Module 2

Mathematical Language and Symbols

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Discuss the language symbols, and the conventions of mathematics;

2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly; and
4. Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

Lesson 1. The Language of Mathematics

Can you imagine how you would be able to communicate with someone who
speaks an entirely different language from you? That can be done through sign
language. Language facilitates communication and meaning making. It allows people to
express themselves and maintain their identity. Indeed, language bridges the gap
among people from different cultures without prejudice to their background and
upbringing.

Imagine the following scenario:

You’re in math class, and the instructor passes a piece of paper to each student.
It is announced that the paper contains Study Strategies for Students of Mathematics;
you are to read it and make comments. Upon glancing at the paper, however, you
observe that it is written in a foreign language that you do not understand!

Is the instructor being fair? Of course not. Indeed, the instructor is probably trying
to make a point. Although the ideas in the paragraph may be simple, there is no access
to the ideas without a knowledge of the language in which the ideas are expressed. This
situation has a very strong analogy in mathematics. People frequently have trouble

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understanding mathematical ideas: not necessarily because the ideas are difficult, but
because they are being presented in a foreign language—the language of mathematics.
The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that
mathematicians like to express. It can be learned, but requires the efforts needed to
learn any foreign language.

Not everyone agrees that mathematics is a language. Some definitions of

"language" describe it as a spoken form of communication. Mathematics is a written
form of communication. While it may be easy to read a simple addition statement aloud
(e.g., x + 3 = 8), it's much harder to read other equations aloud. Also, the spoken
statements would be rendered in the speaker's native language, not a universal tongue.
Why Math is a Language?

 In order to be considered a language, a system of communication must have

vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and people who use and understand it.
 Mathematics meets this definition of a language. Linguists who don't consider
math a language cite its use as a written rather than spoken form of
communication.
 Math is a universal language. The symbols and organization to form equations
are the same in every country of the world.

Characteristics of Mathematical Language

a. precise – it means it is able to make very fine distinctions or definitions among

a set of mathematical symbols
b. concise – because a mathematician can express long expositions or
sentences briefly using language of mathematics
c. powerful – one can express complex thoughts with relative ease

Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining these
words into complete thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no exception. As a first

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step in discussing the mathematical language, we will make a very broad classification
between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics (used to name mathematical objects of interest)
and the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state complete mathematical thoughts).

Lesson 2. Expressions vs. Sentences

In English, nouns are used to name things we want to talk about (like people,
places, and things); whereas sentences are used to state complete thoughts. A typical
English sentence has at least one noun, and at least one verb. For example, consider
the sentence Melody loves mathematics. Here, ‘Melody’ and ‘mathematics’ are nouns;
‘loves’ is a verb.
The mathematical analogue of a ‘noun’ will be called an expression. Thus, an
expression is a name given to a mathematical object of interest. Whereas in English we
need to talk about people, places, and things, we’ll see that mathematics has much
different ‘objects of interest’. The mathematical analogue of a ‘sentence’ will also be
called a sentence. A mathematical sentence, just like an English sentence, must state
a complete thought.

Since people frequently need to work with numbers, these are the most common
type of mathematical expression. And, numbers have lots of different names.
For example, the expressions 7, 5 + 2, 14 ÷ 2, (8 − 2) + 1, ( 3 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1) all look
different, but are all just different names for the same number. English has the same
concept: synonyms are words that have the same (or nearly the same) meaning.
However, this ‘same object, different name’ idea plays a much more fundamental role in
mathematics than in English.

Next, some ideas regarding sentences are explored. Just as English sentences
have verbs, so do mathematical sentences. In the mathematical sentence ‘ 15 - 4 = 11 ’,
the verb is ‘ = ’. If you read the sentence as ‘fifteen minus four is equal to eleven’, then
it’s easy to ‘hear’ the verb. Indeed, the equal sign ‘ = ’ is one of the most popular
mathematical verbs.

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 Sentences can be true or false but not both. The notion of truth (i.e., the
property of being true or false) is of fundamental importance in the mathematical
language. For example: Pampanga is the capital of the Philippines. (False)
1+2=3 (True)
x+1=0 (Sometimes true/Sometimes false, since not all
values of x satisfy the equation)

DEFINITIONS:

An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun;

it is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a
mathematical object of interest. An expression does NOT state a complete
thought; in particular, it does not make sense to ask if an expression is true
or false.

A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English

sentence; it is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a
complete thought. It makes sense to ask about the TRUTH of a sentence:
Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true/sometimes false?

Lesson 3. Conventions in Mathematical Language

Languages have

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In English, for example, it is conventional to capitalize proper names (like ‘Cyrus’ and
‘Philippines’). This convention makes it easy for a reader to distinguish between a
common noun (like ‘carol’, a Christmas song) and a proper noun (like ‘Carol’).
Mathematics also has its conventions, which help readers distinguish between different
types of mathematical expressions.

A convention is "just the way a thing is done" Unfortunately, sometimes

conventions in math are glossed over, and you're expected somehow "to just know"
what they are.
Examples of conventions in mathematics are as follows:
 In geometrical pictures (or "figures", in the parlance), points are
customarily labelled with capital Latin letters such as A, B, and C. Straight
lines, and especially segments, are often labelled with lower-case Latin
letters, such as a, b, and c, but straight lines are sometimes also labelled
as subscripted ells, such as L1 for "line one".
 Corners of figures, such as the corners of squares, are called "vertices"
(VURR-tuh-seez); the singular is "vertex" (VURR-teks).

If the meaning is clear, an angle may be referred to by just the point at its
vertex, such as ∠C for the right angle show here:

Properly, angles should be named completely, such as ∠BCA.

Lesson 4. Sets and Binary Operations

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 A set is a collection of objects. Objects in the collection are called elements of
the set. Sets are usually designated with capital letters. Elements of a set are usually
designated with lower case letters. For instance, we might talk of the set B. An
individual element of B might then be designated by b.

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Notation
1. The roster method of specifying a set consists of surrounding the collection of
elements with braces.
Example: the set of counting numbers from 1 to 5 would be written as
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

A variation of the simple roster method uses the ellipsis ( … ) when the
pattern is obvious and the set is large.

Examples: {1, 3, 5, 7, … , 9007} is the set of odd counting numbers less

than or equal to 9007.

{1, 2, 3, … } is the set of all counting numbers.

2. Set builder notation has the general form {variable | descriptive statement }.

The vertical bar (in set builder notation) is always read as “such that”. Set
builder notation is frequently used when the roster method is either
inappropriate or inadequate.
Example:
{x | x < 6 and x is a counting number} is the set of all counting
numbers less than 6. Note this is the same set as {1,2,3,4,5}.

{x | x is a fraction whose numerator is 1 and whose

denominator
is a counting number }. ------ {1/1,1/2,1/3,1/4,…}
Note: Set builder notation will become much more concise and precise as
more information is introduced.

3. Notation “ Is an element of”

If x is an element of the set A, we write this as x  A. x  A means x is not
an element of A.

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Examples:
If A = {3, 17, 2 } then 3  A, 17  A, 2  A and 5  A.

If A = {x | x is a prime number } then 5  A, and 6  A.

The set with no elements is called the empty set or the null set and is
designated with the symbol  or { }.
Examples:
The set of all pencils in your briefcase might indeed be the
empty set.

The set of even prime numbers greater than 2 is an empty

set.

The set {x | x < 3 and x > 5) is the empty set.

The set {x | x < 3 or x > 5}; {3 > x > 5} ; (2,1,0, -1, …) or

(6,7,8,9, ….).

The set A is a subset of the set B if every element of A is an element of B.

If A is a subset of B and B contains elements which are not in A, then A is a
proper subset of B.

4. Notation – subset
If A is a subset of B we write A  B to designate that relationship.
If A is a proper subset of B we write A  B to designate that
relationship.
If A is not a subset of B we write A  B to designate that
relationship.

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 Examples: The set A = { } is a subset of the set B = {1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6} because each element of A is an
element of B.
We write A  B to designate this relationship between
A and B. – True
We write A  B to designate this relationship between
A and B. – False
We write B  B to designate this relationship between
B and B. – False
We write A  B to designate this relationship between
A and B. – True

1) B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} – Mother or Universal set

A={ }
C = {1,2,3}
Number of Subsets (B) = 2n = (2)6 = 64

{1, 2, 3}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} –True ------- C  B

{1, 2, 3}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} – True ------- C  B

{ }  {1,2,3,4,5,6} – False ------ A  B

{ }  (1,2,3,4,5,6} – True ------ A  B

{1,2,3,4,5,6}  (1,2,3,4,5,6} – True

{1,2,3,4,5,6}  (1,2,3,4,5,6} – False

ᶲ  ᶲ - False
ᶲ  ᶲ - True
D = {4,5}

Subsets of D = 2n = 22 = 4 = {4}, {5}, { }, {4,5}

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E = {1,2,3}

Subsets of E = 23 = 8 = {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, { }, {1,2,3}

If B is the mother set and A is a subset of B, then the cardinality of n(A) < n(B) in order
to name it a proper subset. The improper subsets of a given set are always the empty
set and the given set itself. Except for empty set whose improper subset is the empty or
null set itself.

Power Set of E = [{1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, { }, {1,2,3}]

A. Let A = { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 }, B = { 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 }, C = { 0 }, and D = {3,2,1,5,4} . State if the

given statement is TRUE or FALSE.

1. A B 6. { 1 } ∈ A ; 1∈ A

2. n(C) = 0 7. A ⊂ B

3. A and B are disjoint sets. 8. { 1 } ⊂ A

4. A and C are joint sets. 9. A = B

5. ∅ ⊆ C ; ∅⊂ C 10. 0 ∈ C

11. A = D

B. Let A = { a , b , c , d }. List all the subsets of A. = 24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16.

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Binary Operations

The word "binary" means composed of two pieces. A binary operation is simply a
rule for combining two values to create a new value. The most widely known binary
operations are those learned in elementary school: addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division on various sets of numbers.

A binary operation on a set is a calculation involving two

elements of the set to produce another element of the set.

Let's take a look at some creative binary operations.

Situation 1:
It is possible to define "new" binary operations. Consider this example:

A new math (binary) operation, using the symbol Φ, is defined to be

a Φ b = 3a + b,
where a and b are real numbers.

Question Explanation

1. What is 8 Φ 3? Substitute the values of a and b into the right-hand side

of the definition, namely 3a + b. a = 8 b=3
8 Φ 3 = 3a + b = 3•8 + 3 = 24 + 3 = 27

2. Is a Φ b commutative Does a Φ b = b Φ a for all possible values?

? 3a + b = 3b + a? Not true for all real numbers.
If a = 8 and b = 2; 3•8 + 2 ≠ 3•2 + 8; 26 ≠ 14.
The operation Φ is not commutative for real numbers.

3. Is a Φ b associative?
Does a Φ (b Φ c) = (a Φ b) Φ c ? Given: (3a + b)
a Φ (3b + c) = (3a + b) Φ c ?

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 3a + (3b + c) = 3(3a + b) + c ? Not true for all real.
If a = 2, b = 3, c = 4; 3•2 + (3•3 + 4) ≠ 3(3•2 + 3) + 4;
6 + 13 ≠ 3(9) + 4; 19 ≠ 31.
The operation Φ is not associative for real numbers

Situation 2:
Sometimes, a binary operation on a finite set (a set with a limited number of
elements) is displayed in a table which shows how the operation is to be
performed.
A binary operation, *, is defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}. The table at the right
shows the 16 possible answers using this operation. To read the table: read the
first value from the left hand column and the second value from the top row. The
answer is the intersection point.

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 Question Explanation

1. What is 2 4? 2 4 = 2 (where the row and column intersect)

2. Is commutative Check: 3 1=1 3, yes, 2 = 2.

? Unfortunately, you now need to check all
of the other possibilities. There is,
however, a shorter way ...
draw a diagonal line from the upper left corner to the lower
right corner of the table. If the table is symmetric with
respect to this line, the table is commutative.

3. What is the identity Find the single element that will always return the original
element value. The identity element is 4. You will have found the
identity element when all of the values in its row and its
for the operation ?
column are the same as the row and column headings.

4. Is associative for Does 4 (3 2) = (4 3) 2?

these values?
4 (4) = (3) 2
4 (3 2) = (4 4 = 4 YES, this example is associative.

3) 2

Unfortunately, if you were asked the general question, "Is associative?", instead
of just checking one single case as shown in #4, you would have to
check ALL possible arrangements. Unlike the commutative property, there is NO
shortcut for checking associativity when working with a table. But remember, it only
takes one arrangement which does not work to show that associativity fails.

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Lesson 5. Elementary Logic

In many cases, the disagreement lies on not being able to present sound
arguments based on facts, or the failure to convince the contending party using logical
arguments. To avoid this in mathematics and to uphold certainty in the validity of
mathematical statements, mathematics employs the powerful language of logic in
asserting truths of statements.

Propositions
A proposition is a statement which is either true(T) or false(F).
Example: Can you tell which are true, or which are false?
a. 9 is a prime number
b. 5 + 8 = 13
c. x2 + y2 ≥ 0
d. 10 < - 6

Answers:
a. False. Prime numbers have no other factors other than 1 and itself. 9
can have the factors 3 x 3
b. True
c. True
d. False. A negative number is always less than a positive number.

Negation

A statement is a negation of another if the word is not introduced in the

negative statement. Let P be a proposition. The negation of P is “not P” or ¬P.
The following is its truth table:

P ¬P

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 T F
F T

Another example,
What is the negation of the following statements?
a. P: √ 3 is a rational number.
b. R: 8 is an odd number.
Answers:
a. √ 3 is not a rational number or is irrational. In symbols ¬ P
b. 8 is not an odd number or 8 is an even number. In symbols, ¬ R.

Logical Connectives
A logical connective is the mathematical equivalent of a conjunction in
English. The most common conjunctions in mathematics are “and” and “or”,
which are denoted by Ʌ and V, respectively.
If two statements are joined like P and Q, denoted by P Ʌ Q, then P Ʌ Q is
a statement that is true if and only if both P and Q are true. Another logical
connective is the word “or”. The statement P V Q is true if and only if P is true or
Q is true, which is taken to include the case when they are both true.

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The following are truth tables:
“AND” – Conjunction
P Q PɅQ
F F F
F T F
T F F
T T T

“OR” - Disjunction
P Q PVQ
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T

Examples:
1) 2 is an even number and prime number. True
2 is not an even number and prime number. – False
2 is an even number and not a prime number. – False
2 is not an even number and not a prime number. - False

2) Leni is a Bicolana or a Filipino. – True

Leni is not a Bicolana or a Filipino. – True
Leni is a Bicolana or not a Filipino – True
Leni is not a Bicolana nor not a Filipino - False

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Implications
An implication (also known as a conditional statement) is a type of
compound statement that is formed by joining two simple statements with the
logical implication connective or operator. The symbol that is used to represent
the logical implication operator is an arrow pointing to the right, thus a rightward
arrow.

When two simple statements P and Q are joined by the implication

operator, we have:
P→Q.

where P is known as the hypothesis

where Q is known as the conclusion

There are many ways how to read the conditional P→Q. Below are some
of the few common ones.
P→Q is read as “P implies Q“.
P→Q is read as “If P then Q“.
P→Q is read as “P only if Q“.
P→Q is read as “If P is sufficient for Q“.
P→Q is read as “Q is necessary for P“.
P→Q is read as “Q follows from P“.
P→Q is read as “Q if P“

Remember: The truth value of the compound statement P→Q is true when both
the simple statements P and Q are true. More so, P→Q is always true if P is
false. The only scenario that P→Q is false happens
when P is true, and Q is false.

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 A double implication (also known as a biconditional statement) is a
type of compound statement that is formed by joining two simple statements with
the biconditional operator. A biconditional statement is really a combination of a
conditional statement and its [Link] biconditional operator is denoted by a
double-headed arrow.

When you join two simple statements (also known as molecular

statements) with the biconditional operator, we get:

P↔Q

P↔Q is read as “P if and only if Q.” (iff)

where P is known as the antecedent

where Q is known as the consequent

Remember: The truth value of the biconditional statement P ↔Q is true when both
simple statements P and Q are both true or both false. Otherwise,
P↔Q is false.

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Examples:

1) (P v Q) → (Q ᴧ P)

P Q PvQ QᴧP (P v Q) → (Q ᴧ P)

T T T T T

T F T F F

F T T F F

F F F F T

2) (P → Q) V (Q ↔ P)

P Q P→Q Q↔P (P v Q) V (Q ᴧ P)

T T T T T

T F F F F

F T T F T

F F T T T

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Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive

Given an if-then statement "if p , then q ," we can create three related
statements:

A conditional statement consists of two parts, a hypothesis in the “if”

clause and a conclusion in the “then” clause. For instance, “If it rains, then they
cancel school.” "It rains" is the hypothesis."They cancel school" is the conclusion.

To form the converse of the conditional statement, interchange the

hypothesis and the conclusion.

The converse of "If it rains, then they cancel school" is "If they cancel
school, then it rains."

To form the inverse of the conditional statement, take the negation of both
the hypothesis and the conclusion.

The inverse of “If it rains, then they cancel school” is “If it does not rain,
then they do not cancel school.”

To form the contrapositive of the conditional statement, interchange the

hypothesis and the conclusion of the inverse statement.

The contrapositive of "If it rains, then they cancel school" is "If they do not
cancel school, then it does not rain."

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 Statement/
If not p, then If not q, then
If p, then q.
Conditional not q. not p

If not q, then If not p, then

Converse If q, then p.
not p. not q.

If not p, then
Inverse If p, then q. If q, then p
not q.

If not q, then
Contrapositive If q, then p. If p, then q
not p.

If the statement is true, then the contrapositive is also logically true. If the
converse is true, then the inverse is also logically true.

Example 1:

If two angles are congruent, then they have the True

Statement
same measure.
If two angles have the same measure, then they True
Converse
are congruent.
If two angles are not congruent, then they do not True
Inverse
have the same measure.
If two angles do not have the same measure, True
Contrapositive
then they are not congruent.

In the above example, since the hypothesis and conclusion are equivalent, all
four statements are true. But this will not always be the case!

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Example 2:

If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then it has two pairs of True

Statement
parallel sides.
If a quadrilateral has two pairs of parallel sides, then it is False
Converse
a rectangle.
If a quadrilateral is not a rectangle, then it does not have False
Inverse
two pairs of parallel sides.
If a quadrilateral does not have two pairs of parallel True
Contrapositive
sides, then it is not a rectangle.

Quantifiers

Words like “all“, “some”, “any”, “every” and “nothing” are called
quantifiers.

Two quantifiers:

1) for all ( or for every ) also called universal quantifier

2) there exists ( or for some )also called existential quantifier

In symbols:

1) “ for all “ stands for “ ∀ “

2) “ there exists ” stands for “Ǝ “

Example of universal quantifier:

For each real number x, x2 > 0

In symbol: ( ∀ x ϵ R) ( x2 > 0 ) – False

X = 1 x2 > 0 (1)2 > 0 1 > 0, x = 0 (0)2 > 0; 0 not greater than 0

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Example of existential quantifier:

There exists an integer x such that 3x – 2 = 0

In symbol: (Ǝx ϵ Z) (3x – 2 = 0) – False

x = 1; 3x – 2 = 0; 3(1) – 2 = 0; 3 – 2 = 1

(Ǝx ϵ Z) (2x – 2 = 0) – True

X = 1; 2x – 2 = 0; 2(1) – 2 = 0; 2 – 2 = 0

(Ǝx ϵ Z) (3x – 3 = 0) – True

X = 1; 3(1) – 3 = 0

R – Real Numbers (Set of irrational and rational numbers)

π , √ 2 – Irrational Numbers (Non-terminating and non-repeating decimals)

Q – Rational Numbers (a/b); where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0. (1/2, 3, -1.5, -23,
1.33333…, - 0.213213213…)

Z – Integers {...,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…}

W – Whole Numbers {0,1,2,3,…}

N – Natural/Counting {1,2,3,4,…}

N ,Q,Z,C
Guide Questions:

1. What is a mathematical language?

2. What are the characteristics of a mathematics language?
3. Why mathematics a language?
4. Define conventions of mathematics
5. What is elementary logic?

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Key Points/Summary
1. Mathematics is a universal language. The symbols and organization to form
equations are the same in every country of the world.

2. Mathematics language is characterized as:

a. precise – it means it is able to make very fine distinctions or definitions among
a set of mathematical symbols
b. concise – because a mathematician can express long expositions or
sentences briefly using language of mathematics
c. powerful – one can express complex thoughts with relative ease

3. An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of
interest. An expression does NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does not
make sense to ask if an expression is true or false.
A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. It makes
sense to ask about the TRUTH of a sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes
true/sometimes false?

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4. A convention is "just the way a thing is done" Unfortunately, sometimes conventions
in math are glossed over, and you're expected somehow "to just know" what they
are.

5. A binary operation is simply a rule for combining two values to create a new value.
The most widely known binary operations are those learned in elementary school:
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on various sets of numbers.

6. Important elements of elementary logic are propositions, quantifiers, negations,

logical connectives and implications.

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Assessment 1

Name _________________________________ Year & Sec ________

Date _______________ Score ____________

A. If possible, classify the entries in the list below as: • an English noun, or a
Mathematical expression • an English sentence, or a mathematical sentence.
In each sentence (English or mathematical), circle the verb. Then write the truthness
(true, false, sometimes true/sometimes false) of each.

1. cat ______________ _____________

2. 2 ______________ _____________

3. The word ‘cat’ begins with the letter ‘k. ’ ______________ _____________

4. 1 + 2 = 4 ______________ _____________

5. 5 − 3 ______________ _____________

6. 5 − 3 = 2 ______________ _____________

7. The cat is black. ______________ _____________

8. Hat sat bat. ______________ _____________

9. x = 1 ______________ _____________

10. x − 1 = 0 ______________ _____________

11. t + 3 ______________ _____________

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12. t + 3 = 3 + t ______________ _____________

13. This sentence is false. ______________ _____________

14. x + 0 = x ______________ _____________

15. 1 · x = x ______________ _____________

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Assessment 2

Name ________________________________ Year & Sec ________

Date ____________________ Score ____________

Answer the following.

A. Translate each of the following sentences using mathematical symbols.

_________1. 8 is an integer.

_________2. x is a multiple of 6.

_________3. A belongs to both sets A and B.

_________4. The values of b ranges from -1 to 3.

_________5. The cube of a number is negative.

_________6. 12 is an even number.

_________7. 5 is an odd number.

_________8. The square of the difference between a and b is greater than thirty six.

_________9. ½ is a rational number.

________10. 7 is the principal square root of 49.

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B. Label the simple propositions with the capital letters P, Q, or R, then express each
compound sentence using logical symbols .

1. If x is an odd number, then x + 1 is even.

2. X2 + 1 ≠ 0

3. m ≤ n

4. 2 and 3 are the solutions of x2 – 5x + 6 = 0

5. Triangle XYZ is equilateral if and only if x = y = z

6. If a = b, then a + c = b + c

7. If a = b, and b =c, then a = c

C. Write the following statements in the symbolic form using the symbols ¬ , Ʌ, V, →, ↔

Let P: The sun is shining.

Q: It is raining.
R: The ground is wet.

1. if it is raining, then the sun is not shining.

2. It is raining and the ground is wet.

3. The ground is wet if and only if it is raining and the sun is shining.

4. The sun is shining or it is raining.

58
 5. The ground is not wet.

6. The ground is not wet if and only if the sun is shining.

D. Give the converse, inverse, and the contrapositive of the following implications.

1. If ᴫ is an irrational number then it is a number that goes on forever.

2. if x is the height of a box then it is a positive number.

3. If the year 2020 is a leap year then there has to be 366 days in that year.

4. If i is a complex number then it is not a real number.

5. If x is less than 0 then it is negative

6. If m is greater than 0 then it is positive.

7. If x is the weight of Maria then it is a positive number.

59
 Module 3
Problem Solving and Reasoning

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made
about mathematics and mathematical concepts;
2. Write clear and logical proofs;
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s
four steps; and
4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

Lesson 1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning – the type of reasoning that uses specific examples to
reach a general conclusion of something. The conclusion formed by inductive reasoning
is called conjecture. A conjecture is an idea that may or may not be correct.
Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number:
a) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, __?_
Solution:
Each successive number is 3 units larger than the
preceding number. Therefore, it can be predicted
that the next number in the list is 3 units larger than
15, which is 18.
b) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, __?_
Solution:
Observe that all the numbers are perfect squares.
1 =12; 4=22; 9=32; 16=42; 25=52. Therefore, it can be
predicted that the next number to be 36 = 62

60
Example 2. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture.
Consider the following procedures:

a. Pick a number.
b. Multiply the number by 8.
c. Add 6 to the product.
d. Divide the sum by two.
e. And subtract 3.
Hint: Repeat the procedure for several different numbers. Make
a conjecture between the relationship of the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number
using inductive reasoning.
Solution:
Suppose we pick 6 as our original number.
Multiply 6 by 8, 6(8) = 48
Add 6 to the product 48, 48 + 6 = 54
Divide the sum by 2, 54 = 27
2
Subtract the quotient by 3, 27 – 3 = 24

In our example, the starting number is 6 and the procedure produces 24.
For instance, the starting number is 5 as the original number and the procedure
produces 20. Another is 10 as the original number, and the procedure produces 40. And
if the original number is 35 and the procedure produces 140. It can be observed from
the following cases that the procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number. The conjecture can be stated as “the given procedure produces a number that
is four times the original number”.

61
Example 3. Verify whether each statement is incorrect by giving a
counterexample.
a. x + 4 = 0
b. √ x2 + 1 = x+1

Solutions:

a. Let x = 0, then 0 + 4 ≠ 0. This means that x + 4 = 0 is

not true for all x.

b. Let x = 1, then √ 12 + 1 = √ 2 . However, x + 1 when x

= 1 gives 2. Thus, √ 2 ≠ 2, which implies that the given
statement is a false statement.

Deductive reasoning – is a type of reasoning that deals with the process of

reaching a conclusion by applying a general assumption, procedures or principles.
Example 1.
Use deductive reasoning to establish a conjecture.
Show that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number.
a. Pick a number.
b. Multiply the number by 8.
c. Add 6 to the product.
d. Divide the sum by two.
e. And subtract 3.

Solution:
Let n represents the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2: (8n + 6)/2

62
 Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n

 This implies that the procedure produces a number that is four

times the original number.

Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a

chart that enables us to display the given information in a visual manner.

63
Example 2. Solving logic puzzle.

Each of the neighbors, Senea, Mariel, Shara and Briant, has a

different occupation (editor, banker, chef or dentist). From the
following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor:
Clues:
 Mariel gets home from work after the banker but before the
dentist.
 Shara, who is last to get home from work, is not the editor.
 The dentist and Shara leave for work at the same time.
 The banker lives next door to Briant.

Solution:

From clue 1, Mariel is not the banker or the dentist. In the following
chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Banker
and the Dentist columns of Mariel’s
row.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Senea
Mariel x1 x1
Shara x2 x2
Briant

64
From clue 2, Shara is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2)
in the Editor column of Shara’s row. We know from clue 1 that the
banker is not the last to get home, and we know from clue 2 that
Shara is the last to get home; therefore, Shara is not the banker.
Write X2 in the Banker column of Shara’s row
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Senea
Mariel x1 x1
Shara x2 x2
Briant

From clue 3, Shara is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition.
There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in Shara’s row;
therefore, Shara must be the chef. Place a in that box. Since Shara
is the chef, none of the other three people can be the chef. Write
X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Mariel’s row; therefore, Mariel must be the editor.
Insert a / to indicate that Mariel is the editor, and write X3 twice to
indicate that neither Senea nor Briant is the editor.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Senea x3 x3
Mariel √ x1 x3 x1
Shara x2 x2 √ x3
Briant x3 x3

65
 From clue 4, Briant is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition.
Since there are three Xs in the Banker column, Senea must be the
banker. Place a √ in that box. Thus, Senea cannot be the dentist.
Write X4 in that box. Since
there are 3 Xs in the Dentist column, Briant must be the dentist.
Place a in that box.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Senea x3 √ x3 x4
Mariel √ x1 x3 x1
Shara x2 x2 √ x3
Briant x3 x4 x3 √

Therefore:
Senea is the banker.
Mariel is the editor.
Shara is the chef.
Briant is the dentist.

KenKen® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the

Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken”
has “knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates
as knowledge squared, or awareness squared. KenKen puzzles are similar to
Sudoku puzzles, but they also require you to perform arithmetic to solve the
puzzle.

Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle:

 For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with
one of the numbers 1, 2, or 3.
 For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4.

66
  For a n by n puzzle, fi ll in each square of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, ... , n.
 Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.
• Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
• The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares,
called cages, must combine (in some order) to produce
the target number in the top left corner of the cage
using the mathematical operation indicated.
• Cages with just one square should be filled in with the
target number.
• A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is
not in the same row or column.

Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies:

 Single-Square Cages Fill cages that consist of a single square with the
target number for that square.
 Cages with Two Squares Next examine the cages with exactly two
squares. Many cages that cover two squares will only have two digits
that can be used to fi ll the cage. For instance, in a 5 by 5 puzzle, a 20
cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 4 and 5 or 5 and
4.
 Large or Small Target Numbers Search for cages that have an
unusually large or small target number. These cages generally have
only a few combinations of numbers that can
be used to fi ll the cage.
Examples: In a 6 by 6 puzzle, a 120 cage with exactly three
squares can only be filled with 4, 5, and 6. A 3+ cage
with exactly two squares can only be filled with 1
and 2.

67
Example 3.
Here is a 4 by 4 puzzle and its solution.
Remember: For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the
grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4

6x 7+

2 8x

4x 12x 1–

In the cage of 6x, the digits whose product is 6 are 1, 2,

and 3 in some order since there are three squares.
For 7+ cage, is the sum of 3 and 4 digits.
In the cage for 8x, is the product of 1, 2, and 4 in some order
since there are three squares.
The cage for 4x, is the product of 1 and 4, but 2 x 2 cannot be
the factors.
For 12x, is the product of 3 and 4 only since there only 2
squares.
In the case of 1-, is the difference between 3 and 2 only.
For 2 and 1 cages, no operation is needed and be filled with the
target number.
Arrange the obtained digits and make sure that a number does

68
 not repeat in any row or column.

Final solution for the puzzle

6x 7+
1
2 3 4

2 8x
3
2 4 1

4x 12x 1–
1 4 2 3

4 3 1 2

Lesson 2. Problem Solving Strategies

 Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

In the ancient mathematics, some mathematicians were interested in solving

mathematical problems such as Euclid and Pappus, but they were also interested in
heuristics, the study of the methods and rules of discovery and invention. Another
mathematician and philosopher, René Descartes (1596–1650) contributed to the field of
heuristics. He tried to develop a universal problem-solving method but did not succeed.

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving

was George Polya (1887–1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United
Statesin 1940. The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of
the following four steps:

69
 1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.

Understand the Problem. This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often

overlooked. You must have a clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on
understanding the p roblem, consider the following questions:
■ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
■ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
■ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the
problem?
■ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
■ What is the goal?

Devise a Plan. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when

they attempt to solve a problem. Here are some frequently used procedures:
■ Make a list of the known information.
■ Make a list of information that is needed.
■ Draw a diagram.
■ Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
■ Make a table or a chart.
■ Work backwards.
■ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
■ Look for a pattern.
■ Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
■ Perform an experiment.
■ Guess at a solution and then check your result.

Carry Out the Plan. Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
■ Work carefully.

70
 ■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to
devise another plan or modify your existing plan.

Review the Solution. Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply

to other problems.

Example 1. Strategy: Make an organized list.

A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many
different orders could they have two wins and two losses in four games?

Solution:

Understand the Problem: There are many different orders. The team may have
won two straight games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they
lost the first two games and won the last two (LLWW). There are
other
possibilities, such as WLWL.

Devise a Plan. We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An
organized list is a list that is produced using a system that ensures
that
each of the different orders will be listed once and only once.

Carry Out the Plan. Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We
will use a strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with no

71
 duplications. One such strategy is to always write a W unless doing so
will produce too many Ws or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it
is not possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L.
This
strategy produces the six different orders shown below:
1. WWLL (Start with two wins)
2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)

Review the Solution. We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates
and the list considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are
six different orders in which a baseball team can win exactly two
out of
four games.

Example 2. Strategy: Work backwards.

In consecutive turns of a Monopoly game, Stacy first paid Ph800 for a

hotel. She then lost half her money when she landed on Boardwalk. Next, she
collected Ph200 for passing GO. She then lost half her remaining money when
she landed on Quezon Avenue. Stacy now has Ph2,500. How much did she
have just before she purchased the hotel?

Solution:
Understand the Problem. We need to determine the number of dollars that Stacy
had just prior to her Ph800 hotel purchase.

Devise a Plan. We could guess and check, but we might need to make several

72
 guesses before we found the correct solution. An algebraic method might
work, but setting up the necessary equation could be a challenge. Since
we know the end result, let’s try the method of working backwards.

Carry Out the Plan. Stacy must have had Ph5,000 just before she landed on
Quezon Avenue; Ph4,800 just before she passed GO; and Ph9,600
prior
to landing on Boardwalk. This means she had Ph10,400 just before she
purchased the hotel.

Review the Solution. To check our solution we start with Ph10,400 and proceed
through each of the transactions. Ph10,400 less Ph800 is Ph9,600. Half
of Ph9,600 is Ph4,800. Ph4,800 increased by Ph200 is Ph5,000. Half of
Ph5,000 is Ph2,500.

Example 3. Strategy: Make a table and look for a pattern.

Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the
decimal representation 7 .
27
Solution:

Understand the Problem. Express the fraction 7/27as a decimal and look
for a pattern that will enable us to determine the digit 100 places to
the right of the decimal point.

Devise a Plan. Dividing 27 into 7 by long division or by using a calculator

Produces the decimal 0.259259259... . Since the decimal
representation repeats the digits 259 over and over forever,
we
know that the digit located 100 places to the right of the decimal

73
 point is either a 2, a 5, or a 9. A table may help us to see a pattern
and enable us to determine which one of these digits is in the 100th
place. Since the decimal digits repeat every three digits, we use a
table with three columns.

The First 15 Decimal Digits of 7/27

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit

1st 2 2nd 5 3rd 9

4th 2 5th 5 6th 9
7th 2 8th 5 9th 9
10th 2 11th 5 12th 9
13th 2 14th 5 15th 9
. . .
. . .
. . .

Carry Out the Plan. Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit
locations evenly divisible by 3. From this pattern we can tell
that the
99th decimal digit (because 99 is evenly divisible by 3) must be a 9.
Since a 2 always follows a 9 in the pattern, the 100th decimal digit
must be a 2.

Review the Solution. The above table illustrates additional patterns. For
instance, if each of the location numbers in column 1 is divided by
3, a remainder of 1 is produced. If each of the location numbers in

74
 column 2 is divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus we
can find the decimal digit in any location by dividing the location
number by 3 and examining the remainder. For instance, to find the
digit in the 3200th decimal place of 7/27 , merely divide 3200 by 3
and examine the remainder, which is 2. Thus, the digit 3200 places
to the right of the decimal point is a 5.

Example 4. Strategy: Guess and check.

The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the
teens are the same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. We need to determine three distinct counting

numbers, from the list 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, that
have a product of 4590.

Devise a Plan. If we represent the ages by x, y, and z, then xyz 4590. We

are unable to solve this equation, but we notice that 4590 ends in a
zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor of 5, which means
that at least one of the numbers we seek must be an even number
and at least one number must have 5 as a factor. The only number
in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus 15 is one of the
numbers, and at least one of the other numbers must be an even
number. At this point we try to solve by guessing and checking.

Carry Out the Plan.

15 • 16 • 18 = 4320 No. This product is too small.

15 • 16 • 19 = 4560 No. This product is too small.

75
 15 • 17 • 18 = 4590 Yes. This is the correct product.
The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.

Review the Solution. Because 15 • 17 • 18 = 4590 and each of the ages

represents the age of a teenager, we know our solution is
correct.
None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a factor (divisor) of
4590, so there are no other solutions.

Example 5. Strategy. Solve a similar but simpler problem

In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of

the other teams exactly three times. How many league games will be
played?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. There are 10 teams in the league,

and each team plays exactly three games against each of the
other teams. The problem is to determine the total number of
league games that will be played.

Devise a Plan. Try the strategy of working a similar but simpler problem.
Consider a league with only four teams (denoted by A, B, C, and D)
in which each team plays each of the other teams only once. The
diagram at the left illustrates that the games can be represented by
line segments that connect the points A, B, C, and D. Since
each of the four teams will play a game against each of the other
three, we might conclude that this would result in 4 • 3 = 12
games. However, the diagram shows only six line segments. It appears
that our procedure has counted each game twice. For

76
instance, when team A plays team B, team B also plays team
A. To produce the correct
result, we must divide our previous result, 12, by 2. Hence, four
teams can play each other once in 4 • 3 = 6 games.
2
Carry Out the Plan. Using the process developed above, we see that 10
teams can play each other once in a total of (10 • 9)/2 = 45 games.

Since each team plays each opponent exactly three times, the total
number of games is 45 • 3 = 135.

Review the Solution. We could check our work by making a diagram that
includes all 10 teams represented by dots labelled A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, I, and J. Because this diagram would be somewhat
complicated, let’s try the method of making an organized list. The
figure below shows an organized list in which the notation BC
represents a game between team B and team C. The
notation CB
is not shown because it also represents a game between team B
and team C. This list shows that 45 games are required for
each
team to play each of the other teams once. Also notice that the first
row has nine items, the second row has eight items, the third
row has seven items, and so on. Thus 10 teams require
9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45 games
if each team plays every other team once, and 45 • 3 = 135 games
if each team plays exactly three games against each opponent.

AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ
BC BD BE BF BG BH BI BJ
CD CE CF CG CH CI CJ

77
 DE DF DG DH DI DJ
EF EG EH EI EJ
FG FH FI FJ
GH GI GJ
HI HJ
IJ
An organized list of all possible games

Lesson 3. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

Terms of a Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ... is called a
sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas are the
terms of the sequence. In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the
second term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term.
The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is the
last written term. It is customary to use the subscript notation an to designate the
nth term of a sequence. That is,

a1 represents the first term of a sequence.

a2 represents the second term of a sequence.
a3 represents the third term of a sequence.
an represents the nth term of a sequence.

In the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, ... , n2 + n, ...

a1 = 2, a2 = 6, a3 = 12, a4 = 20, a5 = 30, and an = n2 + n.
■ What is the next term?
■ What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
To answer these questions, we often construct a difference table, which
shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence. The following
table is a difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

78
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14

First differences 3 3 3 3

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between the
two closest numbers just above it (upper right number minus upper left number).
The differences in row (1) are called the first differences of the sequence. In
this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use the above
difference table to predict the next number in the sequence, we predict that
14 + 3 =17 is the next term of the sequence.

At times, the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation it is
often helpful to compute the successive differences of the first differences. These
differences of the first differences are called the second differences. The
differences of the second differences are called the third differences.

Example 1.
Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ...
Solution:
Construct a difference table as shown below.
sequence: 2 7 24 59 118 207
first differences: 5 17 35 59 89
second differences: 12 18 24 30
third differences: 6 6 6
The third differences are all the same constant, 6. Extending row (3) so
that it includes an additional 6 enables us to predict that the next second
difference will be 36. Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives us the next first
difference,125. Adding 125 to the sixth term 207 yields 332. Using the method of
extending the difference table, we predict that 332 is the next term in the
sequence.

79
 nth-Term Formula for a Sequence
In Example 1 we used a difference table to predict the next term of a
sequence. In some cases we can use patterns to predict a formula, called an
nth-term formula, that generates the terms of a sequence. As an example,
consider the formula an = 3n2 + n. This formula defines a sequence and
provides a method for finding any term of the sequence. For instance, if we
replace n with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, then the formula an = 3n2 + n generates the
sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114. To find the 40th term, replace each n with 40.
a40 = 3(40)2 + 40 = 4840

Example 2.
Write the first three terms, the 15th term and the 40th term of the
sequence with the general rule: an = n2−1.

We can find each of these terms by replacing n with the appropriate term
number:

a1 = (1)2−1=0
a2 = (2)2−1=3
a3 = (3)2−1=8
a15 = (15)2−1=224
a40 = (40)2−1=1599

Example 3.
Write a general rule for the sequence: 5,10,15,20,… The previous
problem illustrates how a general rule maps a term number
directly
to the term value. Another way to say this is that the general rule
expresses the nth term as a function of n. Let’s put the terms in the
above sequence in a table with their term numbers to help identify

80
 the rule.

Looking at the terms and term numbers together helps us to see

that each term is the result of multiplying the term number by 5. The
general rule is:
an = 5n

n 1 2 3 4
5n 5 10 15 20

Example 4.
Find the nth term rule for the sequence: 0,2,6,12,…

Let’s make the table again to begin to analyze the relationship between
the term number and the term value.

n 1 2 3 4
an 0 2 6 12
n(?) 1(0) 2(1) 3(2) 4(3)

This time the pattern is not so obvious. To start, write each term as
a product of the term number and a second factor. Then it can be
observed that the second factor is always one less that the term number
and the general rule can be written as :
an = n(n−1)
The Fibonacci Sequence

The Fibonacci sequence first appears in the book Liber Abaci (1202) by
Fibonacci where it is used to calculate the growth of rabbit populations. Fibonacci

81
considers the growth of an idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population,
assuming that: a newly born breeding pair of rabbits are put in a field; each
breeding pair mates at the age of one month, and at the end of their second
month they always produce another pair of rabbits; and rabbits never die, but
continue breeding forever. Fibonacci posed the puzzle: how many pairs will there
be in one year? It is interesting to note that this famous rabbit problem paved the
way to the discovery of a phenomenal sequence of numbers known as
Fibonacci sequence.

The Fibonacci numbers, commonly denoted Fn , form a sequence, called

the Fibonacci sequence, such that each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones, starting from 0 and 1. That is,

F0 = 0, F1 = 1, Fn = 1
and

Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2

for n ≥ 3.

The beginning of the sequence is thus:

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144 …

Example 1. Finding a Fibonacci number.

Find the 8th and 10th Fibonacci numbers.

Solution:

F8 = F7 + F6
= (F6 + F5) + F6
= (8+5)+8

82
 = 13 + 8
= 21 (8th term)

F10 = F9 + F8
= (F8 + F7) + F8
= ( 21 + 13 ) + 21
= 34 + 21
= 55 (10th term)
Suppose we want to find F20. Using the definition, it is tedious and time
consuming to compute F19 and F 18 to determine F20. It is in good faith that
Jacques Binet (1543) found a formula for the nth Fibonacci numbers.

Binet’s Formula:

Example 2.

Find the 30th and 50th Fibonacci numbers using Binet’s formula and
a calculator.

Solution:

30 30
F30 = 1 1+5 - 1–5
√5 2 2

= 832040

83
 50 50
F50 = 1 1+5 1–5
√5 2 - 2
= 12,586,269,025

Another famous mathematician, whose work was on finding patterns, is

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). His greatest contribution, perhaps, was the Pascal’s
triangle. What is so amazing about his discovery is that when you get the sum
of the numbers using the lines, the Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21
show up. The figure below illustrates the first seven rows of the Pascal’s triangle.
Try this: make a pattern by going up and then along, then add up the
values (as illustrated) ... you will get the Fibonacci Sequence which starts from
"0, 1" and then continues by adding the two previous numbers, for example
3+5=8, then 5+8=13, etc)

[Link]

Guide Questions:
1. What are the different reasoning that can help us in decision making and solve
mathematical problems?

2. What strategies can one use to solve problems accurately?

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 3. What are some of the different ways to solve problems?

Answers to guide questions:

1. Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning help us justify statements and

arguments in decision making and solve problems in mathematics.

2. Different appropriate strategies can aid one to solve problems accurately and
logically. One of which is Polya’s strategy in solving mathematics problems.
Polya’s strategy is a systematic procedure to provide solution to a problem.
He used different strategies such as working backwards, solving a problem by
following a similar simple solution, etc.

3. One of the interesting ways of solving mathematical problems is the search for
pattern. Fibonacci numbers created pattern in solving mathematical problems.

Key Points/Summary

1. Inductive reasoning is a the type of reasoning that uses specific examples to

reach a general conclusion of something. The conclusion formed by inductive
reasoning is called conjecture. A conjecture is an idea that may or may not be
correct. It is very helpful mostly in giving logical reasoning to arguments and
predicting numbers.

2. Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning that deals with the process of

reaching a conclusion by applying a general assumption, procedures or
principles. This can be used to solve problems of puzzles such as logic
puzzles and kenken puzzle.

3. One of the problem solving strategies is that of Polya’s strategy. His strategy

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 follows four steps that include: understand the problem, devise a plan, carry
out the plan, and review the solution.

4. Some problems can be solved using patterns. Fibonacci numbers produced

impacts in algebra and in geometry such as finding a missing term in a
sequence.

5. Binet’s formula created an easier way (less tedious) process to solve

Fibonacci number problems.
6. Another famous mathematician, Blaise Pascal, also contributed ways to solve
mathematical problems. His work was the Pascal’s triangle was
associated to
Fibonacci numbers. Amazingly, that when you get the sum of the numbers
using the lines, the Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21 appear.

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Assessment 1

Name _______________________________________ Year & Sec_______

Date ___________________ Score __________

A. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.

_____ 1) 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ?

_____2) 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

_____3) 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, ?

_____4) 80, 70, 61, 53, 46, 40, ?

_____5) 1/ 2 , 2/3 , 3/4 , 4/5 , 5/6 , 6/7 , ?

B. Use deductive reasoning for each list.

Hint: Let n represents the original number.

a) Show that the following procedure always produces a number that is equal to
the original number.
Procedure:
Pick a number.
Multiply the number by 6 and add 8.
Divide the sum by 2
Subtract twice the original number, and
Subtract 4

b) Consider that the following procedure produces a number that is three times
the original number.

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 Procedure:
Pick a number.
Multiply the number by 6.
Add 10 to the product.
Divide the sum by 2, and
Subtract 5.

C. Solve. Use a table to represent your answer.

1. Each of the four friends (Eivan, Grace, Maideen and Sarah) purchased
vehicles. One chooses a Honda, a Mitsubishi, a Toyota, and a Suzuki brands.
Determine which vehicle belongs to each of the four friends by using the clues
below:
CLUES:
a. Eivan, living alone, stays next door to her friend who bought the Honda
and very far from his friend who bought the Suzuki.

b. Grace, also living on its own, is younger than the one who bought the
Mitsubishi car and older than her friend who bought the Toyota vehicle.

c. Maideen did not like Toyota and Suzuki vehicles. But she and her
friend, who bought the Toyota vehicle, live in the same house.

2. Solve the puzzle.

2x 64 3
x
8+ 9+

3÷

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Assessment 2

Name ______________________________________ Yr & Sec ________

Date ________________ Score __________

A. Write the nth term rule for the following sequences.

1) 3, 5, 7, 9,…
2) 1, 7, 25, 79,…
3) 6, 14, 24, 36,…
4) 6, 5, 4, 3,…
5) 2, 5, 9, 14,…
B. Construct a difference table to predict the next term of each sequence.
1) 0, 10, 24, 56, 112, 190, ...
2) 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30, ...
3) 9, 4, 3, 12, 37, 84, ...
4) 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, ...
5) 1, 4, 21, 56, 115, 204, ...
C. Solve.
1. Use Binet’s formula to find the 100th and 1000th terms from the Fibonacci
numbers.
2. A hat and a jacket together cost Ph100. The jacket costs Ph90 more than the
hat. What are the cost of the hat and the cost of the jacket?
3. Connect the Dots. Nine dots are arranged as shown. Is it possible to connect
the nine dots with exactly four lines if you are not allowed to retrace any
part of a line and you are not allowed to remove your pencil from the paper? If
it can be done, illustrate through a drawing.

• • •
• • •
• • •

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4. A Cryptarithm. The following puzzle is a famous cryptarithm.

S E N D
+ M O R E
M O N E Y

Each letter in the cryptarithm represents one of the digits 0 through

9. The leading digits, represented by S and M, are not zero.
Determine
which digit is represented by each of the letters so that the addition is
correct. Note: A letter that is used more than once, such as M, represents
the same digit in each position in which it appears.

5. The Handshake Problem.

In a Math class of 30 students, the teacher asked everyone to shake
hands and introduce each other. How many handshakes were exchanged?
Illustrate methods that might solve the problem.

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