AQA A Level Physics Your notes

Orbits of Planets & Satellites

Contents
Circular Orbits in Gravitational Fields
Energy of an Orbiting Satellite
Escape Velocity
Geostationary Orbits

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 1
Circular Orbits in Gravitational Fields
Your notes

Circular Orbits in Gravitational Fields

Since most planets and satellites have a near circular orbit, the gravitational force FG
between the Sun and another planet provides the centripetal force needed to stay in an
orbit
The gravitational force is centripetal, therefore it is perpendicular to the direction of
travel of the planet
Consider a satellite with mass m orbiting Earth with mass M at a distance r from the
centre travelling with linear speed v
FG = Fcentripetal
Equating the gravitational force to the centripetal force for a planet or satellite in orbit
gives:

The mass of the satellite m will cancel out on both sides to give:

Where:
v = linear speed of the mass in orbit (m s-1)
G = Newton's Gravitational Constant
M = mass of the object being orbited (kg)
r = orbital radius (m)
This means that all satellites, whatever their mass, will travel at the same speed v in a
particular orbit radius r
Recall that since the direction of a planet orbiting in circular motion is constantly
changing, it has centripetal acceleration

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 2
 Your notes

A satellite in orbit around the Earth travels in circular motion

Time Period & Orbital Radius Relation
Since a planet or a satellite is travelling in circular motion when in orbit, its orbital time
period T to travel the circumference of the orbit 2πr, the linear speed v is:

This is a result of the well-known equation, speed = distance / time and first introduced in
the circular motion topic
Substituting the value of the linear speed v from equating the gravitational and
centripetal force into the above equation gives:

Squaring out the brackets and rearranging for T2 gives the equation relating the time
period T and orbital radius r:

Where:
T = time period of the orbit (s)

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 3
 r = orbital radius (m)
G = Newton's Gravitational Constant Your notes
M = mass of the object being orbited (kg)
The equation shows that the orbital period T is related to the radius r of the orbit. This is
also known as Kepler’s third law:
For planets or satellites in a circular orbit about the same central body, the square of
the time period is proportional to the cube of the radius of the orbit
Kepler’s third law can be summarised as:

Graphical Representation of T2 ∝ r3
The relationship between T and r can be shown using a logarithmic plot
The graph of log(T) in years against log(r) in AU (astronomical units) for the planets in our
solar system is a straight line graph:

The graph does not go through the origin since it has a negative y-intercept
Only the log of both T and r will produce a straight line graph

Maths Tip
The ∝ symbol means ‘proportional to’
Find out more about proportional relationships between two variables in the
“proportional relationships ” section of the A Level Maths revision notes

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 4
 Your notes
Worked Example
A binary star system constant of two stars orbiting about a fixed point B. The star of
mass M1 has a circular orbit of radius R1 and mass M2 has a radius of R2. Both have an
angular speed ⍵ about B.

State the following formula, in terms of G, M2, R1 and R2

(i) The angular speed ⍵ of M1
(ii) The time period T for each star in terms of angular speed ⍵
Answer:

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 5
 Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Many of the calculations in the Gravitation questions depend on the equations for
circular motion. Be sure to revisit these and understand how to use them! You will be
expected to remember the derivation for T2 ∝ r3 relation, so make sure you understand
each step

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 6
Energy of an Orbiting Satellite
Your notes

Energy of an Orbiting Satellite

An orbiting satellite follows a circular path around a planet
Just like an object moving in circular motion, it has both kinetic energy (KE) and
gravitational potential energy (GPE) and its total energy is always constant
An orbiting satellite's total energy is calculated by:
Total energy = Kinetic energy + Gravitational potential energy
This means that the satellite's KE and GPE are also both constant in a particular orbit
If the orbital radius of a satellite decreases its KE increases and its GPE decreases
If the orbital radius of a satellite increases its KE decreases and its GPE increases

At orbit Y, the satellite has greater GPE and less KE than at at orbit X
A satellite is placed in two orbits, X and Y, around Earth
At orbit X, where the radius of orbit r is smaller, the satellite has a:
Larger gravitational force on it
Higher speed
Higher KE

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 7
 Lower GPE
Shorter orbital time period, T Your notes
At orbit Y, where the radius of orbit r is larger, the satellite has a:
Smaller gravitational force on it
Smaller speed
Lower KE
Higher GPE
Longer orbital time period, T

Worked Example
Two satellites A and B, of equal mass, orbit a planet at radii R and 3R respectively.
Which one of the following statements is incorrect?
A. A has more kinetic energy and less potential energy than B
B. A has a shorter time period and travels faster than B
C. B has less kinetic energy and more potential energy than A
D. B has a longer time period and travels faster than A
Answer: D
Since B is at a larger orbital radius (3R instead of R) it has a longer time period
since T2 ∝ R3 for an orbiting satellite
However, satellite B will travel much slower than A
Its larger orbital radius means the force of gravity will be much lower for B than for
A

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you can't remember which way around the kinetic and potential energy increases
and decreases, think about the velocity of a satellite at different orbits. When it is
orbiting close to a planet, it experiences a larger gravitational pull and therefore orbits
faster. Since the kinetic energy is proportional to v2, it, therefore, has higher kinetic
energy closer to the planet. To keep the total energy constant, the potential energy
must decrease too.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 8
Escape Velocity
Your notes

Escape Velocity
To escape a gravitational field, a mass must travel at the escape velocity
This is dependent on the mass and radius of the object creating the gravitational field,
such as a planet, a moon or a black hole
Escape velocity is defined as:
The minimum speed that will allow an object to escape a gravitational field with no
further energy input
It is the same for all masses in the same gravitational field ie. the escape velocity of a
rocket is the same as a tennis ball on Earth
An object reaches escape velocity when all its kinetic energy has been transferred to
gravitational potential energy
This is calculated by equating the equations:

1 G×M×m
2
× m × v2 = r
Where:
m = mass of the object in the gravitational field (kg)
v = escape velocity of the object (m s-1)
G = Newton's Gravitational Constant
M = mass of the object to be escaped from (ie. a planet) (kg)
r = distance from the centre of mass M (m)
Since mass m is the same on both sides of the equations, it can cancel on both sides of
the equation:

1 G×M
2
× v2 = r
Multiplying both sides by 2 and taking the square root gives the equation for escape
velocity, v:

2×G ×M
v=
r
This equation is not given on the datasheet. Be sure to memorise how to derive it

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 9
 Your notes

For an object to leave the Earth's gravitational field, it will have to travel at a speed greater
than the Earth's escape velocity, v
Rockets launched from the Earth's surface do not need to achieve escape velocity to
reach their orbit around the Earth
This is because:
They are continuously given energy through fuel and thrust to help them move
Less energy is needed to achieve orbit than to escape from Earth's gravitational
field
The escape velocity is not the velocity needed to escape the planet but to escape the
planet's gravitational field altogether
This could be quite a large distance away from the planet

Worked Example
Calculate the escape velocity at the surface of the Moon given that its density is 3340
kg m-3 and has a mass of 7.35 × 1022 kg. Newton's Gravitational Constant = 6.67 × 10-11
N m2 kg-2
Answer:

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 10
 Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When writing the definition of escape velocity, avoid terms such as 'gravity' or the
'gravitational pull / attraction' of the planet. It is best to refer to its gravitational field.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 11
 Geostationary Orbits
Your notes

Synchronous Orbits
A synchronous orbit is:
When an orbiting body has a time period equal to that of the body being orbited and in the
same direction of rotation as that body
These usually refer to satellites (the orbiting body) around planets (the body being
orbited)
The orbit of a synchronous satellite can be above any point on the planet's surface and in
any plane
When the plane of the orbit is directly above the equator, it is known as a
geosynchronous orbit

Geostationary Orbits
Geostationary Orbit
Many communication satellites around Earth follow a geostationary orbit
This is a specific type of orbit in which the satellite:
remains directly above the equator
is in the plane of the equator
always orbits at the same point above the Earth’s surface
moves from west to east (same direction as the Earth spins)
has an orbital period equal to Earth’s rotational period of 24 hours
A geostationary orbit is a special case of a geosynchronous orbit
All geosynchronous orbits have an orbital period of 24 hours, but they do not
necessarily orbit in the plane of the equator
Geostationary satellites are used for telecommunication transmissions (e.g. radio) and
television broadcasts
A base station on Earth sends the TV signal up to the satellite, where it is amplified and
broadcast back to the ground to the desired locations
The satellite receiver dishes on the surface must point towards the same point in the sky
Since the geostationary orbits of the satellites are fixed, the receiver dishes can be
fixed too

Low Orbits

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 12
Some satellites are in low orbits, which means their altitude is closer to the Earth's
surface
Your notes
One example of this is a polar orbit, where the satellite orbits around the north and south
poles of the Earth
Low orbits are useful for taking high-quality photographs of the Earth's surface. This
could be used for:
Weather
Military applications

Geostationary satellite in orbit

Worked Example
The table gives data for two types of satellite, a low-Earth orbit (LEO) and a
geostationary orbit

Orbit type T / min h / km

LEO 89 250

Geostationary X Y

For the geostationary orbit, calculate

(i) the orbital period X in minutes.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 13
(ii) the height Y above the Earth's surface that a geostationary satellite will orbit in km.
Answer: Your notes
Part (i)
Step 1: Convert the time period from seconds to minutes
The period of a geostationary orbit is X = 24 hrs
The period of a geostationary orbit is X = 24 × 60 = 1440 minutes
Part (ii)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Period of the LEO, TL = 89 min
Period of a geostationary orbit, TG = 1440 min
Height above Earth of the LEO, hL = 250 km
Radius of the Earth, R = 6.37 × 106 m (from the data sheet)
Step 2: Recall the relationship between orbital period and radius

Orbital period T is related to the radius r of the orbit by T 2 ∝ r3

Step 3: Convert the proportional relationship into an equation

T G2 rG3
T 2L
= r 3L

⎛ TG ⎞
2
rG3 = r 3L ⎜⎜⎜
⎜

TL
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟

⎝ ⎠

⎛ TG ⎞
2 ⎛ TG ⎞
2 3
rG = 3
⎜
r 3L ⎜⎜⎜
TL
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
= rL ⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
TL
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Step 4: Evaluate a final value for Y

Orbital radius of LEO:
rL = R + h L = 6 . 37 × 106 +( ) ( 250 × 103 ) = 6 . 62 × 106 m
Orbital radius of geostationary:
1440 ⎞⎟2
rG = 6 . 62 ×
( 106 )
⎛
⎜
⎜
89 ⎠
⎟
3
= 4 . 235 × 107 m
⎝

Height above the Earth's surface:

( .
Y = 4 235 107 ×6 37 ) − . × 106 = 3 . 6 × 107 m
( )

Height above the Earth's surface: Y = 36 000 km

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 14
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Make sure to memorise the key features of a geostationary orbit, since this is a Your notes
common exam question. Remember:
Equatorial orbit
Moves west to east
Period of 24 hours
You will also be expected to remember that the time period of the orbit is 24 hours for
calculations on a geostationary satellite.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 15