Endogamy > Caste and certain tribe (Few clans among Toda tribe)

#Sankitization by M. N. Srinivas

Surjit Sinha tribes Rajput continent

This idea refer to gradual transaction seen among tribal community’s where they begin to
adopt the life style rituals and identity of Rajput. It’s a continuum meaning there is no
sudden jump E.g. Adopting name, dressing style over period of time. E.g. Bhumaj Raj (Wes
Bengal). Kshatrisation among Bhile, Raj Gonds of central India.

39
This process takes place due to following factor
 To gain legitimacy from Hindu population
 To protect land rights by calming Kshatriya status
 To escape tribal stigma and joined the main stream society

F. G Belly Tribe caste continuum

When a tribal group becomes more integrated with the main stream society that is
 Takes up settle agriculture, adopt Hindu customs, start interacting with caste
community they may resemble caste e.g. Gonde tribe in central India. It was observed
that tribes are isolating between caste and tribal identity depending on the context
e.g. a group claim to be tribal to get government benefits may present itself as a caste
in social situation which gives them higher status and acceptance

G. S Ghurye
According to him the grand historical process of merger between communities has almost
been computed the tribes in India. Have slowly absorbed Hindu values and lifestyle through
contact with Hindu social group. E.g. they gave up liquor drinking, received education,
improve agriculture. Some of the Hindu voluntary organisation have also play important role
in development of tribes. E.g. Ramkrishna mission, Arya samaj, etc. Hence, they referred as
Backward Hindu. Hinduism tribe like Meena and partially Hinduism tribe like Munda.

However, there are certain factor which has resulted into moving away of tribe from the
mainstream fold,
1. Development displacement of tribals have led to rise of ethnic tension among tribe
and hence development of strong tribal identity
2. Convergence of many tribal to Christianity has broken the caste tribe continuum
3. Retribalisation to avail the benefits of state led intervention

Q) Ghurye’s analysis of tribe was based on tribe caste continuum discuss.

Q) Write a short note on the following
 Tribe caste continuum
 Ghurye’s backward Hindu
 Tribe Rajputa continuum
 What makes tribals distinct from others

Caste within tribe

Class element with tribes

Tribes are characterised as having
 subsistence economy,

40
 minimum hierarchy,
 egalitarian,
 community land ownership

However, due to
 historical disruption
 Economic transformation
 State intervention

According to Andre Beteille, Modernization along with state lead development has led to
Break down of traditional tribal structure which further brought individualism along with
class element.

Pre British period British period Post independence Post 1990

 Self sufficient 1. Radical 1. Reservation: Economic reforms

 Subsistence transformation:  Provide and corporate
 Minimal  Penetration of representation, expansion in tribal
hierarchy moneylenders, democratic areas have
 .Engaged in revenue farmers, participation > commercialise tribal
hunting, traders, aka Emergence of land and resources.
gathering Dikkus. political elite E.g. Oposition to
 Absence of class Led to: among tribes > mining in Niamgiri
 Rural Ghurye – Tribal Hills
Proletarianization elites disengage * Andre: Argued
(C. V. F. themselves, integration into
hamendrof) from there > modern market had
2. Migration and Class formation led to eroded tribal
occupational Shift:  M. N. Srinivas > collectivism giving
Tribes were migrated state led rise to individualism
to work on planation intervention in and class
> shift from forest the form of consciousness.
based occupation to welfare * Exposer to cities
wage labour > this schemes. > to the tribal class i.e.
shift became the Emergence of urban educated,
basis for occupation- contractor, local salaried,
based stratification level leaders economically
(B. K. Roy Burman) among tribes. mobile, etc. which is
 Xaxa – These in stark contrast to a
3. conversion to benefits were daily wage miner or
Christianity: reaped by only a farmer.
Opportunity for few > class * Access to digital
better education > differential platform and
Grounds for upward education has
social mobility > impowered some

41
 hence a divide tribal youth
between converted increasing awarness
and non-converted and aspiration
tribes > Verrier Elwin leading to
– Conversion led to emergence of new
both cultural and aspirational class.
class bifurcation *Xaxa committee is
emphasise that
tribal development
must be inclusive
and policy
interventions must
address internal in
equality’s to prevent
further polarisation

Q) Elaborate on the changing nature of caste system with sutable elastration. (20M UPSC)

Guteria:
 Low level of literacy
 Economic backwardness
 Declining or stagnant population
 Pre-agriculture level of technology
 Relative isolation

Statistics: There was 75 PVTG’s, spread across 18 states IUT According to Niti Ayog: PVTG<1%
of population but disproportionality suffer from Poverty, illiteracy’s, Malnutrition.

Reasons for identification PVTG’s separately:

Socio-economic backwardness –
 Low low level of literacy
 High rate of IMR, CMR, MMR, Malnutrition
 Subsistence > Persistent poverty economy

Marginalisation and isolation –

 Geog isolated
 Lack of political representation
 Fear of cultural endangerment due to loss of traditional knowledge and modernisation

Risk of extinction – Due to epidemic, climate change, loss of habitat

Limited access to resources –

 Dependent on depleted forest

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  Land alienation
 Displacement

Problem faced by PVTG’s:

 Health and malnutrition – High incidents of malaria, TB and malnutrition. E.g. Bonda
tribe in Odisha high infant and maternal mortality rate, lack of access to health centre
 Educational exclusion: Literacy rate among PVTG’s is less than 30% according to ministry
of tribal affairs. E.g. Birhor and Asur tribe have less than 10% female literacy in
Jharkhand, lack of school in remote area along with language barrier
 Land alienation: PVTG’s often lose land to the outsider E.g. Kamar tribe of Chhattisgarh
have reported cases of land alienation and bonded labour
 Administration negligence: Due to Bureaucratic inefficiency and lack of participatory
planning benefits under government scheme often do not reach PVTG’s
 Poor implementation and administration difficulty
 Displacement and loss of habitat: development project like dam, mining, often displace
PVTG’s. E.g. Dongria Konda in Nimaigeri Hills resisted bauxite mining by Vedanta
 Erosion of culture: Exposer to main stream culture and market has diluted there
traditional custom. E.g. Chenchus of Telangana loss of livelihood due to strict forest law
 Communication and connectivity barriers – E.g. Bultoo Experiment

Way forward -
 Society
- Mobile health units
- Bike ambulance (Avaneesh Sarah)
- Culturally sensitive education
- Education in mother tongue
 Economic
- There rights in forest and land need to be recognised and protected
 Administration
- Context specific development
- Xaxa: Tailored approach (cultural and ecological context)
- Real time monitoring of data
 Political
- Political empowerment i.e. increases there participating in planning and implementation via
Gram panchayat, SHG, etc.
- They have ecological niche based isolation, therefore, forced integration will have risk of
cultural extinction.

According to Arvinda Kumar main stream policy often assume uniform tribal needs ignoring
the hipper localised vulnerability of PVTG’s.

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 Q) Why have we started using another category of tribes called the PVTG’s? (2017 M10)

Definitional problem:
Scholarly views
 A. R. Desai: Tribes are at different stages of integrated with mainstream society. Hence
no uniform definition.

 G. S. Ghurye – Refer to tribes as Backward Hindus

 D. N. Mujumdar – Defined tribe as a social group characterised by common territory,
culture, language and political structure.
 B. S. Guha – Based on Racial classification
 Proto-Australoids
 Mongoloids
 Negrito

 Mandel Baum
 Social bonds of kinship
 Lack of clearly defined hierarchy
 Absence of formal organisation
 Lack of surplus accumulation
 Segmental society
 Communitarian landholding

Problem due to definition:

 Lack of uniform
 Racial classification
 Integration Vs. Isolation
- Varier Alvin Advocated preserving tribal culture by keeping tribes isolated from main stream
society in contrast Nehru promoted integration while respecting tribal identity. This policy
confusions affect how tribe are classified and understood
 Backward Vs. Advanced
- Some tribe have progress socially and economically where as other are still marginalised E.g.
Meenas of Rajasthan Vs. Baigas of Madhya Pradesh
 Assimilation in caste Society

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- Scholar like Ghurye have argued that tribes was backward Hindu, F. G. Belly tribes caste
continuum, Surjeet Sinha Tribes Rajput continuum, etc. raises confusion between tribes and
caste specially thus who have adopted Hindu rituals
 Inadequate geographical and economic criteria
- Andre Bettille – Criticise the use of outdated criteria of defining tribe based on forest dwelling
and primitive economy as due to integration into urban network and market there
distinctiveness are loss
 Lack of cultural uniformity
- India has 705 tribe group with different language customs life style this diversity makes single
definition difficult.
 Administrative issue and political manipulation
- The criteria to define tribe is vague (Geographical isolation, distinct culture, etc.) this vagueness
often used to political misuse
- It creates ground for political manipulation of tribal identity

The definition of tribe is not just about the identity but also about the state policy.

Q) Explain the definitional problems concerning tribal community’s in India (10M 2020)

Tribal Identity

Concept:
It Is defined as sense of belongingness and collective consciences among the people of tribal
group based on social, cultural, linguistic, and historical attributes.

Key elements of tribal identity:

 Indigenous customs, rituals, beliefs
 Linguistic uniqueness
 Traditional land use and ecological practices
 Community living and kinship bonds

 Colonial categorization
- British censes of 1901 categorise tribes as animist detaching them from religious categories and
reinforcing there separateness (Risley)
- Backward Hindu (Ghurye)
- Postindependence ST status for affirmative action under Article342
 Sanskritization
- Theory by N. M. Srinivas which result in cultural assimilation and erosion of tribal custom
 Eco- transformation
- Adani mining project in Chhattisgarh cause displacement of tribal

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- Tribal farmer in Jharkhand who ones practice subsistence economy has shifted to market-based
economy which has disrupted the traditional livelihood
- A Santhal youth from Jharkhand working in textile mile in Surat ,may loose touch with their
Indigenous customs and contractual labour roles will reshape there identity’s from forest
dweller to poor urban labourer.
 Political mobilisation
- Paul Brass – Ethnic mobilisation theory – He explain that ethnic identity was not always fixed
and natural it often becomes stronger when they feel neglected or excluded. They are
mobilising around a share identity to demand rights, resources and opportunity. E.g. Bodo
Movement in Assam (Sanjiv Baruah in her book “India Against itself” – Assam and politics of
Nationality – Neglect identity in security and internal colonialism
 Religious conversion
- According to Varier Alvin Conversation often lead to class and cultural bifurcation which impact
the identity
 Urbanisation, globalisation
- Exposer to formal education and urban employment creates hybrid identity’s E.g. Tribal student
in Jharkhand start Instagram page to promote tribal art and language
- Obsession with cape of video (Homogenisation)
- Western dresses + English language + celebration of traditional festival (Hybradisation)

Terminology: India loss a single universally accepted definition of tribe, constitution uses
the term scheduled tribe but doesn’t define what a tribe is.

Racial classification by Risley- In 1901 the term Animist was coined for tribals. He
separated tribal community on basis of religion as animist as thus who worship nature,
spirit rather than organise god and religion. Britishers portrait them as backward and
separate from rest of the Indian society. Many tribes also labelled as criminals under
criminal tribes under 1871.

Issues with tribal identity:

 No uniform tribal identity due to cultural and language diversity
 Social and economic marginalisation
- Land alienation
- Literacy level 59%
- School drop-out 60%
- Poverty and economic dependence
 Gaps in implementation FRA 2006 (denial of forest right due to bureaucratic hurdles)
 Promised autonomy through gram Sabha but delayed in implementation
 Emergence of tribal movement with focus on revival of rituals, language, autonomy

46
 According to Xaxa committee empowerment must go beyond administrative inclusion and
include cultural preservation, political participation and economic equity.

Q) What do you mean by tribal identity and what are the issue concerning tribal identity
Q) What are the factors affecting the tribal identity
Q) How has class emergence accorded among tribes and what factors are responsible for it.

Scholarly Views:
According to L. P. Vidyarthi, tribals are classified region
 Himalayan Region (Pastoralism/shifting cultivation)
 Central India (Settled agriculture)
 Western India (Adapting to arid/semi-arid lifestyle)
 Southern India (Forest-based livelihood)
 Island Region (Primitive lifestyle)

According to B. K. Roy Burman, there 5 zones,

 North East India (Garo/Khasi/Naga)
 Central India (Santhals, Gonads)
 Southern India (Chenchus, Todas)
 Western India (Lepchas, Bhola, Gaddi, etc.)

Cultural Diversity
 Ideological differences + Differences w.r.t. requirement related to social infrastructure ->
Politicization + Lack of Representation
 Economic inequality + Pressure conflicts
 Communication barriers
 Demographic vulnerability
- Sentinelese:
Population less than 100
Problem/risk of extinction
- Gonds (MP, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Maharashtra)
Population = 1.2 cr
Displacement + land alienation
Threat to Gondi language
Health and education deficit
- Bhil’s (Rajasthan, Gujrat)
Population = 1.7 cr
Migration => Economic exploitation
Regional variation Bhil are poor

North East

47
  North East region constitute 12% of Indias population.
 They are relatively better organise politically but they still face challenges
- North east statically sensitive region is forested and hilly which affects communication,
governance, and service delivery
- It is connected to rest of India through a narrow stretched which hinders physical and economic
integration
- It shares 99% of its border with other country which makes its vulnerable for cross border
migration
- Illegal migration not only impact livelihood culture but also the political dynamics
- North East remain isolated as it was govern under Bengal frontier act of 1873
- Administrative inefficiency as it put entire north east under one umbrella
- Stereotyping and discrimination

Paul Brass = Ethnic mobilization Theory

Levi Stauss = Cultural dilution. Language is part of core identity. UNESCO – 100 tribal
langvage are endangered.

Foucault’s Biopolitics:
- Politics of Life
- Managing of Life: Sanitation, vaccination, PHC

Central India
 It is home to 60% of India tribal population
 Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Maharashtra. It falls under red
quaridor
 Problem
- Development induce displacement. Walter Fernandes: 40% of all thus displaced are tribal
- Land alienation and loss of Habitat
- Maoist insurgency and violence: Many tribal joined the Maoist movement not because ideology
but loss of land due to mining, lack of school, police brutality and corruption.
- Cultural marginalisation and social discrimination: Tribe like Gonds, are often seen through the
lens of caste and there culture is diluted.
- Tribes lack access to dominant language’s, network and credentials necessary for mobility
(Bourdieu’s cultural capital)
- Health and education deficit E.g. In Dantewada tribal women walk miles for basic maternity
care.

Western India
 Gujrat, Rajasthan
 Problem

48
- Environment and water scarcity
- Seasonal migration subject them to problem of bonded labour, law wages, debt cycle
- Identity loss due to Ghurye’s notion of Hinduisation of tribe
- Intersectionality by Kimberley Crenshaw - Tribal women face double discrimination both as
women and as tribals within the patriarchal tribal structure

Sothen India
 Problem
- Cultural vulnerability – As many tribes have very less population making there language and
customs endangered
- Forest right Vs conservation: Conflict between tribal right and environment protection.
- Poor representation in political field

Island and Himalayan tribe

- Threat of extinction and environmental distruction

According to M. K. Bose effective tribal welfare require

 Region specific development approach
 Protection of tribal right over land forest and resources
 Strengthen political representation and caste identity
 Shift from assimilation to inclusion

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Criteria Isolation Assimilation Integration
Proponents Verrier Elwin G. S. Ghurye Nehru
Core Idea “Leave Tribal alone” policy Backward Hindus Tribal should progress but their own way
Explanation  Tribal Culture is inherently  Tribals are not Panchayat Policy
valuable and spiritually rich. separate they are justTribals should developed along their own genius
Therefore, need to be protected backward due toRespect right to forest and land
from corruption due to modernity incomplete No over administration
 Tribes have their own traditional Hinduization. Tribal assistance w.r.t. Polity and economy
system of knowledge law and  Cultural Barometer of progress should be human resources
social organisation hence need to transformation anddevelopment
protection social integration is
 No entry of any religious reformer requires through
 Legal’s and physical boundaries to Sanskritization to
present entry of traders, money address their cultural
leaders and bureaucrats issues. (Alcoholism,
Shifting cultivation)
Examples  Autonomous Tribal Councils Gonds (Hinduisation),  Tribal self-governance through Gram Sabha
(TAMeMi) Tharu, Khana (UK) under PESA
 Worship Hindu deities  Baster Adivasi school with integration of
tribal language and culture
Criticism Ghurye V. Elwin: We don’t want to Xaxa: Integration without autonomy will make
 Isolation is also a form of exploitation make second rate Hindu, them ethnic minority
 National Park approach - as treated but first rate Tribab Hymen Dorf:
as museum species Hymen Dorf: Autonomy without empowerment will lead to only
Thakar Bapa: Tribals require Forceful assimilation will tokenism
 Welfare lead to loss of identity and Walter Fernadies: 40% displacement
 Education psychological dislocation
 Integration *Autonomy on paper, exclusion in practice

50
 Q) Warier Elvin view for the freedom of tribals
Q) Analyse different view on integration and autonomy of tribes in India
Q) Write a note on Ethnicity and integration in a tribes (20M)
Q) How is the tribal question related with the issue of integration and autonomy in modern
India

Challenges in the tribal integrations

 Political representation and tokenism
 According to Christophe Jaffrelot, Tribal representation has been tokenistic with real
political decision taken by dominant caste or political elites
 Steven Lukes (faces of power)
-> First face of power (visible form) (Who take decisions)
-> Second face of power (agenda setting) (They decide which topics to be discussed)
-> Third face of power (ideology setting) (Shapes the ideas, values, belief) (social
media)
 Economic marginalisation and displacement:
o Tribal remain one of the poorest socio-economic group facing poverty and unemployment and
food insecurity
o Development project had lead to displacement, inadequate compensation, lack of rehabilitation
has added to misery
 Cultural erosion and identity threat:
- Urbanisation, modernisation and globalisation are threatening the unlike tribal culture.
- Ghurye’s perspective of assimilation was criticised for promoting Sanskritization.

51
- Loss of language, abandonment of forest based livelihood and religious conversion.(TK Oman
said: Sanskritization among tribe either forced or in pursued of social mobility)
 Infrastructural gap and governance deficit: Xaxa committee report highlighted schemes
like MGNEREGA, PDS, ICDS fail to reach tribal population.
- Lack of awareness
- Poor last mile connectivity
- Bureaucratic inefficiency
 Security, insurgency and militarization: The state response to tribal unrest had often
been militarise which according to Nandani Sundar has aggregated alienation and
distress between tribal and state.
- Mertens train theory can be used to explain when legitimate means are denying land,
education, etc. They may resort to illegitimate means (E.g. joining the insurgence group).

Q) LUC date challenge the tribal community in India

Q) Analysis the perspective od isolation, assimilation and integration in understanding thr
trajectory in Indian tribal development. (2017 M20)

LP Vidyarthi 3-tiered approach for tribal development:

 Macroscopic
- Focus on broad national policies for global development
e.g. Reservation, Constitution provisions, Budget
 Mesoscopic
- Focus on displaced and marginalised tribals
E.g. Rehabilitation, land/housing assistance
 Microscopic
- Focus on PVTG
E.g. Health and nutrition, education + economic opportunity, Habitat protection and
cultural preservation

Way forward:

52
 Haimen Dorf Self-governance as key to tribal development
Amita Baviskar Advocates ecological sensitive livelihood models aligned with tribal
knowledge system
Nirmal Sen Tribal Knowledge is crucial for sustainable development
Gupta
Voltaire Lack of participatory development leads to alienation and radicalisation
Fernandes
Sanjiv Barva Recognition of Ethnic aspiration with in democratic framework

Q) What are the definitional problems involved in identifying tribes in India. Discuss the
main postictal hurdles to tribal development in India.
Q) Discuss the main feature of debate between the Ghurye and Alvin on tribal development

53
System of Kinship in India

Lineage and Decent

Conceptual question i.e. lineage, alliance, etc.
Types of Kinship in India
Regional variations w.r.t. Kinship system (Irawati karve)
Family and marriage
Change
Household dimension of Family

Patriarchy
Women Issue

54
 Family

Background
Family as an institution
What is a family?
Scholarly perspective
Different Types of Family
- Based on marriage
- Based on lineage
- Based on Ancestry
- Based on composition

Joint Family
Background
Scholarly perspective
Define
Features
What constitute jointness in the family?
Variability and perspective prevalence of joint family

Analytical aspect
Functions and dysfunction of joint family
Lifecycle of joint family
- Disintegration
- Reintegration
Changes in Joint family
- Structure
- Function
- Interpersonal relationship

55
 Background

Family as an institution
 Value system
 Life choices and aspiration
 Financial support
 Emotional support
 Social status

What is the Family

G. P. Murdock: Family is defined as a social group characterised by common resident,
economic cooperation and reproduction.
It is said family consist of adult of both the sexes at least two of them social approved sexual
union and one or more children own or adopted by sexually cohabiting adults.

Functionalist perspective: T. Parson – Purpose of the family is the primary socialisation and
adult personality stabilisation.

Marxist perspective: Engles – Purpose is to manage private property and persist it on to

other generation.

Feminist Perspective: Radical feminist – Patriarchal structure which exerts control over
women.

Types Of Family

On the basis of marriage

1. Monogamy (One spouse)
I) Stright monogamy
- One spouse all your life
II) Serial monogamy
- One spouse at a time
- Nicky Hart: Divorces are now more accepted
- Elisabeth Beck Gernshiem: Individualisation Thesis
* According to this perspective individual make more personal choices about
job, marriage, etc. Earlyer marriages decided by tradition, caste, or family.
Know individual create their own path.
2. Polygamy
I) Polygyny
One Husband and Multiple Wife
If wives are sister = Sisters sororal polygyny

56
 II) Polyandry
One Wife and Multiple wife
If Husband are brothers = Fraternal polyandry

3. Sologamy
 Act of self-love individualism, self-acceptance by marring one own self in public
ceremony.
 Symbolic, no legal credibility.
 Usually done by women but no gender constrained.
 Sociological perspective:
- Expression of Individualism
- Assertion of Autonomy
- Challenge to traditional notion of marriage

On the Basis of residence

1. Patrilocal
 According M. N. Srinivas, its most common trait of traditional Hindu joint family
2. Matrilocal
 According to Irawati Karve, its commonly found in matrilineal socities
3. Neolocal family
 According to G. P. Murdoch, this exists in urban, modern industrial society.

Based on Ancestry
1. Patrilineal
 Trace the lineage from father side
 E.g. Common in India society
2. Matrilineal
 Trace the lineage from mother side
 E.g. Garo, Khasi

57
Based on Composition

Definition by Bell Vogel: Any grouping broader than nuclear family, related by descent,
marriage, and adoption is k/a extended family.

58
Joint Family

Background
Caste system

Building Block Of
Indian Society

Joint Family Village

Scholarly Views
K. M. Join family the backbone of Hindu Society
Panikkar
I. Karve Joint family central w.r.t. transmission of culture, property and social roles.
Andre Modernisation -> Breakdown of Joint family - At max, there restructuring
Beteille within the joint framework
M. N. Srinivas Sanskritization -> Presence of joint family exist across caste groups

Definition:
It is defined as a social group consisting of people united by ties of blood, marriage,
adaptation and contain 3 or more generation. (I. P. Desai and T. N. Madan)

Family is defined as a group of people having –

 Common residence
 Common Kitchen
 Common Property
 Common Worship
 Related by Kinship

Features of Joined Family

 Patrilineal
 Patrilocal
 Patriarchal (Power is welded by oldest male member)
 Common residence, commensality, Coparcenary
 Age of sex are the main ordering preamble of family hierarchy
 Filial (Father and son) and fraternal (Siblings) relation more important than conjugal
relation
 Gendered Division of labour
 Shared parenthood

Q) Write a short note on the difference between the nuclear family and joint family.
-> Authority, Conjugal bonds, Descent, Economic, Filial and fraternal realtioship
59
According to M.S. Gore, the joint family not the mese collection of nuclear families i.e. Joint
family is not equal to NF1 + NF2 + NF3 as there certain elements which constitutes
JOINTNESS in joint family.

Bernard Cohn, Common residence of commensality is the essential aspect of

S.C. Dube, P. Jointness.
Kolenda
F. G. Bailey It is the coparcenorship (Joint ownership of property) -> JOINTNESS
I. P. Desai It is cooperation and sentiments of jointness which contributes to
functional Joint family
E.g.
 Emotional bonds
 Physical/financial obligation
 Celebration of ceremonies/festivals
 Shared sense of identity (What’s app family Group)
M. N. Srinivas Ritual Bonds:
-> Observing pollution rituals during birth and death.
-> Propitiation of dead ancestors
-> Worshiping common deity

Variability and Prevalence of Joint Family

1. Culturally patterned time of breakup


2. Demographic Profile
 Life expectancy
 Age of marriage
 No of children
 Age of father at the time of birth of child
3. Education, Migration, occupational diversification
 Higher education
 Urban migration.
 Non-agriculture occupation

Paulene Kolenda: Found that prevalence of joint family depends upon following factor:
 Caste
 Region
 Socio-economic condition

Bernard Cohn: Study in Chambar, in Senapur (UP) joint family is not there, reasons
 Low life expectancy

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  Economic constraint
 Lack of Gender division of labour
 Spatial mobility

Function and Disfunction of Joint Family

Functions Dysfunctions
 Agency of Primary socialisation  Lack of Privacy
 Agency of Social Control  High fertility rate
 Agency of Social Insurance  Free rider problem
 Economic cooperation  Low status of women
Prevent fragmentation assets
Secular economy of expenditure
 Social and emotional support

Challenges
Reciprocal the Psychological
R. D. Laing Interiorisation developmen damaging
(Politics of of self
Family)
Due to Nexus Ghettoisation Us VS. Them

David Cooper (Death of the family): Family act as an Ideological conditioning device ->
Reproduction of social labour.

Beck – Gernsheim (Post modernise):

 Individualism
 Competition
 Mobility.
 Instant gratification
Joint family act as an arena of conflict and contradiction.

Margaret Benston: Unpaid labour performed by women.

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 Life cycle of Joint Family:

Disintegration:
(Joint family to nuclear family)

Migration
Push Factor Pull Factor
 Agriculture distress  Globalisation, Industrialisation,
 Lack of alternatives employment Urbanisation
opportunity  Commercialization of Agriculture
 Dysfunctional access to resources  Good quality of lifestyle
due to caste, religion, gender, etc.

Urbanisation:
 Change in lifestyle
 Emergence of live in relationship
 Industrialisation

Modern value system:

 Questioning regressive practices such as caste endogamy, aptriarchy

Legal Reform:
 Such as minimum wage Act,
 Hindu succession Act,
Etc. reduces the financial dependence on family.

Land reforms perspective by Laxminarayan:

 To evade land ceiling laws -> Partition take place on paper -> Sowed the seed for
actual partition

Reintegration
(Nuclear family to Joined Family)

 Child rearing in dual career family

 Chain migration + high cost of leaving
 Feeling of nativism
 Changing nature of work (Work from Home)
 Industrialisation
- It provides the economic bases for sustains of joined family
- According to Milton Singer, Industrial family In madras stay in joins setup to share business risk
and maintain control

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- According to MS Gore, Aggarwal family in Delhi found that affluent business family preferred
joint living for economic and cultural continuity
- According to Srinivas, rather than getting disintegrated joined family has adopted itself to suit a
modern enterprise.
- Functional jointness despite structural separation. IP Desai called such family as integrated joint
family or functional joint family (Structurally nuclear but functionally joined)

Household

According to S.C. Dube jointness can be emotional economic and political so there is
disintegration of joint household but not joint family.

According to Eugene Litwak, Nuclear and joint family are two theoretical ideal and between
there exist modified extended family’s in which children marry out or migrate from the
parental household is upon marriage but engage in common activity with kin group

Change in Family

Structure
 Dis-integration of join family (due to urbanisation, globalisation, industrialisation)
 Disintegration of joint household (According to SC Dube, IP Desai, AM Shah, Eugene
Litwark, etc)
 Emergent forms of Family
 Nuclear family with extended ties. E.g. What’s app group (According to E. Leach:
Technology has altered the Kin relationship beyond geog.)
 Single parent household.
- Divorces and separation is now are accepted reality i.e. de-stigmatised (Nicky Hart)
- Secularisation -> Social significance of religion has declined -> increase acceptance w.r.t.
adoption, children born out of wedlock, single motherhood, etc.
- Individualisation Thesis -> Focus is on personal fulfilment rather than performing traditional
roles. (Elizabeth Beck-Gerrshiem)
- Concept of pure relationship by Anthony Giddens -> focus on emotional fulfilment
 Female headed household.
- Male specific distress migration
- Government scheme (main beneficiary are women)
- Women empowerment -> Especially post amendment w.r.t. succession Act -> Economic of
women (Bina Agarwal)
- Feminization of old age -> 1033/1000 (>60 year)
 Live in relationship
- Perceived as a liberating space for women (Flavia Agnes)

63
- Education + Skill development + Career opportunity -> Delay in marriage + Urban migration +
Westen value system + Economic independence of women. (K. Srinivasan and KS James)
- Live is relationship exist on a spectrum. If a deep commitment almost very similar to a
marriage. (Smart and Stevens)
- Lack of legal recognition to homosexual marriages
- Rules of marriage – It is prohibited based on endogamy and exogamy
 Dual carer family
- Both husband and wife in paid work
- Aan Oakley – Technological development has liberated from domesticity.
 Conjugal symmetrical family
- Wilmott and Young is talk about conjugal symmetrical family – Husband and wife same
bargaining power.
 DINK (Double income No kid)
- Rising carrier aspiration
- Secularisation -> Dilution in traditional reproductive expectation
- Rise of Individualism
- Lack of readiness to take responsibility
- Shift in marriage from institution -> Companionship (Kingsley Davis)

Function
 Economic function
- Traditionally family was both unite of consumption and production. However with globalisation
there was industrialisation -> Factory system of production -> Hence, family is know reduced to
unit of consumption only.
 Educational function
- With globalisation there was emergence of diverse job opportunity this require specialise
institution on knowledge and skill development. As a result role of family educational
socialisation was outsourced.
 Spouse selection – this function has also been technologically outsourced. E.g. Online
platform, websites, social media, etc.
 Child rearing and old age care – this also been outsourced E.g. Caretakers, old age
institution, Creche facility, etc.

Inter-relationship
 Democratization of relationship in the family (Participatory decision making)
 Status of the women has improved. (i.e. Education, skill development,
Industrialisation, etc.) (Bina Agrawal)
 Social Media penetration. Improved ties with extended kin but also isolation, anxiety,
impersonality in relationship, etc.)

Q) Critically evaluate joined family completely disintegrated or not. (20M)

64
 Lila Dube She highlighted how women role in family is evolving in response to
education and employment.
PN Madan According to Madan, The Indian family is resilient institution constantly
adjusting to socio-economic transformation while retaining the core cultural,
emotional element.
AR Desai Explained how rural to urban migration had lead to weakening of traditional
joint family.
Deepanka Rise of individual autonomy within family and traditional role getting
r Gupta challenge in India.
MN Shift from joint to nuclear family due to social mobility and Sanskritization’s.
Srinivas

Q) Give some of the important study illustrating structural changes in the Indian family
system.

Household Dimension of The Family

 Context premise –
- Sociologist were finding it difficult to categories family under Nuclear or joint specifically
- Hence, A.M. Shah, introduced the concept of Household where will provide dynamics and
empirical understanding to familial arrangement.
 Concept –
- It is defined as a -> co-residential -> commensal group
- It doesn’t incorporate coparcenary and ritual corporateness both of which are central feature
og traditional join family.
- Question – Is joint family disintegration or it is joint household disintegration.
 Features –
- Nuclear household are more in number as compare to joint household
- Number of people living in joint household is more than number of people living in nuclear
household
- There regional variation. E.g. According to Paulene Kolenda, Joint household is stronger in
North India as compared to South India.
- Rural household are larger than urban household
- Occupational variation: In professional middle class will find more of Nuclear household and in
Business class find more joint household
- In contrast to our assumption – Joint household are increasing – Reasons:
 Population increase,
 shortage of housing,
 lack of social security,
 accumulation of assets,
 Life expectancy is increasing
 Sanskritization lead to joint household setup

65
Family and the Household

Parameters Household Family

Definition Co-residential and Social group characterised
commensal group by common residences,
economical cooperation and
reproduction. (GP Murdock)
Relation Play not be related Related by ties of blood,
marriage and adoption.
Minimum Minimum of 1 member At least 2 members
Interpretative lens  Democracy  Ritual
 Spatial  Emotional
 Empirical  Legal
Limitation Does not account for ritual, Not w.r.t. living arrangement
legal, emotional,
components
Key function  Consumption  Reproduction
 Housing  Socialisation
 Economic  Ritual co-operation
cooperation  Property rights

Q) Analyse household dimensions of family in India. (20M 2022)

Q) Bring out the significance of the difference between family and household. (20M 2016)
Q) Clarify the distinction between the household and family. (10M 2017)

66
 Marriage

Concept
 Institution
- Legally approved
- Socially sanctioned
- Sexual union among two consenting adults
- Spouse live together
- Sexual rights in each other

Types of Marriage
(Take a notes from lec.C13P2 Time-40min or from other source)

Changes in Marriage

Purpose:
 Purity of lineage (caste endogamy) (GS Ghurye)
 Progeny
However, emergence of inter caste marriage (Andre Beteille)

Forms of marriage:
Polygamy -> Monogamy -> Straight -> (Globalisation, industrialisation, etc.) -> Serial
monogamy

Change in mate selection:

Blumberg and Dwarki: 3rd and 4th -> self-choice with parental involvement -> Full
consultation

Changes w.r.t. age and marriage:

NFHS – 5: Average of marriage among urban women is 22 year

w.r.t. marriage rituals:

Rationality/logic/science -> Secularization -> de-secularisation of marriage (E.g. Court
marriage, interfaith, inter-caste, etc.) -> on the country -> Revival of rituals -> Affluence led
revival and Sanskritization’s.

Emergent from of marriage:

 Arrange marriage -> Love marriage -> confluent marriage (Anthory Gidden)
 Types of marriage
 Weekend marriage
 Living marriage

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  Empty shell marriage
 Open marriage

Threat to marriage:
 Divorce marriage
- Nuclear family – overloaded electric circuit
 Functional alternatives
- live in
- Single parent
- New reproductive technology
- Adoption by single people

According to Nicky Hart, 3 factors influencing marital breakdown

1. Factor affecting values attach to the marriage:
- According to Talcott Parson modern individual expect more from marriage. When expectations
are not meet, marriage is failed.
- According to Norman Dennis, Family has undergone a functional specialisation as a result –
pure binding ties making it easier for marriages to break.

2. Factors increasing spousal conflict

- In nuclear family there exist greater emotional dependency according to William Goode leading
to more conflicts and breakers.
- There exists a contradiction between economic base and ideological super structure according
to Nicky Hart

3. Factors increasing exist opportunity from marriage

- De-stigmatisation of divorce
- Secularisation
- Legal reforms

Q) Illustrate the important of rituals such as Kanya Dan and Kula Vadhu in changing
institution of marriage and family. (10M)
Q) Do you think that family’s bonding affected by changing kinship pattern in India. (20M)

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Kinship system in India

Kinship
Concept:
 Social relationship based on biological ties and social recognition.
 Biological ties -> Included blood relation
 Social recognition -> Marriage and adoption
 Kinship refers to social relationship based on both biological ties and social
recognitions it includes both actual blood relations and socially sanctioned
relationship such as marriage or adoption. Sociological emphasise on social
recognition than biological ties. E.g. Adopted child is treated as a kin this despite
absence of biological connection.

Types of kinship:
1. Consanguineous
 Based on blood ties or common ancestor E.g. Father son relation, siblings, etc.
2. Affinal
 Based on marital ties E.g. Husband wife, in laws, etc.
3. Fictive
 It involves treating unrelated individuals as a part of one’s kin network by assigning
them social roles similar to that of kin. E.g. In North India due to village Exogamy a
daughter in-law may not have brother in same village. Fictive kinship helps her assign
a brother role to a non-relative.

Approach to Kinship:
1. Indological
 Reference is made to Texts, scriptures, traditions
 Gotra system, varna system, Ashram system, etc. (Written in the text)
 Ghurye, AM Shah, Srinivas
 Ghurye used Sanskrit txt to explain caste and kinship system.

2. Anthropological
 Empirical studies (Village study of field work)
 Study related to marriage alliance and descent is found in field.
 I. Karve, Kathleen Gough, M. Marriott, L. Dumont, etc.
 Karve did a detailed kinship studied comparing North and South Indian kinship system
 Marriott studied ruler organisation and kinship north India
 Kathleen Gough studied the Dravidian Kinship System, specially matrilineal and cross
cousin marriage practices.

69
Lineage
Concept:
Lineage defined as group people descended from common real ancestors.
Decent Lineage
 Rule to the trace lineage.  Lineage defined as group people descended from
common real ancestors.

Functions of lineage:
1. Exogamous in Nature
2. Participate in collective rituals.
3. It acts as a jural unit. E.g. Internally resolving the dispute and w.r.t. external agrarian
acting in unity
4. Members of the lineage are bound by mutual rights and obligation

Descent
Concept:
 Rule to trace lineage and inheritance.
 According to Edmund Leach, descent is defined as the societal mechanism that traces
an individual’s lineage and inheritance through either through patrilineality or
matrilineal.
 I. Karve in her book Kinship Organisation India, have studied the concept of descent
and alliance and their role in kinship organisation.
 According to Levi Straus, alliance is defined as social connection and relationship
established through marriage. E.g. Among the royal family of Rajasthan marital
alliances are formed to consolidate power and established political stability.

70
 System of
Descent

Unilineal Cognatic
Descent Descent

Patrilineal Bilateral

Double
Matrilinial descent

Ambilineal

Parallel
descent
Patrilineal: Tracing lineage to father side property and authority is transfer from father to
son. E.g. North Indian Hindu joined family.

Matrilineal: Tracing lineage to mother side. property and authority is transfer from mother
to daughters. Authority lies with the mother or eldest women. E.g. Garo, Khasi, tribe of
Meghalaya.

Bilateral descent: Equal recognition by both parent side common in modern nuclear
family’s. It is known as Kindred in sociology. (Kindred is ego centre formed around a specific
person include both mother and father relatives however unlike lineage Kindred doesn’t
own property collectively.

Double descent: Recognition of both side but for different purpose patrilineal lineage is
uded for inheritance, surname, clan identity, etc. and matrilineal lineage is used for
emotional bonding, religious duty, ritual roles, etc.

Ambilineal Descent: Children may choose either parents line to trace there lineage

Parallel Decent: Male children following fathers’ line and female children follows mother
line.

Q) Define the concept of descent and alliance. (10M)

(Nayar community inheritance is matrilineal where as w.r.t. ritual roles and clan identity
patrilineal elements are present.)

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Regional variation w.r.t. Kinship system

Regional variation w.r.t. kinship system according to Irawati karve:

Types of Kinship system (regional variation):

1. Kinship in North India
 Key features:
 Patrilineal
 Patrilocal
 Village exogamy
 Negative Marriage Rule
 Gotra Exogamy
 Four clan exogamy
 Only hyper gamy is allowed (Luie Dumont emphasise this hierarchy
structuring where girls cannot marry in lower status.
 Each kin has a unique name hence descriptive in nature there exist a clear
distinction between the blood relatives and a final kins.
 Family structure joint family with patriarchal authority dominate the status of
bride is determine primary based on bearing son.
 Scholarly views
 According to Luie Dumont, caste, hierarchy, and purity underlines north
Indian kinship and marriage customs.
2. Central India
 Presence of Both Indo-Aryan and Dravidian trades along with tribal pockets
with unique kinship norms.
 Marriage rules: Mix of negative and positive rule
Jatta in Rajasthan Village exogamy
Bania 4 clan rules
Rajput’s Hypergamy
Tribal Cross-cousin

 Kinship terminology:
 Used by upper caste follows descriptive model.
 Whereas tribal used same term for many relatives the focus is on group
identity rather than individual positioning all mother like figures may be
address by same term.
 Family structure both joined and nuclear family coexist.

72
  Scholarly views: According Srinivas, Sanskritization influenced the kinship in
the region.

3. Kinship in south India:

 Key features: patrilineal dominance along with matrilineal pockets E.g. Nayar,
Moplas, etc.
 Marriage Rules: Positive rules dominate – preference for cross cousin marriage
even if prohibition exist it is specific rather than generalise.
 Kinship terminology: Classificatory system – no clear distinction between final
and consanguine.
 Family structure – Patrilocal joined family’s are common. However there are
matrilineal household as well as. E.g. Tharavaad
 Scholarly view:
 since marriage often with in known relative’s bride are familiar with the
marital household.
 According to I. Karve, southern kinship has dual nature.

4. Kinship in Easten India

 Dominated by tribal and matrilineal system
 Marriage rules:
 They observe clan exogamy
 Cross cousin marriage in among tribal group. E.g. Among Khasi strict clan
exogamy, no cousin marriage and children belong to lineage of bother
 Kinship terminology: Totem based kinship E.g. Members of the same totem
are considered siblings and marriage is strictly prohibited with in the same
totem. E.g. If totem is Bamboo then terminology reflect taboo and respect “He
is my bamboo-brother”
 Family structure: Mostly nuclear, matrilineal, joined family with common
property and ritual
 Scholarly view: PK Bhowmik studied matrilineal and female cantered rituals
among Khasi.

Q) Differentiate between North Indian and South Indian Kinship system with
Examples. (10M)
Q) Types of Kinship system in India.

73
 Patriarchy, entitlement, status of women

Gender
Concept
Manifestation
Toxic Masculinity + Toxic femininity
Gender stereotyping

Patriarchy
Concept
Manifestations
Structure
- Family
- Knowledge system
- Religion
- Caste

Patriarchy vis-a-via work

Statistics
Public patriarchy
- Challenges
 LFLEP
 Wage gap
 Sexual harassment
 Concentration in informal sector

Violence against women

Statistics
Causes
Forms
Government effort
Lacunae

Women Empowerment
Definition
Status
National and Global effort
Analysis

Women’s Movement

74
75
Gender

Definition:
Gender is defined as socially constructed category defines Roles, behaviour, activities, and
attribution which is consider appropriate for men and women.

According to West and Zimmerman, we are not born with gender, we are born to do gender.
(Doing Gender)

Manifestation of Gender:

 Individual -> Identity formation -> Male and female

 Cultural -> Socialisation -> Values, beliefs, behaviour, choices

Toxic Masculinity Toxic Femineity

 Harmful culture norms, which forces a  Harmful cultural norms which idealise
man to women as
 Supress Emotional  Submissive
 Express domination  Self-sacrificing
 Reject everything i.e. feminine  Dependent
 Raewyn Connell, E.g. Internalisation of misogyny, unrealistic
 Concept of Hegemonies Masculinity beauty, emotional labour, etc.
 Normalisation of male dominance
 Marginalisation of males who are
sensitives, emotional and non-
conforming

Structural manifestations:
Gender DOL is instrumental (By the males) and expressive (By the female)

Gender stereotyping:

Stereotypes Impact
Women are caring and nurturing  Emotional labour (Household)
 Do Labour (T. Parson)
 Undervaluation of care Work (Davis and
Moore)
Women have soft skills  Pink collared job
Women are emotional rather than rational  Glass ceiling
Women are weak passive and dependent  Violence against women
According to Deloitte, 4.7% CEO are women in World.

76
Patriarchy

Concept:
According to Sylvia Walby, Patriarchy is defined was: system of social structure and
practices in which men appear, exploit and dominants women”

Structure of patriarchy: According to Sylvia Walby, there is six structures of patriarchy

Household Women is considered to domestic sphere and over-concentration in
unpaid work
Paid work In labour market, women confront challenges such as Glass Ceiling,
wage gap, glass cliff, sexual harassment
Culture Norms, beliefs, media representation, religious teachings, societal
narratives, etc. upheld gender roles.
Sexuality Women’s bod, desire, sexual behaviour is control. E.g. Honour Killing,
Double standards vis-a-via sexual behaviour, prohibition of Pratiloma
marriage.
Violence It is perceived as a tool to exert construct to over women and a
maintain patriarchal domination.
State Patriarchal values, many times fail to insure women empowerment,
etc. E.g. Lack of criminalisation of marital rape

According to Sylvia Walby, there exist two types of patriarchy,

1. Private patriarchy (Household)
2. Public patriarchy (State, market, legal system)

Although patriarchy refers to domination by male but it is equally perpetuated by

women and this concept known as patriarchal bargain which is given by Deniz
Kandiyoti).

Patriarchal bargain: Refers to bargain/deal by women with the patriarchal system in

exchange of state, protection, opportunities and resources. E.g. Victim shaming by
some women to dissociate from vulnerability or stigma, Women politics siding with
patriarchal party rather than champagning women’s right, Preference form meal
children by mothers and mother-in-law.

Patriarchy is not uniform concept. Its manifestation varies w.r.t. caste, class, religion,
ethnicity, etc.

According to Nandini Sunder, Gender relations are not static. But fluid and
dependent upon social context.
77
Structure of Patriarchy:

Family:
 Primary agency responsible for socialisation.
 Socialisation w.r.t. gender stereotyping. E.g. Boys don’t cry, Girls don’t fight, etc.
According to Aan Oakley, family provide different socialization to boys and girls ->
Unequal gender roles.
 Patrilineality and patrilocality -> Providing women/girls lower status (Son meta
preference)
 Amartya Sen: Son meta preference led to unwanted girls
 Missing girls: NFHS 5 – at birth CSR = 929/1000
 According to I. Karve, Kinship system reinforces patrilineality and this lead to
subordination of women.
 Leela Dube (Anthropologist and feminist), Gender and kinship work,
Metaphor – Seed and earth, to discuss the role of male female in the process
of reproduction. According to this analogy man provide the seeds for sowing
and women is the earth in which the seed is sown, the true meaning is that
nature of the crop dependence largely on the seeds while earth provide only
nutrition to the seed. Sociologically it means that child owes their identity to
their father whereas mother has no material rights on the child. E.g. W.r.t.
surname, property, gotra, access to resources, etc. identity of father is
important. This metaphor explain how patriarchal thinking gives men
dominance in reproduction and lineage.

Q) Explain the Lila Dube concept of Seed and Earth.

According to Sylvia Walby, household are the core site of patriarchal relations where
women’s labour is unpaid and there autonomy is limited.

Delphy and Lenoard, Family is patriarchal institution where women performed

domestic labour that support men.

Knowledge system:
1. Education
 Content:
E.g. Krishina Kumar: School text reinforces domestic roles for women.
 Infrastructure:

78
 According to NFHS-5: 23% of girls dropout due to lack of functional toilets.
 Attitude of teachers:
School girls w.r.t. dress code in the garb of morality.

2. Media
 Objectification and commodification (E.g. Sylvia Walby: Media representation)
 Laura Mulvey -> Male Gaza
 Jean Kilbourne: How women is portrayed as fragile, hyper sexualised and
dependent.

*Pierre Bourdieu: Cultural capital

* Louis Althusser: Ideological state approach

 Move songs often detect stocking and cohesion as romantic.

 Influencer culture: Reinforces femineity link to appearance.
 Hero centric movie often show women either as damsel in distress or
glamorised accessories.
 Symbolism: Shuttle expression of patriarchy is through ideological in
doctartion vis-a-via motion of ideal women would that is sacrificing, nurturing,
etc. E.g. Ideals propagated through, rituals, etc,
 Simone de Beauvoir: Women are not born they are made myth and ideology.
 TV shows glorify women who silently suffer (Luie Althusser ideological state
apparatus)

3. Religion
Patriarchal construction of social practices draws his legitimacy from religious
institution and practices.

Sylvia Walby She argues religious institution are male dominated and often
interpret scripture that will reinforce women subordination.
E.g. Polygamy, Nikha Halal, restriction on women entry on
religious shrines, etc.
Nevidata Religious often naturalisation of gender role i.e. women been
Menan confined to family, reproduction, etc.
Gerda Lerner Traces the root of patriarchy to religious ideology
Simone de Religion is nothing but instrument of deception
Beauvoir
Veena Das Devi-Dasi dichotomy

79
It is believed that religion institutionalisation patriarchy by creating myth that justifies
meal dominance.

4. Caste
Caste and gender are very closely interlinked. The sexuality of women is
associated with purity of caste. As we move hierarchy the whole of patriarchy
further strengthen. Caste system and caste endogamy is a means to control to
women mobility and sexuality.

Caste and gender intersectionality is discussed by Uma Chakravarthy through her

concept of Brahmanical patriarchy. When notion of purity and pollution is
extended beyond caste to intersect with gender.

Q) Define patriarchy. How does it impact over all entitlement of a girl child in India.
(2014 M10)
Q) What is Patriarchy. How does it affect child socialisation pattern India. (2015 M20)
Q) Patriarch as a form of dominance (2016)
Q) define patriarchy does it have any impact of women’s entitlement system (2019
M20)
Q) Discuss the material bases of Patriarchy (2022 M20)
Assignment question: Patriarchy as a form of dominance (10M)

80
Violence against Women:

Concept:
It refers to act of gender based violence which causes physical, mental, or sexual
harm, either in private or public life.

Statistic:
 According to NCRB – In 2022 there is 4% increase in violence against women
compared to 2021.
 31.4% of Violence against women = Guilty husband or relatives.
 According to NCW there was 21% increase in violence against women (2021)
 UN women “Shadow pandemic”
 According to NCW 86% victim don’t report and among 14% who intended to
report only 7% reaches the appropriate authority.

Forms of Violence:
 Domestic violence
 Marital rape
 Dowry
 Sexual harassment at workplace
 Prostitution
 Honor killing

Causes:
 Institutionalisation of patriarchy (Sylbia Walby: Structure of patriarchy) (Gerder
Lerner: Religion which institutionalise patriarchy)
 Gender based Socialisation:
Girls -> Submissive, passive, docile, etc.
Boys: Dominant, Aggressive, etc.
Ex. Aan Oakley
 Economic dependence of women
Ex. According to Naila Kabeer, economic independence is a pre-requisite for
women empowerment.
 Objectification and commodification of women
E.g. Laura Mulvey (male gaze)
 Traditional cultural practices
Ex. Female genital mutilation, dowry, child marriage, etc.) (Sylia Walby –
Structure)

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 Structural gap
Ex. Deny of justice, poor implementations, etc.
 Addiction (Drugs, alcoholism, etc.)
 Emergence of nuclear families (E. Leach: overloaded electric circuit) (Margot
Benston: Women acts as a cushion to vent out frustration)
 Women mobility is pursuit as a threat to the male hegemony. So according to
Dipankar Gupta is not due to downward slide but due to forward thrust toward
modernity.

Government effort:
Statutory laws:
 Domestic violence act
 Prevention of sexual harassment act
 Dowry prohibition act
 Organised Prostitution is illegal etc.

Initiatives:
 Nirbhaya fund
 One stop centre
 Mahila Police Station

Despite legal provisions Violence against women is still on rise:

Reasons:
 Legal and structural Gaps
 Non criminalisation of marital rape
 Lack of infrastructure E.g. All Mahila Police Station
 Poor implementation of provisions
 Delayed Justice
 Socio-culture factor
 Uma Chakravarthy: Brahmanical Patriarchy
 Lack of awareness w.r.t. grievance redressal mechanism
 Cultural glorification of violence specially through cinema
 Bystander Apathy
 Internalisation of abuse by women (Deniz Kandiyoti: Patriarchal society)
 Political factor
 Lack of Political will
 Inefficient bureaucracy
 Gender- Insensitive attitude of low enforcement agency
Short term effort:

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 Fast track court
 Patrolling at night
 Community policing
 Training in self defence
 Installing CCTV camera
 Awareness work shop
 Educating children in good and bad touch
 Social media campaign
 Use of technology enabled infrastructure
 Create safe spaces for dialog

Long term:
 Moral overwhelming society
 Value based education
 Gender sensitisation of all stack holder
 De-stigmatisation
 Behaviour changes through Nuked Natak
 Engage men and boys as allies i.e. He for she campaign
 Reform educational curriculum to include consent bodily autonomy and gender
sensitivity
 Peer Burdaves: Cultural capital
 Support women organisation and grass root movement as an agent of change
 Intersectional approach (Kimberly Crenshaw) to include caste, tribe, religion, person with
disability, LGBTQ+, etc.
 Create gender friendly public space, institutionalise support network for trauma
counselling and legal aid.

Violence against women is not just a legal issue but a socio-cultural epidemic i.e. collective
moral reawakening.

*Symbolic Violence by Peer Burduve: It means invisible or sattle ways in which power is
exercised i.e. Through norms, culture, expectation, etc. E.g. Girls are appreciated for being
quite modest and homly whereas boys are appreciate for being and ambitious.

Domestic violence:

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 According NFHS 3 – 51% of men and 54% women Belives wife beating is justified under
following condition: Neglecting children, going out without permission and not cocking
properly.
 Barabara D. Milles: Indian girls are raise with low self-esteem and they rationalise abuse
form failing to fulfil household duties.
 Domestic violence is rooted in social and cultural factor
 Patriarchal socialisation
 Lack of inheritance right (Veena Agrawal)
 Culture of silence around domestic violence (“Everydayness of violence “ by Veena Das)
 Domestic violence is also the result of patrilocal marriage where women lack immediate
support system.
 Domestic violence more among nuclear family as compare to joined family.
 Marital rape:
It refers to non-consensual sex by husband with his wife forcefully or without her will.
Reasons:
 Lack of economic independence (Naila Kabir)
 Women are treated as a safety wall or cushion to went out frustration (Margret
Binstean)
 Failure of state to criminalise marital rape (Sylwia Wolve)
 Addiction of drug, etc.
 The cultural aspect of marriage where it is define as legal approved and socially
sanctioned a socially union Hence women is often denied bodily autonomy and right
to concern.
 Argument w.r.t. Challenges in criminalisation of marital rape
 In legal term deny of sex is ground for divorce hence is contradict with maritial rape
 It is difficult to apply in a country where marriage is treated as a sacrate institution
 According to Veena Das there exists cultural and enslavement of women. (Pati
Parmeshwar)
 Kerala high court observed that in a patriarchal society women right to bodily
autonomy and reproductive right are considered precautiorer. In a similar way S. C.
Dube said in Indian society restraining and controlling women sexuality is a
prerequisite to socially sanctioned motherhood
 Law commission recommended against marital rape criminalisation siting concerns
of misuse and societal unpreparedness (Consent become subjective and hence fear
of false allegation)
 According to Justice Varma committee criminalisation of marital rape is need of ours.

According to Madhu Kishwar non criminalisation of marital rape is incompatible with

constitutional under Article 14 and 21.

Q) Debate the case of criminalisation of marital rape from sociological perspective. (10M)

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Q) Write a short not from sociological perspective on Domestic violence act.
Q) What are the possible causes increase the violence against women in the Public. Space.
Q) What is POSH Act identification of tormenter by women at work place does not come
easily even today. Examine the statement with substantive example from India.

Sexual Harassment at Work Place:

 The Act on sexual harassment deal with prevention, protection and redressal
of grievances. it incorporates sexual harassment quit pro quo AND HOSTILE
WORK ENVIRONMENT.
 According to FICCI, 70% of the women do not report the cases, 36% Indian
compony and 35% of MNC’s have not established Internal Complete
Committee (sexual harassment responsible for low female labour force
participation)
 Challenges: Lack of sexual harassment awareness; lack of faith in complete
mechanism; Fear of retaliation, social exclusion, domestication, due to stigma
associated;

Prostitution or Sex work

 The practice of engaging in sexual relation in exchange for payment it is also referred as
commercialise sex.
 Functionalist perspective:
 Kingsly Davis –
Prostitution act as a safety wall which helps in preserving institution of
marriage
It provides outlet for sexually frustrated men and preventing exploitation of
respective women.
It insures financial independence for women specially in society with limited
resources
There exit an empowerment pardine which focuses on how sex work qualifies
as a work.
 According to Shruti Nambiar Indian Express survey around 70% sex worker inter the
profession voluntarily
 According to Piekering Walkins sex worker earns three time more per day as
compare to women in informal sector.

 Feminist Perspective
 Prostitution objectifies the women, it is the expression of patriarchal gender
relations
 Social Conflict perspective
 Prostitution reflect inequal distribution of resources
 Social Psychological theory prostitution is explain through 3 Factor:

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 1. Predisposing Factor (Childhood trauma, abuse, neglect)
2. Attracting factor (Illusion of quick money, Glamours life, pear influence)
3. Precipitating Factor (Sudden job loss, homeless ness, addiction, Pear pressure)

Honour Killing:

Crimes of honour typically occur when a women is pursuit to have violated a family or
community’s sexual or cultural code

Enter caste or enter faith marriage, dressing or behaving on ways not approved by the
conservatives family’s this codes derive there legitimacy from tribal customs, Khat
Pahcnhayat or caste councils.

Sociological Perspective on Honor Killing

1. Uma Chakravarti Brahmanical Patriarchy argues Honour is deeply tied to women sexuality
hence violence is tool to preserve caste purity and to lineage
2. Prem Chaudhary highlighted role of Khap Panchayat, social code which include honour
killing.
3. Women has internalised and support honour-based restriction as a part of survival
strategy. (Patriarchal bargaining by Deniz Kandiyoti)
4. Despite modernisation caste norm still persist hence law is necessary condition but not a
social change. (André Beteille)

Q) Write from sociological perspective law as an instrument for women empowerment.

Q) Explain the linkage between patriarchy and honour killing in India.
Q) Discuss the problem of working women in India.

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Women empowerment

Concept
According to United Nation it has following dimension:
 sense of self-worth
 access to resources
 autonomy in decision making
 control over reproductive life
 Ability to lead the direction of social change

Status of women in India w.r.t. empowerment:

 Patriarchal Bargen
 According to periodic labour force survey female labour force participation increase to
41.7%
 According NHFS-5
 Institutional birth has increased 88.6%
 Contraceptive prevalence rate among the married women (1549 age) is 66.7%
 Total fertility rate has decline to 2, which reflect better reproductive autonomy
 W.r.t. political representation, women comprise of 14.7% Lok Sabha member

 As per 2023 Deloitte report women held 18% board member seat
 As of 2024 Supreme court of India has 4 women seating judge’s which is highest ever

Challenges:

Government Initiatives:

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 Mission Shakti Integrated approach for women safety Protection and empowerment
Subhadra State initiative financial support to women to promote economic
Yojana independence
Ujjwala Yojana
Namo drone
Didi
Budgetary 3 trillion Rs allocated to women centric initiative’s
Support

Way forward:

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Agrarian class structure

Agrarian society:
It is referred as a society, where agriculture is the main source of livelihood. Their social
organisation is centred around control over land

Key components of Agrarian society:

Social structure
Power structure
Agrarian structure
Social change
Developmental initiatives such as Green revolution.

What is a class?
Marx, group of people who have similar relation with the means of production.
According to this perspective, class hierarchies emerge due to economic and control over
resources.

W.r.t. agrarian society means of production:

 Land is the most central means of production
 The focus on ownership and control over land
 People with large track of land assume top position in the hierarchy
 People who are assume landless assumes bottom spot in the hierarchy
 In context of India there is regional variation
 High fertile land: Western UP, Haryana, Punjab, etc.
 Low fertile land : North east India, Telangana
 Hence tracts of land is insufficient criteria to determine the status and position. It is the
productivity and income that is determine the class position in the hierarchy.
 Bottomore: Class concept is more relevant ton Industrial societies
 Michal Young: Soil grows caste and machine makes class

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Evolution of agrarian class structure:
Pre-British British Post independence
 Lack of Individual  Transformation from peasant to  Modernisation of agriculture with advancement of
ownership Agrarian society (Farming is main technology i.e. cultivation of much larger area in lesser
 Under developed economic activity as subsistence time which led to displacement
market economy and commercial purpose)  Commercialisation of agriculture alter the relation
 Communal production  Introduction of different land between traditional land owner and service caste, decline
 Class was overshaded revenue system. in Jajmani relation, increase in inequality.
by caste  Commercialisation of agriculture  Land-reforms: It had altered the relationship between
 Jajmani relation  Emergence of different landowner, tenants and labour. E.g. Evection of tenants
 Society: PESANT classes/group. E.g. due to fear of claim w.r.t. occupancy rights.
SOCIETY (small Moneylenders, traders, revenue  Green revolution: It had widened the class inequality by
landholding, traditional farmers favouring rich farmers and worsened the condition of
methods tool used,  A. R. Desai: According to Desai, marginal landholder and land less labour
production is for self- the state acted as the supra land  Breakdown of traditional service and tenancy relation
consumption, very lord in colonial time and  Increase inter regional migration to well of state due to
strong ties based on appointed landlord. They indulge increasing inequality in rural areas this had led to rise of a
family, caste, village in vicious practice of leasing and glass of wage labourers known as foot lose labourer by
community) subleasing giving birth to leaser Han Bareman.
 Two major categories: class and absentee landlords and  Modern education and employment outside agriculture
Rulers and ruled exploitative agrarian class led to the emergence of new rural elite class.
structure.  Industrialisation it has diluted the centrality of land in the
 Desai conceptualise 3-tier agrarian class structure.
agrarian class structure:  Impact of globalisation:
I. Upper class: Absentee  with globalisation certain changes e.g. integration into
landlord global economy and exposer to global competition
II. Middle class: Sublandlord  Increase input class without proportionate increase in
III. Bottom class: Tenants, share the output prices had lead to agrarian distress and

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copper, landless labour farmer suicide.
 Exposer to new agriculture practices like contract
farming, GN crop, patent seeds introduced and this
practices often lead to exploitation e.g. Pepsi-co suite
Gujrat farmer
 Traditional agriculture has undergone major shift that is
less import and more import, leading to loss of
indigenous crop value.
 Farmers has increasingly become dependent on
government support like MSP, subsidies, crop
insurance, etc.
 The agrarian crises has resulted in wide spread farmer
protest and mobilisation.

TNC: Trans-national cooperation

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Scholarly perspective on agrarian class structure:

K. L. Sharma:
K. L. Sharma

Owners Non owners

Large Tenants

Medium Sharecroppers

Workers: Free and

Small Bonded

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Andre Betille:

Andre Betille

Ownership Control over land Use of land

Absentee
Traditrional land .Entrepenering Cultural
landowners: Choice Pure controller Owner + User
owner landowners landowner
and compulsion

The view land as a Profit motivated Choise: Leave They belong to Owner + User +
source of status, away from land Controller + owner
individuals who community controller
prestige and treate land as due to lifestyle traditional
kinship ties rather capital and employment prohabited to
than commercial cultivated the land
asset Compulsion: Uneable Pure user
Controller + (labourer)- Pure,
to manage land due Owner + User
to displacement, attached and
social factor and legal bonded
hurdle

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Andre Betille in his study of agrarian social structure classified on the basis of
economic position in ruler area. Primarily determined by ownership control and use
of land. He has provided a complex reality of rural life and his perspective is grounded
in ideal type based on this criteria’s.

Q) Classes in agrarian society in India.

Q) Impact of globalisation on change in agrarian structure in India.
Q) Changes in Agrarian class structure
Q) What according to Andre Beteille are the basis of agrarian class structure in India
Q) Criticism of Andre Beteille agrarian class structure.

Critics of Andre Beteille:

A. R Desai criticise the Andre Beteille for downplaying the role of class conflict
specially between the land owners and landless labourers.

Desai argued there is a need for serious analysis for agrarian class structure rooted in
exploitation, surplus extraction, political struggle, etc. whereas Beteille provide only
functionalist typology.

Marxist approach:
Marx believed agrarian class structure come from feudalism which is the structure
few landlords and peasant work from them. According to Marx due to internal
struggle feudalism collapse and gave rise to capitalism. However, Marxist sociologist
in India are divided in two group: 1. India agriculture still feudal 2. Believes both
feudal and capitalist co-exist.

Danieal Thorner: Marxist approach to study agrarian class structure in India started
with argument with Daniel Thorner who actually come to India to study the success
of land reform and found capitalistic transformation of agriculture assert. Three
criteria was used on the basis of which 3 agrarian classes emerge
1. Income earned from the land
2. Nature of rights in the land
3. Extend of field work actually performed.
Three classes put forward,

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 1. Malik: Large land owner, Do not participate in manual work. Capitalist
class. Completely dependent on hire labour. Production for profit usually
upper caste.
2. Kisan: Medium land owners. Production for sustains. Mostly dependent
upon family labour for production but ,ay also hire labour mostly
intermediate caste.
3. Majdur: No control over land. Sell there labour for survival. Usually labour
caste, tribe, Muslim, etc.
According to Danieal Thorner applying Marxist perspective their exist a corelation
between agrarian class structure and social structure in India. (Superstructure is
dected of substructure)

According to Danieal Thorner there was capitalistic agriculture development in the

green revolution belt due to technology centric production, minimising the labour
cost and market centric production. However, this was criticise by Ashoka Rudra on
the following grounds:
a. In green revolution belt not entire land holding is used for commercial
agriculture.
b. Spirit of capitalism was missing.
c. Market vulnerability that is shrinkage of prices due to discrepancy in
demand and supply.
d. To control peasant mobilisation government introduced MSP However
input cost was greater than the market value of the product which lead to
agrarian distress.

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Agrarian Class structure
Relevance:
 It helps us to understand how rural societies are divided into classes based on ownership
and control over land and labour.
 In context of Indian society both feudalism and capitalism.
 Two broad perspectives:
a. Marxist:
Daniel Thornes
Criteria:

-> Income earned -> Malik Social hierarchy (caste)

-> Rights in the laid -> Kisan overlape with class
-> Extent of fieldwork -> Majdur hierarchy

(Finding further substantiated by D. N. Dhanagre study:

 Land lord -> Dominant caste
 Peasant -> Backward class
 Agriculture labour -> Schedule caste)

Green revolution:
 Gap between the classes has further widened
 Tenants + Share-cropper (Lossing there small rights over land) -> Wage labour

Ashoka Rudra:
 60% to 70% of green revolution area has seen capitalism remaining ->
subsistence farming
 Lack of capital spirit
 Fragmentation of land holding: Status difference across the generation.
Hence, that of capitalistic dynasties.
 Dependent on state increased due to market vulnerability, over production ->
lower prise, state intervention -> Minimum selling prise
 Agrarian distress -> Protest

Kathleen Gough:
 Indian agrarian class structure is multi-layered.
Big Hundreds of acres land + Escaped land celling laws +
Bourgeoisie diversification E.g. Horticulture, agriculture, orchard.

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 Rich Farmers Commercial farming + Produced export good + Advance
technology
Petty Small land (Self consumption) + Sustain family income ->
Bourgeoisie Petty traders -> Focus on education
Semi- Very small piece of land + selling their wage labour
Proletariats
Poor Landless + Labour + Extremely Vulnerable to exploitation
Proletariats both by rich farmer and landlords
(Directly contradict Karl Marx perspective two fold classification)

Utsa Patnayak

Had argued that in India there exist precapitalist mode of production. Some
element of feudalism is still persisted. Economic behaviour caste kinship and
community network rather than rationality and individualisation.
Malik Land owner Large and fertile Hire labour
land
Kisan Rich peasant Moderate – Hire labour +
large land Some family
labour
Middle Peasant Moderate land Family labour +
Some hire some
Hire labour
Poor peasant Small land Family labour
Majdur Wage labour Landless Survive on
selling their
labour for
livelihood

P. C. Joshi
Fedal mode of production: Indian agriculture largely retains feudal
characteristic despite modernisation,
Landlords Control over large land area + maximise profit through rent
and labour exploitation
Peasant Small land holders + Subsistence farming Vulnerable to
market shock and crop failure
Agricultural Landless + unorganised + No bargaining power + Most
labour vulnerable
Old feudal land lord decline and rise of commercial landlord was created new
forms of economic exploitation this reflect how class based exploitation
continues in different form even after a decline of feudalism.

Veena Majumdar Feminist perspective:

 Agrarian structure is deeply gender

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  women are confined to domestic role
 With economic development gender-based exploitation get formalised rather
than remove.
 In fact, women economic freedom shrinks in agrarian society.

T. K. Oman perspective
 He critics fix class model as according to him Indian class structure is to
dynamic, regional variation are huge hence class structure are constantly
evolving.

b. Neo-Marxist

Duzerfedt and Lindsberg perspective

According to them agrarian class structure not only should focus WHO OWNS
THE LAND but how is change due to new linkages /development. E.g. Market,
policies, rural-urban linkage.

Indian agrarian society is a complex mixture of feudal capitalist and pre capitalist
relation. Different scholar offer different framework based on regional variation,
change, social factor such as caste and gender.

Capitalism in India agriculture is partial uneven and incomplete.

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Significance of agrarian class structure:
 Classes shape the nature of power exploitation
 Disproportionate benefit to reach peasant
 Domination of Big bourgeoise in rural society (Kathleen Gough): Big bourgeoises
have extended there influence beyond agriculture into politics, education and social
institution. The maintained strong nexuses with urban elite (Traders, moneylenders,
etc.) and monopolies credit and agricultural market.
 Green revolution introduced capital incentive farming which favoured large land
owner. However marginal and small farmer could not afford new input. This was
further accelerated by globalisation as it was promoting export oriented
agriculture which lead to displacement of small land holders.
{Green revolution + Globalisation = De-Peasantization}

Limitation of class-based analysis in Indian context:

 In India especially rural area caste identity override caste in determining social
relation, status, life chances, etc.
 Class structure often ignores noneconomic factor such as education social
network which are unevenly distributed due to class.
 Contradictory Marxist assumption that class replaces the caste. Indian reality
shows there exist caste class overlap.

Q) Class conflict in Agrarian society. (10M)

According to K. L Sharma, when class position overlap with caste identities that is
class conflict are experience as caste war.

(*Political dimension in the electoral and political fear conflict is not always reach Vs.
poor in several state middle farmers have allied with marginalised to challenge upper
caste to reach land lord this had led to struggle between ascendent and local
government.)

Q) Classes in agrarian society in India.

Q) Changes in agrarian class structure.
Q) Significance/conflict in agrarian society.
Q) Industrial class structure in India
Q) Changes in Industrial class structure

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Industrial Class structure in India:
 It is defining system of social stratification existing in industrial societies.
 Number and arrangement of classes in the hierarchy based on ownership of means of
production, authority.
 Industrial class structure has emerged as a result of industrialisation which replaced
manual labour by machine-based production
 As preindustrial level society was agrarian largely with landlords, peasant, etc.

Scholarly View:
Karl Marx:
 In Industrial society it is divided into two classes:
a. Bourgeiosie
b. Proletariats

Weber:
 According to Weber class is one of stratification along with status of power.
 Class is defined as group of people who share same market position. (Income, skill,
employability, etc.). Based on that there exist of 4-fold classification:
1. Property owner
2. Professional
3. Petty Bourgeoisie
4. Working class

Ducan And Blau:

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Schneider

Entrepreneurs Big Entrepreneurs Large capital + RND + Diversification

Small/middle entrepreneurs Limited capital + Avoid risk and
diversification
Managerial class Top level Strategic decision maker
Middle level High work load + Prone to alienation
Lowe level Lack authority + Act as supervisor
Working class Skilled Contradictory to Marx prediction of
Semi-skilled workers alienation incentives in
unskilled modern industries have reduces the
discontent.

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Industrial class structure in India
Pre colonial Colonial Post independent
 Industries: Destruction of indigenous Pre 1991 Post 1991
Indigenous economy:
State was acting as a super entrepreneur: Industrial class structure post
industries had According to A. R. Desai, British
 heavy industry control by state, globalisation:
existed such as dump their surplus factory
 private entrepreneur spirit was not  Inflow of FDI
handicraft, produces goods in India and
reviled  Attracted by cheap labour and
cottage, etc. stifle the growth of Indigenous
 as state control has stifled private state subsidies. Profit extracted
 Production entrepreneur which destroying
initiative, renovation, etc. by parent country leading to neo
system: It has the domestic handloom
The dependency and middle and lower colonialism.
following industry.
class on state increase:  Rise of traditional industrial
production: Rise of merchant class: Instead
 Educated middle class was dependent houses due to global capital and
 Produce for of industrial bourgeoises,
on government job and de-regulation.
local traders and middlemen emerge.
 lower class relied on state welfare  Opened up job opportunity
community use Formation of Working class:
programme across caste and class line
 Labour They work in railways mining,
 Hence, both lacked the critical  Corporate contribution of state
included both jute, sugar, textile industry
autonomy to question the state increase
family and hire recruited by middlemen mostly
authority and where reduce to “passive  Small producer acted as a
worker constitute distress agrarian
citizenry” satellite to the large NMC’s.
 Non- labour practice seasonal
 According to Sharad Homik rise of PSU’s Operating under subcontract
hierarchical migration, vet industrial
led to the formation of classes but flexible labour condition.
work relation discipline due to strong
instead of industrial worker they had  Major share of employment in
 Caste hierarchy community ties. According to
status of government employees. services creating non-traditional
Royal commission on labour
 In the later phase some capitalist industrial worker.
“India can be good market place
element emerges due to policies like  Class composition is also
but not manufacturing site”.
import substitution. changing i.e. class is know define
Rise of indigenous capitalist:
 Public sector employees traditional by skill digital access and
Despite challenges Indian
industrialist middle class (educated) networking.
business family’s establish trade
working/lower class.  Emergence of new hybrid classes.
and industrial influence.

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Industrial class structure today is multidimensional it is based on market
explores skill, education, global linkage, etc It inter sect with caste gender and
region.

Q) Critically examine the impact of impact of globalisation on industrial class

structure.

According to Bardhan and Rudra globalisation has led to sharp concentration

of wealth with top 10% controlling 77% national resource.
Growth of relative poverty despite decline in absolute poverty.
Shift from capitalist to hegemonic domination i.e. corporate, think tank, elite,
state, etc. monopolies decision.
Emergence of petty bourgeoise followed by middle class followed by working
class.

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