Module

 5  
 
Behavioral  Learning  Theories  and  Approaches  to  Learning  
 
At  the  end  of  this  module,  you  will  be  able  to:  
1.  compare  and  contrast  various  approaches  to  learning  and  describe  how  they  are  
manifested  in  the  classroom;  
2.  apply  behavior  analysis  in  teaching  child  and  adolescent  learners  across  the  curriculum  
areas;  and  
3.  make  connections,  using  knowledge  on  current  research  literature,  between  behavioral  
learning  theories  and  developmentally  appropriate  teaching  approaches  suited  to  learner’s  
gender,  needs,  strengths,  interests,  and  experiences.    
 
 
What  is  Learning?  
Learning  has  been  defined  in  numerous  ways  by  many  theorists,  researchers  and  educational  
practitioners.  Although  universal  agreement  on  any  single  definition  is  nonexistent,  many  
definitions  employ  common  elements.  The  following  definition  by  Shuell  (as  interpreted  by  
Schunk,  1991)  incorporates  these  main  ideas:  “Learning  is  an  enduring  change  in  behavior,  or  
in  the  capacity  to  behave  in  a  given  fashion,  which  results  from  practice  or  other  forms  of  
experience”  (p.  2)  (Stowell,  2013).  
 
A.  Change  includes  either  an  increase  or  a  decrease  in  the  strength  of  a  behavior.  Example:  
You  can  learn  to  play  a  piano  louder  or  softer,  faster  or  slower.  
B.  Behavior  is  any  act  that  is  observable.  
C.  Experience  depends  on  our  interaction  with  the  environment.  Sometimes  experiences  do  
not  lead  to  lasting  changes  in  behavior.  (Example:  You  may  not  be  able  to  repeat  a  phone  
number  even  though  you’ve  called  it  many  times.)  
 
Several  different  theories  have  emerged  to  explain  how  people  learn.    Some  of  the  main  
theories  of  learning  include:  
• Behavioral  learning  theory  
• Cognitive  learning  theory  
• Constructivist  learning  theory  
• Social  learning  theory  
• Experiential  learning  theory  
 
Behavioral  Learning  Theories  
During  the  early  part  of  the  twentieth  century,  many  psychologists  became  increasingly  
interested  in  turning  psychology  into  a  more  scientific  endeavor.  These  psychologists,  
known  as  behaviorists,  argued  that  psychology  needed  to  study  only  things  that  could  be  
measured  and  quantified  to  be  more  scientific.  
 

  1  
A  few  different  behavioral  theories  emerged  to  explain  how  and  why  people  behave  the  
way  they  do.  
 
Behavioral  theories  are  centered  on  the  environmental  influences  on  the  learning  process.  
Environmental  influences  include  associations,  reinforcements,  and  punishments.  
 
According  to  behaviors,  we  don't  need  to  consider  the  internal  cognitive  processes  to  
understand  how  learning  works.  Instead,  we  must  examine  how  someone  interacts  with  
the  environment  to  see  how  information  is  acquired.    
 
Important  types  of  learning  in  behavioral  theory  include:  
 
1.  classical  conditioning  (which  involves  learning  by  association)  and    
[Link]  conditioning  (which  involves  learning  through  reinforcement  and  
punishment).  
 
Learning  Through  Association  
Classical  conditioning  suggests  that  learning  occurs  when  an  association  is  formed  between  
a  previously  neutral  stimulus  and  a  naturally  occurring  stimulus.  
 
In  experiments  conducted  by  Russian  physiologist  Ivan  Pavlov,  a  natural  stimulus  (food)  
was  paired  with  the  sound  of  a  bell.  The  dogs  would  naturally  salivate  in  response  to  food,  
but  after  multiple  associations,  the  dogs  would  salivate  to  the  sound  of  the  bell  alone.  
 
In  classical  conditioning:  
 
Learning  occurs  by  forming  associations  between  naturally  occurring  stimuli  and  a  
previously  neutral  stimulus  
The  neutral  stimulus  must  occur  immediately  before  the  naturally  occurring  one  
Focuses  on  automatic,  naturally  occurring  behaviors  
Pavlov's  Dogs  and  the  Discovery  of  Classical  Conditioning  
Learning  Through  Reinforcement  
Operant  conditioning  is  a  type  of  associative  learning  that  involves  strengthening  or  
weakening  a  behavior  by  using  reinforcement  or  punishment.  
 
Operant  conditioning  was  first  described  by  the  behavioral  psychologist  B.F.  Skinner.  It  is  
sometimes  also  referred  to  as  Skinnerian  conditioning  and  instrumental  conditioning.  
Skinner  believed  that  classical  conditioning  simply  could  not  account  for  all  types  of  
learning  and  was  more  interested  in  learning  how  the  consequences  of  actions  influence  
behaviors.  
 
Like  classical  conditioning,  operant  conditioning  relies  on  forming  associations.  In  operant  
conditioning,  however,  associations  are  made  between  a  behavior  and  the  consequences  of  
that  behavior.  
 
In  operant  conditioning:  

  2  
  
Learning  occurs  when  behaviors  are  followed  by  either  reinforcement  or  punishment  
The  consequences  must  quickly  follow  the  behavior  
Focuses  on  voluntary  behaviors  
When  a  behavior  leads  to  a  desirable  consequence,  it  becomes  more  likely  that  the  
behavior  will  be  repeated  in  the  future.  The  behavior  becomes  less  likely  if  the  actions  lead  
to  a  negative  outcome.  
 
Gestalt-Insight Learning
The  three  main  exponents  of  the  Gestalt  theory  of  perception  were  Max  Wertheimer  
(1880–1943),  Kurt  Koffa  (1886–  1941)  and  Wolfgang  Kohler  (1887–1967),  who  
originally  studied  perception,  developed  the  principles  of  perception  resulting  in  
Gestalt  theory  of  learning.  The  Gestalt  theory  of  learning  proposes  that  people  see  
things  as  unified   wholes  and  not  as  separate  components  (Quinn,  2001).  
 
If  you  use  the  Gestalt  approach  in  teaching,  it  is  important  to  use  bright  visual  aids  and  
change  activities  at  frequent  intervals  so  that  you  hold  the  learners’  attention.  Quinn  
(2001)  suggests  that  the  teaching  should  be  for  insight  rather  than  just  giving  
information,  so  that  the  learner  has  an  ‘aha!’  moment  (meaning  ‘I  have  got  it’)  when  
learning  concepts.  
 
The  theory  of  Insight  Learning  was  first  proposed  by  German-­‐American  psychologist,  
Wolfgang  Köhler,  one  of  the  founders  of  Gestalt  psychology.  Insight  learning  is  among  
various  methods  of  Behavioral  learning  process,  which  is  a  fundamental  aspect  of  
Behavioral  Psychology  
 
The  psychologist  gained  fame  with  his  studies  on  cognitive  processing  involved  in  
problem-­‐solving  by  animals.  His  tests  in  Tenerife  in  the  1910s  with  chimpanzees  
suggested  that  these  animals  solved  problems  by  understanding  –   like  human  beings,  
instead  of  going  through  trial  and  error  process  stimulus  response  association  
 
What  is  insight  learning?  
The  sudden  realization  about  a  solution  to  a  problem.  This  is  not  to  be  confused  with  trial  
and  error  learning  where  more  careful  experimentation  is  involved.  
 
What  are  the  4  stages  of  insight  learning?  
The  four  stages  of  insight  learning  are  preparation,  incubation,  insight,  and  verification.  
Preparation-­‐  the  introduction  to  the  problem  as  well  as  the  materials  needed  to  solve  the  
problem.  
Incubation-­‐  the  subject  gives  up  while  still  subconsciously  thinking  about  the  problem.  
Insight-­‐  the  subject  reaches  a  breakthrough  about  the  answer  to  the  problem.  
Verification-­‐  the  subject  tests  the  theory  from  the  breakthrough  to  see  if  the  problem  can  
be  solved.  
 
What  is  an  example  of  insight  learning?  

  3  
Hearing  a  song  on  the  radio  for  the  first  time,  and  figuring  out  the  artist  singing  the  song  
based  on  the  sound  of  his  or  her  voice.  
Looking  for  one's  keys,  and  finding  them  after  remember  the  last  place  he  or  she  had  them.  
A  detective  solving  a  case  after  analyzing  the  evidence  closely.  
A  group  of  students  having  an  epiphany  after  seeing  no  results  in  a  science  experiment.  
 
 
Insight  Learning  and  Sultan  the  Chimpanzee  
 
Köhler  placed  a  chimpanzee  named  Sultan  inside  a  cage.  Sultan  grew  hungry  and  a  
bunch  of  banana  was  placed  just  outside  the  cage.  Sultan  was  provided  with  one  long  
and  another  short  bamboo  stick.  Neither  of  the  sticks  could  reach  the  banana  alone  and  
the  only  possible  way  to  reach  the  banana  was  to  join  the  two  sticks.  
 
Initially,  Sultan  showed  all  customary  reactions  that  a  chimpanzee  shows  inside  a  cage,  
and  gradually  tried  to  draw   the  banana  towards  him  with  the  sticks.  After  countless  
fruitless  efforts,  Sultan  nearly  gave  up,  but  as  he  was  playing  with  the  sticks,  he  
managed  to  touch  the  banana  by  pushing  a  stick  with  another  stick.  Sultan  accidentally  
managed  to  join  the  two  sticks  and  with  its  help,  it  pulled  the  banana  inside  the  cage.  
Sultan  immediately  grabbed  the  banana   when  faced  with  the  same  problem  next  day.  
 
Seeing  the  relationships  among  various  aspects  of  the  problems  is  described  as  learning  
by  insight.  
 
 
Cognitive  Learning  Theory  
The  cognitive  approach  to  learning  focuses  on  how  attention,  memory,  and  information  
processing  contribute  to  knowledge  acquisition.  Cognitive  learning  theory  explores  how  
the  thinking  process  itself  can  affect  learning.  That  means  it  also  explores  different  factors  
influencing  our  thinking,  such  as  internal  and  external  factors.  
Internal  factors  influencing  thinking  and  learning  include  concentration,  distraction,  and  
emotions.  External  factors  that  can  impact  how  we  think  include  our  physical  surroundings  
and  our  society's  value  of  the  information  itself.  
 
One  of  the  best-­‐known  cognitive  learning  theories  is  Piaget's  theory  of  cognitive  
development.  Piaget  described  four  stages  of  intellectual  development  that  occur  in  
childhood.  
 
These  four  stages  explain  how  a  child  learns  about  the  world  and  processes  information.  
 
Sensorimotor  stage:  During  this  period  of  cognitive  development,  children  learn  about  the  
world  primarily  through  their  senses.  
Preoperational  stage:  This  stage  is  marked  by  the  emergence  of  language  and  learning  
through  pretend  play.  

  4  
Concrete  operations  stage:  During  this  period,  kids  begin  to  utilize  logic  but  still  think  
about  the  world  very  concretely.  
Formal  operations  stage:  At  this  point,  kids  begin  to  use  deductive  reasoning  and  can  
understand  abstract,  hypothetical  ideas.  
 
 
Constructivist  Learning  Theory  
The  constructivist  approach  to  learning  characterizes  learners  as  active  participants  in  the  
process  who  play  a  role  in  constructing  their  knowledge.  Constructivist  theories  of  learning  
were  influenced  by  the  work  of  psychologist  Lev  Vygotsky.  
Vygotsky's  sociocultural  theory  stressed  the  importance  of  collaboration  and  social  
interaction  in  the  learning  process.  
 
Two  important  concepts  of  constructivist  learning  theories  are  the  more  knowledgeable  
other  and  the  zone  of  proximal  development:  
 
More  knowledgeable  other:  Vygotsky  described  the  more  knowledgeable  other  as  anyone  
with  an  understanding  or  ability  level  higher  than  the  learner.  This  can  often  be  a  teacher  
or  adult,  but  it  can  also  refer  to  peers  with  more  knowledge  about  a  specific  concept,  task,  
or  process.  
Zone  of  proximal  development:  Vygotsky  described  the  zone  of  proximal  development  as  
the  range  of  knowledge  or  ability  that  a  person  can  display  with  the  help  of  the  more  
knowledgeable  other,  but  that  they  are  not  yet  capable  of  performing  independently.  
Gradually  expanding  this  zone  is  how  people  can  learn  and  improve  their  skills  over  time.  
 
 
Social  Learning  Theory  
Psychologist  Albert  Bandura  suggested  that  much  of  learning  takes  place  through  
observation.  Children  observe  the  actions  of  those  around  them,  particularly  caregivers  and  
siblings,  and  then  imitate  these  behaviors.  
 
In  social  learning:  
 
Learning  occurs  through  observation  
Observations  can  take  place  at  any  time  
Focuses  on  the  give-­‐and-­‐take  interaction  between  social,  cognitive,  and  environmental  
influences  
In  his  well-­‐known  Bobo  doll  experiment,  Bandura  revealed  just  how  easily  children  could  
be  led  to  imitate  even  negative  actions.  Children  who  watched  a  video  of  an  adult  beating  
up  a  large  inflatable  doll  were  likelier  to  copy  those  actions  when  given  a  chance.  
 
Bandura  noted  that  learning  something  does  not  necessarily  result  in  a  behavior  change.  
Children  frequently  learn  new  things  through  observation  but  might  not  engage  in  such  
behaviors  until  they  need  or  are  motivated  to  utilize  the  information.  
 

  5  
Experiential  Learning  Theory  
This  learning  theory  focuses  on  learning  via  hands-­‐on  experience.  David  Allen  Kolb  (1939-­‐  
),  American  "organizational"  sociologist  and  educational  theorist,  is  best  known  for  his  
research  into  experiential  learning  and  learning  styles.  Kolb  states  that  experiential  
learning  is  a  process  where  knowledge  results  from  making  meaning  as  a  result  of  
direct  experience,  i.e.,  or  simply  "learning  from  experience."   His  experiential  learning  
theory  is  a  holistic  or  “meta-­‐view”  of  learning  that  is  a  combination  of  experience,  
perception,  cognition,  and  behavior.  
 
Experiential  learning  is  a  cyclical  process  that  capitalizes  on  the  participants'  
experiences  for  acquisition  of   knowledge.  This  process  involves  setting  goals,  thinking,  
planning,  experimentation,  reflection,  observation,  and  review.  By  engaging  in  these  
activities,  learners  construct  meaning  in  a  way  unique  to  themselves,  incorporating  the  
cognitive,  emotional,  and  physical  aspects  of  learning.  
 
"Tell  me,  and  I  will  forget.  Show  me,  and  I  may  remember.  Involve  me,  and  I  will  
understand."  (Confucius  Circa  450  BC)  
The  focus  of  this  theory  is  experience,  which  serves  as  the  main  driving  force  in  
learning,  as  knowledge  is  constructed  through  the  transformative  reflection  on  one's  
experience  (Baker,  Jensen,  &  Kolb,  2002).  
Applications   of   Experiential   Learning   Theory  
 
There  are  currently  many  applications  of  Experiential  Learning  Theory  within  
educational  systems,  especially  on  college  campuses.  These  examples  include  field  
courses,  study  abroad,  and  mentor-­‐based  internships  (Millenbah,  Campa,  
&Winterstein,   2000).  Additional  examples  of  well-­‐established  experiential  learning  
applications  include  cooperative  education,  internships  and  service  learning.  There  are  
also  numerous  examples  of  computer-­‐based  interventions  based  on  experience.  
 
Educational   Implications  
 
Experiential  Learning  Theory  outlines  the  manner  in  which  learners  gain  knowledge  
and  understanding  through  experiences.  Though  some  may  debate  which  steps  are  
present  in  experiential  learning,  there  is  no  debate  about  the  worth  of  experience  in  
learning.  Through  experience,  learners  are  able  to  construct  firsthand  a  sense  of  
understanding  of  the  events  going  on  around  them.  Educators  have  begun  to  harness  
the  power  of  experience  in  study  abroad  courses,  field  studies,  role  plays,  and  
numerous  computer-­‐based  interventions.  The  future  could  bring  even  more  
applications  of  this  theory,  a  possibility  as  exciting  for  the  learner  as  much  as  it  is  the  
facilitator.  
 
 
 
 
 

  6  
Behavioral  Analysis  in  Education  
 
Behavior  analysis  is  rooted  in  the  behaviorist  tradition  and  utilizes  learning  principles  to  
bring  about  behavior  change.  Some  branches  of  psychology  strive  to  understand  
underlying  cognitions,  but  behavioral  psychology  is  not  concerned  with  mentalistic  causes  
of  behavior  and  instead  focuses  on  the  behavior  itself.  
 
Behavior  analysis  has  robust  practical  applications  in  mental  health  treatment  and  
organizational  psychology,  particularly  when  focused  on  helping  children  and  adults  learn  
new  behaviors  or  reduce  problem  behaviors.  Behavior  analysis  is  often  used  to  build  
abilities  in  children  and  adults  with  disabilities,  increase  academic  skills  in  school  settings,  
and  enhance  employee  performance.  
 
Behavior  management  strategy  is  introduced  to  help  the  teachers  in  their  relationship  with  
their  students.  This  is  a  strategy  that  helps  to  manage  or  change  behavior  of  student  in  
schools,  it  is  a  classroom-­‐based  or  individual  child-­‐focused  interventions.  
 
KINDS  OF  BEHAVIORAL  MANAGEMENT  STRATEGY  
 
Classroom  strategies  –  This  is  an  effective  teaching  and  positively  functioning  classrooms  
with  low  levels  of  disruptive  behavior  that  requires  planning  and  consistency.  
 
Setting  Events  –  This  can  temporarily  change  the  effectiveness  of  a  reinforcer  or  punisher,  
which  can  then  change  a  student’s  present  behaviors.    Setting  events  may  include  things  
like  environmental  factors,  physiological  factors,  or  social  factors.  
 
Use  Reinforcement  –  (not  just  rewards)  Schools  often  have  with  great  intention  or  systems  
in  place  to  reward  positive  and  appropriate  behaviors  
 
Applications  of  Behavior  Analysis  in  the  Classroom  
 
Token  Economy.  Little  girls  hand  covered  in  star  stickers.  A  token  economy  approach  is  all  
about  reinforcers.  It’s  a  system  of  reinforcement  that  uses  symbols  or  tokens  than  can  be  
exchanged  for  other  reinforcers,  much  like  how  money  works.  Common  tokens  are  not  
money,  however.  Teachers  can  use  stickers,  points,  or  small  prizes  like  erasers.  Students  
know  that  certain  behaviors  will  earn  them  tokens  (and  others  won’t),  so  they’re  motivated  
to  perform  positive  behaviors  and  discouraged  from  negative  ones.  These  reinforced  
behaviors  in  the  classroom  could  include  paying  attention,  turning  in  assignments  on  time,  
or  cleaning  up.  
 
Contingent  Observation.  Essentially,  contingent  observation  is  a  mild  form  of  timeout.  This  
is  used  for  young  children  often  in  preschool  and  day-­‐care  environments.  The  goal  is  to  
teach  the  child  to  play  or  work  in  a  group  without  disrupting  other  children.  When  a  child  
behaves  inappropriately  in  the  social  group,  they’re  taught  a  more  appropriate  behavior  
and  made  to  sit  a  few  feet  outside  of  the  group  where  they  can  still  see  what’s  going  on  (or  
the  reinforcing  activity)  for  a  brief  time  before  they’re  invited  to  return.  Contingent  

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observation  is  considered  effective  in  reducing  behaviors  such  as  aggression  and  
disruption.  
 
 
Modern  Views  of  Learning  Theories  
Such  theories  are  typically  not  used  in  isolation.  Instead,  modern  educators  and  
psychologists  draw  on  information  from  a  variety  of  theories  to  develop  effective  
educational  strategies  and  psychological  interventions  that  help  people  acquire  new  skills  
and  knowledge.  
 
For  example,  while  behavioral  approaches  are  no  longer  as  dominant  as  they  once  were,  
they  still  play  an  important  role  in  educational  and  therapeutic  settings.  For  example,  
teachers  continue  to  use  behavioral  strategies  such  as  positive  reinforcement  and  token  
economies  to  help  shape  the  learning  process.  
The  goal  of  learning  more  about  these  learning  theories  is  to  help  adapt  educational  and  
therapeutic  interventions  to  best  suit  an  individual's  needs.  
 
All  learners  are  different,  so  drawing  on  various  approaches,  such  as  incorporating  
behavioral,  constructivist,  and  experiential  strategies  can  help  maximize  learning  
opportunities  and  improve  educational  outcomes.  
 
 

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