Module 2

Biological Development
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss the concepts and theories related to biological/physical development of
children and adolescents; and
2. make connections, using knowledge on current research literature, between biological
development theories and developmentally appropriate teaching approaches suited to
learner’s gender, needs, strengths, interests, and experiences.

Biological Beginnings
Biological development is the domain of lifespan development that examines growth
and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. This
includes: height and weight, fine and gross motor skills, coordination, brain development,
puberty, sexual health, fertility, changes in senses, and aging

It is postulated that we are who we are because of evolution through natural

selection. The machinery which permitted evolution by natural selection is heredity and
reproduction

Heredity
Heredity is the process of transmitting biological traits from parents to offspring
through genes, the basis units of heredity; accounts for why offspring look like their parents.
Reproduction (and heredity) involves the gametes which contain the paternal and maternal
contributions resulting to new, unique life

Gametes
There are two types of sex cells or gametes: the Sperm (found in males) and the Egg
or Ovum (found in females). Gametes are haploid (N) cells. They only contain 23
chromosomes, only ½ of the normal number (46) found in regular cells. Body (or somatic)
cells are diploid, containing two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent). The fusion of
the sperm (23) and ovum (23) produces a zygote with a complete set of chromosomes (46)

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 The gametes are formed through gametogenesis which involves meiosis (a type of
cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in
gametes) . Spermatogenesis - formation of sperm in males - occurs in the testes and starts
with puberty (12 years on the average). On the other hand, Oogenesis - formation of egg in
females - occurs in the ovaries but starts during prenatal development (before birth) and
resumes during puberty.

Figure 2. Oogenesis/Ovogenesis and spermatogenesis (Source:

[Link]/en/gametogenesis/)

Chromosomes and Genes

Figure 3. Organization of genetic material inside the cell (Source: Mayo Clinic)

Genes are units of heredity in chromosomes. These are Segments of DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) sequences which control a trait (e.g. eye color). An allele is a
specific version or variant of a gene (e.g. blue eyes allele).

From DNA, chromosomes are made when combined with histone proteins. In
humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes - 22 pairs of autosomes + 1 pair of sex

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chromosomes. Autosomes are similar in males and females, while sex chromosomes vary
between males and females:

● Males possess X and Y chromosomes

● Females possess 2 X chromosomes
All of these are found inside the Nucleus of the cell.

Chromosomal sex is determined by the sperm. A sperm will develop to either

contain an X or Y chromosome (recall that males are XY), while an ovum will only contain an
X (recall that females are XX). Hence, the presence of an X or Y chromosome in a sperm will
determine the chromosomal sex of the offspring

Genotypes and Phenotypes

Recall that the sperm (23 chromosomes) + ovum (23 chromosomes) = zygote (46
chromosomes). Hence, each parent contributes half the genetic information of the child.

The genotype is the sum total or genetic make-up of an individual inherited from
parents. A person can either be Homozygous - an individual has two copies of the same
allele (or version) of the gene - or Heterozygous - an individual has two different alleles (or
version) of the gene - for a given gene. Again, the result of this interaction of the genetic
material is the Phenotype - manifested, observable trait of the organism (e.g. behavior,
appearance)

Figure 4. Genotype and phenotype (Source: S7L3. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate
information to explain how organisms reproduce either sexually or asexually and transfer)

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Genetic Variation and Inheritance
Genetic variation, the genetic difference between individuals, is what contributes to a
species’ adaptation to its environment. There are several causes of genetic variation

● Mutation - permanent change in the genetic sequence; in clinical terms, it is a

change in DNA which is deleterious found in less than 1% of the population
● Random mating between organisms - Unique person + Unique person
● Random fertilization - Unique sperm + Unique ovum
● Crossing over (or recombination) between chromatids of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis
That’s why, despite similarities, you are still different from your siblings. There are
exceptions: identical twins - siblings which come from the same zygote (hence, almost the
same genetic material), but even so they are still genetically different from their other
siblings. The fact is the odds of having the same genetic make-up is close to zero

Physical and Motor Development

Physical development includes all aspects of growth and changes to the human
body during a period of time. Such changes may involve the person’s height, weight, brain,
skeleton(or bones), muscles, teeth, hair, and their internal systems related to the heart,
lungs, and digestion.

Motor Development pertains to the increasing control of large muscles – gross

motor skills like running, climbing, jumping,hopping and kicking and smaller muscles – fine
motor skills like doing up shoelaces, cutting with scissors, writing, drawing, putting puzzles
together, managing buttons, pronouncing words, blowing bubbles, and whistling). Motor skills
depend upon the proper functioning of the brain, skeleton, joints and the nervous system.

Individual’s development will vary due to differences in maturity rates, motivation

levels, health and nutrition quality, the opportunity to practice these skills.

In general, there are trends in growth and development. First, development is

Cephalocaudal, i.e. development occurs from head (“cephalo”) to feet (“cauda”) direction.
Also, development occurs in a Proximodistal manner, i.e. starting from the center (“proximo”
= close) to outward (“distal” = distant) direction

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Physical Development from Infancy to Adolescence
A baby is born sometime around the 38th week of pregnancy. The fetus is
responsible, at least in part, for its own birth because chemicals released by the developing
fetal brain trigger the muscles in the mother’s uterus to start the rhythmic contractions of
childbirth. The contractions are initially spaced at about 15-minute intervals but come more
rapidly with time. When the contractions reach an interval of two to three minutes, the mother
is requested to assist in the labour and help push the baby out.

Newborns are already prepared to face the new world they are about to experience.
As you can see in Table 2, “Survival Reflexes in Newborns,” babies are equipped with a
variety of reflexes, each providing an ability that will help them survive their first few months
of life as they continue to learn new routines to help them survive in and manipulate their
environments.

Table 1. Survival reflexes in newborns (Wede, n.d.)

Name   Stimulus   Response   Significance   Video  Example  

Rooting   The  baby’s  cheek  is   The  baby  turns  its  head   Ensures  the  infant’s  feeding  will   Watch   “The   Rooting  
stroked.   toward  the  stroking,  opens  its   be  a  reflexive  habit  
reflex   Reflex”  [YouTube]  
mouth,  and  tries  to  suck    

Blink  reflex   A  light  is  flashed  in  the   The  baby  closes  both  eyes.   Protects  eyes  from  strong  and   Watch   “Baby  
baby’s  eyes.   potentially  dangerous  stimuli  
Blinking”  [YouTube]  

Withdrawal   A  soft  pinprick  is   The  baby  flexes  the  leg.   Keeps  the  exploring  infant  away   Watch   “Baby  
applied  to  the  sole  of   from  painful  stimuli  
reflex   Withdraw   Reflex”  
the  baby’s  foot.  
[YouTube]  

Tonic   neck   The  baby  is  laid  down   The  baby  turns  its  head  to  one   Helps  develop  hand-­‐eye   Watch   “Tonic   Neck  
on  its  back.   side  and  extends  the  arm  on   coordination  
reflex   Reflex”  [YouTube]  
the  same  side.    

Grasp  reflex   An  object  is  pressed   The  baby  grasps  the  object   Helps  in  exploratory  learning   Watch   “Grasp  
into  the  palm  of  the   pressed  and  can  even  hold  its    
reflex”  [YouTube]  
baby.   own  weight  for  a  brief  period.  

Moro  reflex   Loud  noises  or  a  sudden   The  baby  extends  arms  and   Protects  from  falling;  could  have   Watch   “Moro  
drop  in  height  while   legs  and  quickly  brings  them   assisted  infants  in  holding  on  to  
Reflex”  [YouTube]  
holding  the  baby.   in  as  if  trying  to  grasp   their  mothers  during  rough  
something.   travelling  

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Stepping   The  baby  is  suspended   Baby  makes  stepping  motions   Helps  encourage  motor   Watch   “Stepping  
with  bare  feet  just   as  if  trying  to  walk.   development  
reflex   Reflex”  [YouTube]  
above  a  surface  and  is    
moved  forward.    

In addition to reflexes, newborns have preferences — they like sweet-tasting foods at

first, while becoming more open to salty items by four months of age (Beauchamp, Cowart,
Menellia, & Marsh, 1994; Blass & Smith, 1992). Newborns also prefer the smell of their
mothers. An infant only six days old is significantly more likely to turn toward its own mother’s
breast pad than to the breast pad of another baby’s mother (Porter, Makin, Davis, &
Christensen, 1992), and a newborn also shows a preference for the face of its own mother
(Bushnell, Sai, & Mullin, 1989).

Although infants are born ready to engage in some activities, they also contribute to
their own development through their own behaviours. The child’s knowledge and abilities
increase as it babbles, talks, crawls, tastes, grasps, plays, and interacts with the objects in
the environment (Gibson, Rosenzweig, & Porter, 1988; Gibson & Pick, 2000; Smith & Thelen,
2003). Parents may help in this process by providing a variety of activities and experiences
for the child. Research has found that animals raised in environments with more novel
objects and that engage in a variety of stimulating activities have more brain synapses and
larger cerebral cortexes, and they perform better on a variety of learning tasks compared with
animals raised in more impoverished environments (Juraska, Henderson, & Müller, 1984).
Similar effects are likely occurring in children who have opportunities to play, explore, and
interact with their environments (Soska, Adolph, & Johnson, 2010)

Early Childhood
The rapid increase in body size of the first two years tapers off in a slower
growth pattern. Hence, it is slower than infancy, On average, children add 2 to 3 inches in
height and about 5 pounds in weight each year. Boys continue to be slightly larger than girls.
It is important to note that children who are born with very low birth weights are still behind
their peers in growth.

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 Large muscles develop before small muscles. Muscles in the body’s core, legs and
arms develop before those in the fingers and hands. Children learn how to perform gross (or
large) motor skills such as walking before they learn to perform fine (or small) motor skills
such as drawing.

The center of the body develops before the outer regions. Muscles located at the
core of the body become stronger and develop sooner than those in the feet and hands.

Development goes from top down, from the head to the toes. This is why babies
learn to hold their heads up before they learn to crawl. The brain is still the fastest growing
organ. All of the baby teeth are present by 3 years of age. Their bladder control improves by
this time.

Figure 13. Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal development (Source: [Link]

[Link])

Middle childhood

Physical development is slow but steady. The average child will grow 5- 6cm and
gain 1-3kg in six years from the age of 6- 12 yrs. Girls are generally a little taller and heavier
than boys. However, boys have more muscle tissues than girls.

Each child follows their own unique timetable for growth as individual
differences become more noticeable. Nonetheless, growth is typically concentrated in the
legs, arms, and face. Baby teeth also come out and are replaced with permanent teeth. Brain
growth is completed by age of 10 – 12 (but is still immature or not developed); similarly the
heart and lungs continue to mature.

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 At this age, children can become obese (over weight) due to inherited genetics,
personality, poor diet, watching too much TV and inactivity.

Adolescence

Adolescence is a transition between childhood and adulthood where changes in

physical appearance, sexual development and rapid growth are the most obvious signs.
Changes may begin as early as 10 or 11 years of age.

Figure 14. Graph depicting the trend of growth spurt between males and females (Source:[Link]
content/uploads/2015/09/[Link])

The term ‘adolescent growth spurt’ refers to the rapid changes in height, weight and
body proportions that occur at the beginning of adolescence. Growth changes are more
dramatic during adolescence than in any other stage after 2 years of age. Girls start their
rapid growth about 2 years earlier than boys - Girls start their growth spurt between 7.5 –
11.5 years ( average age being 9.5 years ) and boys between 10.5 -16 (average age being
13 years ).

Girls reach their full height by about 19 years and boys at 21 – 22 years of age.
However, the average male is taller and heavier than the average female by about the
age of 14 years. Boys and girls double their weight between the ages 10 and 18 years.

Their hands, feet, neck, and nose grow first during the growth spurt. The body
achieves adult proportions at this stage. Muscle mass and strength increase, esp. for
boys. On the other hand, fat development slows for males and females and is redistributed
in females.

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 The brain’s last growth spurt is between 14-1 6 years of age. Lung size and capacity
increases. The size and strength of the heart increases. Most of the internal organs reach
their mature size.

At this age, the oil-bearing glands in the skin become active, leading to increased
risk of developing acne. Likewise, The sweat glands become fully functional, which can
often lead to body odor.

Girls continue to demonstrate more finger dexterity (skill) than boys which continued
since early childhood years. Sexual reproduction becomes possible.

Motor Development from Infancy to Adolescence

Infancy – Toddlerhood
Motor development progresses quickly from a new born baby unable to lift their
head to a toddler who can pick up items and walk.

Gross motor skills in infancy is related to locomotors development or the ability to

move. These skills include the following abilities in order of development:

● Control of the head and neck muscles

● Sit with head, trunk and arm control
● Crawl and creep, with assists their perceptual development
● Stand and support their weight on their legs without over-balance
● Walk unassisted by themselves by the age of 14.5 months
● Most can run by the age of 18 months but they fall frequently.
Fine Motor Skills in infancy are related to reaching and grasping first as a reflex
(automatic reaction) and then intentionally. Grasping for the first 2-3 months is a reflex
reaction, while Voluntary grasping begins from about 3 months but the hands are usually
open and guided by their sight. At 5 months of age the baby touches an object before trying
to grasp it. Grasping develops from a whole hand grasp at 5-7 months, to a palm grasp at 9-
10 months to pincer grasp (using the thumb and forefinger) at 9-15 months

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Early Childhood
Early childhood gross motor development is mainly related to their legs:
running, climbing, jumping and kicking. Gross motor skills in early childhood change as the
child grows taller and they become steadier on their feet. Here are some of the gross motor
development observed in early childhood:

● Most children can run, stop and change directly by 4-5 years of age
● By the time they are 5 years old, most children can “broad jump” across nearly
a meter
● Hopping involves balancing on one leg and is more complex.
● Throwing skills begin to improve during this stage as children learn to use their
elbows and shoulder instead of their whole bodies.
● Catching skills improve from just receiving a ball to stepping forward and
grabbing it.
● Most 5-6 year olds can ride a tricycle or bicycle, swing on a swing, climb a
ladder and some can swim.
Their fine motor skills progress from whole arm activities to more precise skills
using their hands such as cutting with scissors or drawing. Fine motor skills in the early
childhood years are more difficult than gross motor skills because they need more
precise muscle control, careful judgment and more patience to keep trying. For example,
doing up shoelaces, cutting with scissors, writing, drawing, putting puzzles together and
managing buttons can be difficult for young children with short stubby fingers. Pronouncing
words (which involves coordination of the soft palate, tongue, and lips), blowing bubbles, and
whistling involve the use of fine motor skills. Many children who have difficulties with their fine
motor skills also have difficulties in articulating (say clearly) sounds or words. Fine motor
development for the early childhood years can be summarized as follows:

● Between the ages of 2-7 years, girls are usually more skilled at fine motor skills
while boys perform better at gross motor skills
● Drawing skills become more refined as the child progresses through particular
stages from scribbling to pictures that can be recognized
● Between the ages of 3-5 years, the child learns to dress themselves without
assistance and to tie their shoelaces
● The child can feed and wash themselves and brush their own teeth in the early
childhood years
During play and at school, the child improves and develops their fine motor skills
when building with blocks, using scissors, doing puzzles, drawing, folding paper, painting,

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manipulating play dough, and using a hammer to hit a nail. Fine motor skills and hand/eye
coordination is practiced through drawing and this is an important basis for writing letters
and numbers. Drawing is also a way for the child to communicate their thoughts and feelings
about their world around them.

Individual’s development will vary due to different maturity rates, motivation levels,
health and nutrition quality and the opportunity to practice these skills. Children who were
born premature or with a very low birth weight, may still be behind their peers in gross
motor development at this stage.

Middle childhood (6 years - puberty)

During the middle childhood years, the motor skills learnt in early childhood are refined
and improved by practicing them and playing games and sports. The six basic gross motor
skills that are developed to a higher performance level are running, jumping, sequencing
foot movement (as in dancing),balancing, throwing and catching.

The accuracy of these skills is improved by practice and maturity. The ‘reaction time’
(the speed the child reacts to a ball or a voice or another stimulus) also improves with age.
For example, most children find it easier to kick a ball than to catch it.

Motor activities are essential for the development of muscle tone, balance,
coordination, strength, body functions, and general good health and well-being. Most children
in the middle childhood years enjoy physical activity on playground equipment, in organized
games, riding bikes, or jumping a rope. During this stage (between about 7-12 years),
children become more interested in organized sport groups and can become more
competitive, especially the boys (Harris C., 1993).

On the other hand, The child’s fine motor skills are also becoming more refined
and improved during the middle childhood years. They can make great progress in their
artistic abilities as they express themselves through drawing, painting, clay modeling, sewing,
and other art and craft activities. The healthy development of fine motor skills is also
essential for progress in reading and writing. All students need fine motor control for eye
muscles to focus and distinguish letters, crossing midline, and tracking words left to right.

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They need eye-hand control to develop good handwriting skills so that they can express
themselves in written form.

Adolescence

Early adolescence or the ‘pubertal period’ (11-14 years) is a time of rapid physical
and intellectual development. Middle adolescence (14-17 years) is a more stable period
of adjustment to the changes of early adolescence. Later adolescence (18-21 years) is a
transition period into adulthood with choices, responsibilities and opportunities.

During the pubertal years of rapid physical growth, adolescent’s motor development
may become awkward or clumsy as they get used to longer limbs and bigger bodies. Their
brains need time to adjust to the growing body and must establish new connections for
coordination to improve.

Strength can be increased further when both males and female adolescents
participate in sports and exercise programs. However, a large number of them may
become less active in high school when sport activities become more competitive. They
can often be motivated by examples set by their parents if regular exercise is a normal part of
family life. They need to be made aware of the physical benefits of exercise such as
improving their mood and energy level.

Neuroscience and Brain Development

The brain is the body’s most important organ. It allows us to learn everything we
need to know – from learning how to walk, how to talk, how to read a book, and how to
behave in a socially acceptable way. It enables us to develop abstract ideas like the idea of
fairness and justice through reasoning and logical thought.

The brain’s ability to change from experience is known as neural plasticity. The
human brain is especially plastic early in life, which is why the “nurture” part of the equation is
so important. Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic - this is the mechanism of
learning - but plasticity declines in adulthood. It loses some of its plasticity once the two
hemispheres of the brain begin to specialize. This specialization is known as lateralization.

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 Researchers have found a link between hemispheric specialization and learning
disabilities or cognitive styles. The left hemisphere of the brain controls language processes,
whereas the right hemisphere processes visual and spatial information.

As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several critical periods, a developmental

phase in which the brain requires certain environmental input or it will not develop normally.

The Brain
The Cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain and is subdivided into several lobes,
which are:

a. Frontal lobe helps control skilled muscle movements, mood, planning for the
future, setting goals and judging priorities.
b. Occipital lobe helps process visual information.
c. Parietal lobe receives and processes somatosensory (somato - body,
sensorium – sense) information about temperature, taste, touch, and
movement coming from the rest of the body. Reading and arithmetic are also
processed in this region.
d. Temporal lobe processes hearing, memory, and language functions.

Figure 15. Diagram of an intact brain depicting parts of the cerebrum

The Cerebellum is the portion below the cerebrum which coordinates and fine-tunes
movement and balance

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 Figure 16. Diagram of the brain split in the midline (Source:
[Link]

The Brainstem is the segment of the brain that serves to connect the spinal cord to the rest
of the brain; nonetheless, its parts provide vital functions to life as well.
The Medulla oblongata contains centers for the control of vital processes such as heart
rate, respiration, blood pressure, and swallowing.
The Pons, on ther hand, contain centers for the control of vital processes, including
respiration and cardiovascular functions. It also is involved in the coordination of eye
movements and balance
A portion of the midbrain also houses the Limbic system. These are “Primordial sets of
structures” and are composed of four main parts,namely:
a. Hypothalamus - controls endocrine functions which affect hunger, temperature, thirst,
libido and sleep,
b. Amygdala - an almond-shaped organ, involved in memory, decision-making and
emotional responses (fear, aggression),
c. Thalamus - the relay center of the brain, relaying information from and to different parts of
the brain,
d. Hippocampus - involved in transforming short-term to long-term memory.
Neurons
The brain of an adult weighs about 1.3 kilograms and contains around 100 billion brain
cells which are called ‘neurons’. Neurons are nerve cells which can store and transmit
information. It is thought humans are born with between 150 and 200 billion neuron cells, but
as an adult we only get to keep 100 billion. Within the adult brain, there is an estimated one
million billion connections between neurons. As the brain develops and learning takes place,
the number of connections between neurons increases.

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 Figure 17. Parts of the neuron

The Infant Brain

The brain is developing from the moment of conception. Most brain cells are produced
between the fourth and seventh month of pregnancy.

The last two months before birth is a time of very rapid brain development. Two
months before birth, the brain is about 10% of its adult weight. When a child is born, its
brain has developed a trillion connections and weighs about 25% of its final adult weight.

Most of the increase in weight is due to the development of dendrites and axons and
connections between neurons (or neural networks) and the myelin coverings of the axon.
Myelination or myelinization is the process of covering the axon with the insulating material
called myelin, which is an insulating layer that forms around the nerve cells that is made up
of protein and fatty substances. The myelin acts like the insulation on an electric cord: It
keeps the electrical impulses from escaping to other axons or dendrites and ensures the
impulse reaches their destination. Myelination starts before birth, proceeds quickly until about
4 years of age and is completed in adolescence.

Figure 18. Myelination (Source: [Link]

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 After birth, the number of synaptic connections between neurons increases quickly.
The number of connections increases to be more adult levels – too many for all to be used -
so some are removed. Removal of excess or weak connections is an important part of brain
development – just as important as the initial development of new connections. It is called
‘pruning’.

Figure 19. Synaptic pruning in the human brain (Source: [Link]

At birth, there is some visual ability. At age 2-3 months, there is a rapid synaptic
development in the area of the brain responsible for processing visual input (occipital lobe).
The area responsible for controlling emotions or making decisions (frontal lobe) occurs later.

Due to the rapid development of the brain before birth, the mother of the preborn child
needs to be careful to eat a healthy and balanced diet. She should not smoke and should
avoid drugs and alcohol. She should also minimize any stress. In the first two years, social
and emotional skills are developed that will be important for later life, so the parent needs to
show a good example demonstrating appropriate emotional responses. Poor examples
may lead to emotional problems later in life. It is much easier to develop emotional skills with
a two year-old child than it is with a teenager. Parents need to involve the child in appropriate
emotional interactions to develop emotional and social health for their later life.

‘Sensory motor systems’ describes how the brain processes and controls the motor
activities (movements). Sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) and motor
experiences are closely intertwined in the brain. For example, a child’s visual ability is
needed to work out the position of an object, so that their hand can grasp it. Two parts of
the brain are developing and cooperating. Children at this age need lots of stimulating
activities including movement and exploration to enhance this development. Studies have

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shown that early motor stimulation can lead to better attention, listening skills, reading scores
and writing skills (Palmer, 2003).

This means that it is important for the infant child to spend time developing
relationships with other people, playing and exploring different materials, doing activities
involving movement. These are more important at this stage than watching television.

Myelination continues along connections between areas of the brain which controls
movement (Frontal lobe) and the area which coordinates movement (cerebellum) takes until
about age four years to complete. Hence, the maximum development of fine motor skills
won’t be complete until about four years of age. By the age of two years, the brain’s weight is
about 75% of the adult brain.

The Childhood Brain

Between the ages two to five years the child’s neural network is still expanding. They
need a lot of appropriate experiences to assist with their brain development in
preparation for school. This include:

● Much unstructured exploratory (free) play time

● The parents should read to the child often
● Limit the amount of time in front of a television or watching DVDs or playing
video games
● Teach them rhyming games and the alphabet
● Choose ‘high touch’ toys instead of toys with batteries
● Provide simple toys that encourage imagination
● Talk to them and ask them questions
By the time that a child is five years old, he/she has learned a language and
developed their sensory motor abilities. It is now time to explore the world. As for the pre-
school child, plenty of free, creative, and unstructured play provides the opportunity to do the
exploring. It is also a time when a lot of further removal of excess neuron connections
(pruning) takes place as the brain organizes itself.

The brain of the child between five and twelve years of age is ready to learn how to
read, write, calculate, and reason. By about age ten years, the brain’s weight is about 90%
of the adult brain. Children in this age (of 5-12 years) develop more social awareness and a
wider awareness of the world around them. They also know what they like and dislike and

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develop interests in hobbies and sports. As they do so, neurons are developing many more
detailed dendrite branches. It is a time where the synapses reach the maximum number and,
at the same time, there is heavy ‘pruning’ of the weak or rarely used synapses.

The Adolescent Brain

An adolescent’s brain undergoes significant structural changes. In fact, the scale
of the changes compare with those of the infant. This is often the reason for the strange
behavior that an adolescent can exhibit. In some cases, the brain cell thickening, which could
indicate massive changes in synaptic reorganization (Durston et al., 2001), is not complete
until age 30 years.

Figure 20. Changes in the adolescent brain (Source: [Link]

The front of the brain (prefrontal cortex), the area responsible for reasoning, is the
last area to mature as it is the last area to myelinate (mid-20s). Hence, the adolescent is
more likely to rely on emotions than rational thinking in decision making. The amygdala,
emotion center, is also immature and not fully connected to the frontal lobe. The effect is the
adolescent will have a more difficult time interpreting their emotion as well as those of others.
Pustilnik and Henry said “...a teen may intellectually understand an issue and emotionally
have a response to that issue, but those two processes may occur nearly in parallel rather
than in dialogue...”. A brain undergoing reorganization could be very unstable,
unpredictable, and volatile.

Further refining of gross and fine motor skills takes place during adolescence. Peak
physical motor development is often reached between 18-30 years of age

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 The level of certain chemicals in the brain can help to explain teenage behavior. One
of these chemicals is melatonin ( sleep hormone) which is associated with sleep regulation.
The level of melatonin is low in the teenager – most teenagers will want to go to bed later
and get up later. This is often not a good fit to class times, so that classrooms may have
sleepy students who then under-perform academically. The neurotransmitter dopamine (as
well as its receptors in neurons) is abundant in the teenage expression. Sex, alcohol, drugs,
palatable food, gambling, video games through dopamine triggers the reward centers of the
brain and this makes adolescents vulnerable to addiction

Factors affecting Biological or Physical Development

Nature Factors
Heredity is at play in biological and physical development. Our genes predispose us
to certain physical traits, including growth and development. It interacts with nature to
produce the phenotype. Some examples are (a) Height which are influenced by multiple

genes (tall parents → tall children) as well as nutrition, sleep, etc; and (b) Trisomy 21 - a.k.a.
Down syndrome, a condition where a child inherits an extra chromosome 21 (so they have 3

chromosome 21 instead of the regular 2) which leads to some common physical features like
flattened face, almond shaped eyes and short neck

Nutrition plays an important role in development of health and disease. Firstly,

nutrition (even starting during prenatal development) is related to functional outcomes in later
life. As an example, women who were pregnant during famines will likely bore low-birth
weight infants who have a higher likelihood of developing diabetes. This is because the
infants’ metabolism was programmed to work efficiently on low levels of nutrition, so, when
exposed to a nutrient-rich environment and lifestyle, they tend to suffer more from the side
effects of overnutrition. Also, sufficient food is important for proper growth and development
like how bones need protein, calcium, phosphorus and other nutrients to grow. Hence,
malnutrition delays child growth and development.

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 Sex. Different sexes grow and develop differently especially during puberty. Females
tend to mature earlier and faster while Males tend to mature later and longer. There are also
differences in body types between males and females:

● Gynecoid (female) - Pear-shaped bodies. Women tend to carry weight in the

thighs and buttocks
● Android (male) - Apple-shaped bodies. Men tend to carry weight in the
abdomen
Different hormones - chemical substances in the blood acting as “messengers of the
body ”- affect our growth and development. Growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor
(IGF) 1 are hormones which primarily influence body growth. Thyroid hormones control our
metabolism, i.e. hypothyroid (low in thyroid hormones) individuals show delayed growth and
maturity. Sex hormones leads to the development of primary (development of genitals) and
secondary sexual characteristics as well as physical growth (height and weight) observed
during puberty

Physical activity affects biological growth and development. Physical activity is

different from exercise: Physical activity involves movements of the skeletal muscles which
require energy use, while exercise is physical activity that is planned and structured to
maintain and condition the body. Physical activity affects our health: Low physical activity or
being sedentary can make you gain weight, while Moderate physical activity is protective and
helps gain muscle strength and develop bones. Outdoor play is beneficial because it also
exposes children which help them build a healthy immune system and resistance

Finally, our health also affects our growth and development. As officially defined by
the World Health Organization, health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-
being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Some medical conditions can delay
and impair growth. Children with cretinism or congenital hypothyroidism (because the mother
is not able to have adequate iodine while pregnant) will show severe stunted physical and
mental development. Children with digestive, heart, lung and kidney diseases will often show
growth problems

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Nurture Factors
Physical environment plays a role in influencing biological growth and development.
Children especially are more prone to the effects of the environment because they are still
developing and consume more (e.g. air, water) in proportion to their weight. Hazards in
physical surroundings have an impact in growth and development primarily affecting their
health like presence of pollution (e.g. air, noise) and contaminants/toxicants, cleanliness and
sanitation, presence of disease vectors like mosquitoes, hazards in the road and built
environment.

There is increasing amount of evidence that access to blue and green spaces plays a
role in human brain development as well as physical health, growth, development and
function in children and even adults

Seasonal variation affects growth and development. Children born in different seasons
(dry vs. wet) show different outcomes in life. One factor explaining this is the type and
amount of food available varies per season. The endocrine system is affected by seasonal
changes as well.

Climate change imposes challenges in human growth and development. Climate

change brings about ‘new’ diseases and aggravates current health disparities. It affects food
and water security and our existing economic and social structures. Countries like the
Philippines are on the forefront of the effects of climate change

Socio-economic influence is a well-known factor of human growth and development.

People coming from different socioeconomic backgrounds often have different body sizes,
health. This is related to access to good nutrition, health-promoting habits, housing and
healthcare. As an example, the level of education of parents is related with their employment,
income, healthcare practices and knowledge

Family size affects children's growth. Children from large families are more likely to
be smaller and lighter and limited resources should be shared among family members. Short
intervals between births may not optimize ‘critical windows’ of development in children since
care, nutrition and resources are diverted to the new member of the family.

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 Culture affects beliefs and practices in child rearing and health. We can see an
example of this in the Philippine context: (i) the use of “am” or rice water as (breast)milk
substitute or (ii) Children being reared by an extensive family and even the community.
Concept and aptness of play and work in different cultures. Most of the child rearing practices
of any given society are effective in raising healthy and competent children

Family. The role of the family must also be noted as it is a person’s primary social
group. The family provides (the earliest) experiences and needs of the individual (security,
nutrition, love). Relationships are fundamental to the child’s development. The child learns
and develops habits from their family which might be good or bad to their health

Experiences, learning and reinforcement also plays a role in biological growth and
development, specifically on our brain. Positive and negative experiences develop our brain,
and growth and learning are best when the child is safe and protected: conversing, playing
with and caring for the child; nurturing a child by understanding and responding to their
needs. Conversely, stress and trauma (such as abuse or neglect) can have long-term
negative effects on brain growth and development. Reinforcement is a component of learning
where an activity or exercise is repeated and refined to solidify the lessons learned.

Theories
Maturational-developmental theory / Developmental Milestones (Gesell )
Gesell’s theory is known as a maturational-developmental theory. It is the foundation
of nearly every other theory of human development after Gesell. Early in the 20th century,
Dr. Gesell observed and documented patterns in the way children develop, showing that all
children go through similar and predictable sequences, though each child moves through
these sequences at his or her own rate or pace.

This process consisted of both internal and external factors. The intrinsic factors
include genetics, temperament, personality, learning styles, as well as physical and mental
growth. Simultaneously, development is also influenced by factors such as environment,
family background, parenting styles, cultural influences, health conditions, and early
experiences with peers and adults. Gesell was the first theorist to systematically study the

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stages of development, and the first researcher to demonstrate that a child’s developmental
age (or stage of development) may be different from his or her chronological age.

The Cyclical Spiral

Gesell emphasized that growth always progresses in a pattern through predictable stages or
sequences. Sequential development begins within the embryo and continues after birth.
While an individual progresses through these stages at his or her own pace, the sequence
remains the same. According to Gesell, growth can be thought of as a cyclical spiral. Each
cycle of the spiral encompassing the time it takes to move through six stages, or half-year
increments. Notice that the time to complete a cycle of the six stages is quite rapid in early
life and slows down with age. Gesell’s cycles of development are divided into six well-
defined stages which are repeated throughout life. One cycle includes the following stages:
Smooth, Break-Up, Sorting Out, Inwardizing, Expansion, and Neurotic “Fitting Together”.
See figure below of the cycles of development.

Figure 22. Cycles of Development

Gesell’s research established normative trends for four areas of growth and
development, namely (1) Motor, (2) Adaptive (Cognitive), (3) Language, and (4) Personal-
Social behavior. Originally published as the Gesell Developmental Schedules in 1925, these

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developmental schedules, most recently updated in 2010, continue to serve and guide
pediatricians and psychologists throughout the world today.

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the Ecological Systems Theory.

It has recently been renamed “bioecological systems theory” to emphasize that a
child’s own biology is a primary environment fueling her development. The interaction
between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment,
and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one
layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look
not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger
environment as well.

Bronfenbrenner recognized that human interaction is influenced by larger social forces

and that an understanding of these forces is essential for understanding an individual. The
individual is impacted by several systems including:

● Microsystem includes the individual’s setting and those who have direct, significant
contact with the person, such as parents or siblings. The input of those is modified by
the cognitive and biological state of the individual as well. These influence the
person’s actions, which in turn influence systems operating on him or her.
● Mesosystem include the larger organizational structures, such as school, the family,
or religion. These institutions impact the microsystems just described. The philosophy
of the school system, daily routine, assessment methods, and other characteristics
can affect the child’s self-image, growth, sense of accomplishment, and schedule
thereby impacting the child, physically, cognitively, and emotionally.
● Exosystem includes the larger contexts of community. A community’s values, history,
and economy can impact the organizational structures it houses. Mesosystems both
influence and are influenced by the exosystem.
● Macrosystem includes the cultural elements, such as global economic conditions,
war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the
global community.
● Chronosystem is the historical context in which these experiences occur. This relates
to the different generational time periods previously discussed, such as the baby
boomers and millennials.
In sum, a child’s experiences are shaped by larger forces, such as the family, schools,
religion, culture, and time period. Bronfenbrenner’s model helps us understand all of the

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different environments that impact each one of us simultaneously. Despite its
comprehensiveness, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system’s theory is not easy to use. Taking
into consideration all the different influences makes it difficult to research and determine the
impact of all the different variables (Dixon, 2003). Consequently, psychologists have not fully
adopted this approach, although they recognize the importance of the ecology of the
individual.

Figure 23. Bronfenbrenner’s structure of environment

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