WACHEMO UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Instrumentation and Measurement (Meng4211)
Chapter One
Basic concept of measurement and Instrumentation
By: Mebratu B.
Measurement techniques have been of immense importance ever since the start of
human civilization, when measurements were first needed to regulate the transfer
of goods in barter trade to ensure that exchanges were fair.
The industrial revolution during the nineteenth century brought about a rapid
development of new instruments and measurement techniques to satisfy the
needs of industrialized production techniques.
• Measurement systems have important vital applications in our everyday lives,
whether at home, in our vehicles, offices or factories.
• We use measuring devices in buying our fruits and vegetables. We assume that
the measuring devices are accurate, and we assume that we are all referring to
the same units (e.g., kilogram, meter, liter etc). The consequence of inaccurate
measuring devices in this case leads to financial losses on our part.
• We check the temperature of our homes and assume that the thermostats
reading the temperature are accurate. If not, then the temperature will be either too
high or too low, leading to inconvenience and discomfort.
• We pay for our electricity in units of kWh and we assume that the electricity
meter is accurate and faithfully records the correct number of electricity units that we
have used.
• We pay for the water we consume in liters, and we also assume that the water meter is
correctly measuring the flow of water in liters. In this case as well, the error will
lead to financial loss.
Why we want to measure?
Need for measurement( why we want to measure or why measurement critically
important?). Generally we recognize there are three reasons for making
measurement.
• Engineering design physical system in the form of machines to serve some
specified functions.
• The behavior of the parts of the machine during the operation of the machine
needs to be examined or analyzed or designed such that it functions reliably. Such
an activity needs data regarding the machine parts in terms of material properties.
• Science proposes hypotheses or theories based on observations and these
need to be validated with carefully performed experiments that use many
measurements. When once a theory has been established it may be used to make
predictions which may themselves be confirmed by further experiments.
• For commerce
• Measurement is the act or the result of quantitative comparison between
predetermined standards and an unknown magnitude. The procedure and apparatus
employed for obtaining the comparison( calibration of the instrument is
basically important).
The determination of the amount is what measurement all about. If the amount
exist are related to the practice of mechanical engineering, then the determination of
their amount constitutes the subject of mechanical measurements.
Measurements provide us with a means of describing various phenomena in
quantitative terms.
The result of the measurement is expressed by a pointer deflection over a
predefined scale or a number representing the ratio between the unknown
quantity and the standard. Therefore, instruments can be classified as Analog
instrument and Digital instrument.
Analog instrument :The measured parameter value is display by the moveable
pointer. The pointer will moved continuously with the variable parameter/analog signal
which is measured. Example: ampere meter, voltage meter, ohm meter etc.
Figure 2)Analog voltmeter
Digital instrument :The measured parameter value is display in decimal (digital) form which the reading can be read
through in numbers form.
Figure3)Digital voltmeter
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the assignment of a number to a physical quantity or characteristic of
an object or event, which can be compared with other objects or events.
Generally ,the methods of measurement can be divided in to two:
1)Direct method of measurement 2) Indirect method of measurement.
1)Direct method of measurement: In this method the value of a quantity is obtained
directly by comparing the unknown with the standard. Direct methods are common for
the measurement of physical quantities such as length, mass and time. It involves no
mathematical calculations to arrive at the results, for example, measurement of length
by a graduated scale.
2)Indirect method of measurement: In this method several parameters (to which
the quantity to be measured is linked with) are measured directly and then the value is
determined by mathematical relationship. For example, measurement of density by
measuring mass and geometrical dimensions.
• The value of the unknown quantity can be measured by direct (I using ammeter, V
using voltmeter, R using ohm meter and so on) or indirect methods(R using
ammeter and voltmeter). In direct measurement methods, the unknown quantity is
measured directly instead of comparing it with a standard.
Methods of Measurements
In deflection methods, the value of the unknown quantity is measured by the help of a
measuring instrument having a calibrated scale indicating the quantity under measurement
directly, such as measurement of current by an ammeter.
In comparison methods, the value of the unknown quantity is determined by direct
comparison with a standard of the given quantity, such as measurement of emf by
comparison with the emf of a standard cell.
In null methods of measurement, the action of the unknown quantity upon the
instrument is reduced to zero by the counter action of a known quantity of the same
kind, such as measurement of weight by a balance, measurement of resistance, capacitance
and etc.
Differential methods of measurement, is method of measurement according to
which the difference between a known physical quantity and a physical quantity that
is being measured is established. If the difference between the quantity being measured
and the known quantity is small, the measurement error will depends mainly on the
accuracy to which the known quantity has been determined. For example,
determination of diameter with master cylinder on comparator.
A system of measurement is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to
each other. A measurement systems analysis considers the following:
• Selecting the correct measurement and approach.
• Assessing the measuring device.
• Assessing procedures and operators .
• Assessing any measurement interactions.
• Calculating the measurement uncertainty of individual measurement devices and/or
measurement system
Figure 5) The components of measurement system
• The purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process as
shown in the figure above.
• Observer is presented with a number which is the current value of the information
variable.
• In ideal measurement system the measured value is equal to the true value.
Elements of a measurement system
• A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of
some variable being measured. In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single
unit that gives an output reading or signal according to the magnitude of the unknown
variable applied to it.
• However, in more complex measurement situations, a measuring system consists of
several separate elements as shown in Figure below.
• The measurement system consists of the following four basic elements.
Figure 6) Basic elements of measurement system
Sensing element: is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends in
some way on the variable to be measured.
Signal conditioning element: takes the output of the sensing element and converts it
into a form more suitable for further processing.
For instance, the displacement-measuring strain gauge has an output in the
form of a varying resistance. The resistance change cannot be easily measured and so it is
converted to a change in voltage by a bridge circuit, which is a typical example of
a variable conversion element.
Signal processing element: takes the output of the conditioning element and
converts it into a form more suitable for presentation. Like , computer (calculates the
measured value of the variable from the incoming digital data).
Data presentation element: presents the measured value in a form which can be
easily recognized by the observer. Like simple pointer-scale indicator, chart
recorder, visual display unit.
Factors affecting a measurement process are:
• Equipment: measuring instrument, calibration.
• People: operators, training, education, skill, care and etc.
• Process: test method, specification.
• Samples: materials or items to be tested.
• Environment: temperature, humidity and etc.
• Management: training programs, methodology system, support of people, support of
quality management system.
Instrumentation is the use of measuring instruments to monitor and control a
process. It is the art and science of measurement and control of process variables
within a production, laboratory, or manufacturing area.
Instrumentation is an applied science that deals with analysis and design of systems for
measurement purposes such as;
• Quantify or expressing a variable numerically,
• Determine the value (magnitude) of some particular phenomena,
• Indicate record, register, signal, or perform some operation on the value it has
determined.
Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the
principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and
configuration of automated systems in electrical, mechanical, pneumatic domains etc.
Instrumentation engineers are commonly responsible for integrating the sensors
with the recorders, transmitters, displays or control systems. They may design or
specify installation, wiring and signal conditioning. They may be responsible for
calibration, testing and maintenance of the system.
Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values) like,
• Pressure
• Flow
• Temperature
• Levels of liquids
• Density
• Current
• Other mechanical properties
• Frequency
• Viscosity
• Displacement
• etc
Standards of Measurement
• Measurement, the process of quantifying a variable, is made by comparing the
unknown quantity with a predefined standard. Standard is a physical
representation of a unit of measurement.
• Measurements most commonly use the International System of Units (SI) as a
comparison framework. Broadly in science and technology, units are classified as
fundamental units and derived units. The SI system of units has seven units
called as fundamental units. A) Fundamental units
No Quantity SI unit Symbol
1 Length Meter m
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Current Ampere A
4 Time Second sec
5 Luminous intensity Candela cd
6 Temperature Kelvin K
7 Amount of substance Mole mol
B) Derived Units
Measurement categories
Broadly measurements may be categorized as given below.
1)Primary quantity: It is possible that a single quantity that is directly measurable is of
interest. An example is the measurement of the diameter of a cylindrical specimen. It is
directly measured using an instrument such as Vernier calipers.
2) Derived quantity: There are occasions when a quantity of interest is not directly
measurable by a single measurement process. The quantity of interest needs to be
estimated by using an appropriate relation involving several measured primary quantities.
The measured quantity is thus a derived quantity.
An example of a derived quantity is the determination of acceleration due to gravity (g)
by finding the period (T) of a simple pendulum of length (L). T and L are the measured
primary quantities while g is the derived quantity.
3)Probe or intrusive method: It is common to place a probe inside a system to
measure a physical quantity that is characteristic of the system. For example, hot wire
turbulence measurements.
4)Non intrusive method: When the measurement process does not involve insertion
of a probe into the system the method is referred to as being nonintrusive.
Methods that use some naturally occurring process, like radiation emitted by a body to
measure a desired quantity relating to the system, may be considered as non-intrusive.
A typical example for such a process is the use of Laser Doppler Velocimeter (LDV)
to measure the velocity of a flowing fluid.