Questions need to be answered

• What are the maximum and minimum temperatures,

pressures, levels, flow rates etc.

• What are the operating temperatures, pressures,

levels, flow rates and so on.

• What spans are desired for each measurement

• What safety precautions must be observed

• Are high speeds of response an important factor

• Is the process continuous or batch

• What are the most critical process requirements?

– temp must be controlled within specified limit
– flow rates must be controlled within specified limit
– tolerances of ratio mixing
– how purity of the product is defined

• can the process be shut down for instrument

repairs/replacement

• cost of product to be scrapped in case of severe

instrument failure

• will the process affect sensing element

Basic behavior of materials used
for instrumentation principles
• Linear expansion

• Cubic / Volumetric changes

• Resistance changes with temperature

• Thermoelectric effects

• Changes in materials because of light

• Changes in color with temperature

• Elasticity of materials
 Generalized instrument system

• Primary element
– converts a small part of the process energy
into a suitable form to be used by subsequent
stages

• Secondary element
– converts the output of the primary element into
a condition useful to the appropriate function
of the instrument

• Final element
– performs the operation like indicating,
recording, digital display etc
 Performance Characteristics
Static characteristics
Range
Those values which an instrument is
intended to measure, specified by the
upper and lower limits
Span
The difference between the upper and
lower limits of a range expressed in the
same units as range
Calibration
is the process of adjusting an instrument
or compiling a deviation chart so that its
reading can be correlated to the actual
value measured by a reference
measuring instrument with a high degree
of accuracy
 Static characteristics
Error
of the measurement is the difference between a
measured value and a true value of a measured
variable

Since we can not determine the true value of a

measured variable then, instead of it, we can use
its actual value, which can be obtained from
calibration.

Error can be expressed as

– Absolute value, i.e, ±20C
– Percentage of actual value
– Percentage of full scale deflection
 Static characteristics

• Accuracy
– is counter term of error
– is an agreement of a measurement with the
true value of the measured quantity

Accuracy is usually expressed as a

percentage of the instrument span (the
range of instrument measurement
capability) or full scale
| Am − Aa |
δ= x 100%
Amax − Amin

Am measured value
Aa actual value
Amax – Amin, Span or full scale of the
instrument
 Static Characteristics

Repeatability
The data being measured will be
repeatable if the same operator is able to
reach essentially the same outcome
multiple times on one particular
measurement with the same instrument

Reproducibility
The data will be reproducible if all the
operators who are measuring the same
items with the same instrument are
reaching essentially the same outcomes.

Good repeatability/reproducibility is no
guarantee of good accuracy, although
poor repeatability/reproducibility is a sure
sign of poor accuracy.
 Static Characteristics
Sensitivity
is the minimum change in input signal to which an
instrument can respond.

High sensitivity is desirable in an instrument because a

large change in output for a small change in input
implies that a measurement may be taken easily.

The most sensitive instrument equipment may not

always lead to the most precise or most accurate results.
The sensitivity of a measuring device with a linear static
characteristic is equal to the ratio between the variation
of the output signal of the measuring instrument and the
variation of its input signal which causes that variation of
the output signal

Δoutput
S= , input range should be specified
Δinput
 Static Characteristics
Resolution
is the smallest detectable increment of
measurement
can be larger or smaller than the inherent error.

Resolution and error are additive in terms

of total system error

Steel ruler
abs error ±0.1 mm, Res -- ±1mm
measuring accuracy is ±1.1mm
Plastic ruler
abs error ±0.5 mm, Res -- ±0.5 mm
measuring accuracy is ±1.0mm
 Static Characteristics

• Dead Zone
there exists an input which the instrument does
not respond

• Hysteresis
occurs when the measured value depends on
whether the process variable approached its
current value by increasing or decreasing its
previous value.
It is the delay between the action and reaction of
a measuring instrument.
Hysteresis is the amount of error that results
when this action occurs.
 Static Characteristics
Drift
A gradual and unintentional change in the
reference value with respect to which
measurements are made.

Zero Drift, the

movement of a sensor's
zero point (z), can be
visualized as a
shift along the line z-z‘.
-- span (the vertical
distance between z-z'
and s-s') stays the same.

Span drift, a change in the

sensor's output (s), can be
visualized as a movement of
the line s-s' such that it
becomes non-parallel to z-z'
(i.e., either a change in
slope or a change in slope in
conjunction with a shift of
the line).
 First Letter Succeeding Letters
Measured or initiating Modifier Readout or passive Output function Modifier
variable function
A Analysis Alarm
B Burner flame User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice
C Conductivity Control
(electrical)
D Density (mass), Differential
specific gravity
E Voltage (e.m.f.) Primary element
F Flow rate Ratio
(fraction)
G Gaging Glass
(dimensional)
H Hand (manually High
initiated)
I Current (electrical) Indicate
J Power Scan
K Time or time Control station
schedule
L Level Light low
M Moisture or Middle or
humidity intermediate
N User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice User’s choice
O User’s choice Orifice (restriction
P Pressure or Point (test
vacuum connection)
Q Quantity or event Integrate or
totalise
R Radioactivity Record or print
S Speed or Safety Switch
frequency
T Temperature Transmit
U Multivariable Multifunction Multifunction Multifunction
V Viscosity Valve, damper
W Weight or force
X Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified
Y User’s choice Relay or
compute
Z Position Drive, actuate
 Flue gases

PT PC 3-3
3-1 3-2
TT
1-1
TC *
1-2

Process stream out

FFC **
1-5
FT
1-4

FT
2-4 FE
1-3

FE
2-3 Process stream in
Fuel 1-6

2-6
Air
FE
2-1

FT
2-2 * - Primary (master) controller
FFC ** - Secondary (slave) controller
2-5
 Temperature Measurement
Non-electrical method
¾ Change in solid dimension
¾ Change in vol. of a liquid
¾ Change in pressure of a gas
¾ Change in vapor pressure

Electrical Method
¾ Voltage generated when the common junction of
two dissimilar metals heated

¾ Resistance change of materials due to

temperature changes

¾ Comparing color of the object with the reference

body

¾ Estimating the amount of radiation energy

received from the body
 Bimetal Thermometer
• Bimetallic devices take advantage of the
difference in rate of thermal expansion between
different metals.

• Strips of two metals are bonded together. When

heated, one side will expand more than the other,
and the resulting bending is translated into a
temperature reading by mechanical linkage to a
pointer.

• These devices are portable and they do not

require a power supply, but they are usually not
as accurate as thermocouples or RTDs and they
do not readily lend themselves to temperature
recording.

• Used more frequently in temperature

compensating devices and in thermostats for
controlling temperature within a range.
 Liquid Filled-in system
• Thermometric liquids
– Mercury, ethyl alcohol, xylene, toluene, ether
etc. are used to fill the entire system

• Since the total volume of the thermal

system is constant, then variation of
temperature of the media where the
thermal bulb is immersed, causes
variation in the pressure of the
thermometric liquid.

• This variation in pressure is proportional

to the variation of temperature. Therefore,
scales of liquid-filled thermometers are
uniform.

• These thermometers are used for

temperature measurement in the range
from -150 to 3000C.
Liquid Filled-in System
 Liquid Filled-in system
Factors influencing accuracy
• Variation in ambient temperature
– Calibration of the thermometer is done at
different ambient temperature
• Compensation by
– Attaching bimetallic thermometer at the free
end of the bourdon spring, or
– Connecting another bourdon spring with same
length of capillary tubing at the free end of the
instrument bourdon spring, or
– Increasing bulb volume to capillary volume
ratio. Normally capillary tubing length is
restricted to 10 meter.

• Variation in pressure head

• Variation in atmospheric pressure

– System is filled with liquid under pressure from
0.5 to 2.0 MPa
 Gas Thermometer
• Construction similar with liquid
thermometer
• Constant volume thermometers and
develop pressure with temperature
• Nitrogen or Helium is employed to fill the
system
• Used for temperature measurement in
the range from -200 to 6000C.
• Ambient temperature influences the
accuracy of measurement
• Compensation technique is same as
liquid thermometer
• They have widest temperature range of
all filled-in systems
• These thermometers have uniform scales
• They have the longest capillary length
compared with other filled-in systems
 Vapor Pressure Thermometer
• Systems are filled to 2/3 of the volume of thermal
bulb by a low boiling liquid

• Freon, propylene, acetone, ethylbenzene, methyl

chloride, etc are used

• Upper part of the thermal bulb and the capillary

tube is occupied by saturated vapour of this liquid

• Vapour pressure depends only on the

temperature of saturated liquid in the thermal
bulb, and therefore, does not depend on the
variation of the ambient temperature

• Relationship between saturation pressure and

temperature for liquids is non-linear. Hence the
scales of these thermometers are non-uniform.

• The length of the capillary tube usually does not

exceed 25 m.

• Narrow temperature range from -50 to 3000C

• Slow response time (time lag) of about 20

seconds
 Thermocouple
• Seebeck (1821) effect
– Electromotive force is generated in a closed
circuit of two wires made of dissimilar metals if
two junction are at different temperatures

• One junction is inserted into a measuring

media and is called hot or measuring
junction

• Another one, called a cold or reference

junction is kept either at 00C or at
ambient temperature and is connected to
a measuring instrument.

• Primary output is in the range of millivolts

6
3
+ +

-
-

1 2
4 5
7 8
 Thermocouple
Types of thermocouples

Type Material Range(0C)

S Platinum / -50 to 1765

Platinum – 10% Rhodium

B Platinum – 6% Rhodium / 0 to 1820

Platinum – 30% Rhodium

K Nickel – Chromium (Chromel) / -270 to 1370

Nickel – Alumel (Alumel)

J Iron / -210 to 1200

Copper – Nickel (Constantan)

T Copper / -270 to 400

Copper – Nickel (Constantan)

E Nickel – Chromium (Chromel) / -270 to 1000

Copper – Nickel (Constantan)
 Thermocouple Laws
1. The thermocouple effect depends only
on the temperature of the junction and is
unaffected by the intermediate
temperatures along the wires

2. Additional metals can be introduced in

the circuit without affecting the potentials
provided the junctions of each metal are
at the same temperature

3. Law of intermediate metals can be used

to determine the voltage of a
thermocouple A/B if voltages for TC’s
A/C and C/B are known

4. The contact potentials across the

junctions are dependent on absolute
temperatures and have the form
E(T) = AT+BT2+CT3+……
For TC,
E(Th, Tc) = A(Th – Tc) +B(Th – Tc)2+….
In industrial environment, it is not
possible (or is not convenient) to keep the
temperature of the cold junction at 00C.

Therefore to evaluate the actual e.m.f

and finally, the actual measuring
temperature, we should introduce a
correction.

A final equation of the form

E(T,0) = E(T,Ta) + E(Ta, 0)
Should be used to read the temperature.
 Thermocouple
Properties of metals used as electrodes
for thermocouples are as follows:
1. Reproducibility of material, i.e.
possibility of obtaining of metal wires
with the same properties
2. Resistance of metal electrodes should
be small and have a weak relationship
vs temperature
3. Stability of static characteristics, i.e.
recovery of properties after
measurements
4. High sensitivity
5. Correlation should be close to linear
relationship as much as possible

The sensitivity for thermocouple J-type

is highest S=0.055 mv/0C
 Resistance Temperature Detector
• Principal
Increase of electrical resistance of metals
with increasing temperature
RT = R0 (1 + αT)
• Metals used
Platinum, Copper, Nickel

400

350
Platinum RTD
Copper RTD
300

250
R, Ohm

200

200
150
150
100
100
50
0
50
0 40 80 120 160 200

0
-300 -100 100 300 500 700 900

t, oC
 Resistance Temperature Detector
Selection of Material
• High Temperature coefficient

• High resistivity of the material

– Ensures larger for same wire length
and increases output

• Linearity of relationship

• Stability of electrical charactertistics

• Sufficient mechanical strength

 Resistance Temperature Detector

a
b

2 1 5 3 6 4 7

Construction
• Sensitive elements of RTDs are made of a thin
wire 1 with outside diameter equal to 0.025 mm
(platinum RTD) and 0.1 mm (copper RTD)
• double wounded (non-inductive) on a micaceous
or porcelain stem 2.
• For mechanical strength the sensitive element is
placed in the ceramic insulator tube 3 filled by
extremely fine granular powder;
• extension wires are placed in the ceramic
insulator 4,
• entire assembly is covered by a protective sheath
of stainless steel 5.
• The space between the sheath and ceramic
insulator is filled by ceramic packing powder 6.
• To avoid contact of sensitive element with
environment, sensitive assembly is protected by
high-temperature hermetic seal 7.
• The contact between the wire of the sensitive
element and the ceramic encapsulation permits a
rapid speed of response.
 Resistance Temperature Detector
2- lead circuit permissible
only when lead wire
resistance can be kept to
a minimum and only
where a moderate degree
of accuracy is required.
R1 + R3 =R2 + a + b + x
Since R1 = R2
R3 = a + b + x

3-lead circuit. Two leads are

connected in close proximity
to the resistance element at a
common node. Third lead is
connected to the opposite
resistance leg of the element.
Resistance of lead a is added
to bridge arm R3, while
resistance of lead b remains
on bridge arm RX, thereby
dividing the lead resistance
and retaining a balance in the
bridge circuit. Lead
resistance c is common to
both left and right loops of the
bridge circuit.

R1 + R3 + a+ c =R2 + b + x + c; Since R1 = R2 and

if a = b then R3 = x
 Resistance Temperature Detector
• Errors in Measurement
• Self Heating error
This is more pronounced if the measuring
current is quite high causing an
appreciable I2R loss. Typically, a
dissipation constant is provided in RTD
specifications. This is power required to
raise RTD temperature by one degree C.
• Thermo-emf error
The terminal wires of the resistance
elements are generally of a material
different from that of the element
material. If the terminal junctions are at
different temperatures, the developed
thermo-emf may cause error.
• Leakage current
A leakage current between the resistance
element and the ground should be
avoided.
 Thermocouple vs RTD
Cost:
Although cost of RTDs is trending downward,
thermocouples generally continue to be less expensive
However, RTDs do not require compensation, special
lead-wires, and special signal conditioning for long
runs.

Accuracy :
In general, ±40C for thermocouples and ±0.50C for
RTDs.

Ruggedness:
For adverse process environments, including high
temperatures and vibration, RTDs are not regarded as
highly as thermocouples.

Temperature range:
For TCs, it extends to about 11500C or higher but
cryogenic range is somewhat less than RTD. For RTD,
max temperature is ~ 8000C.

Size:
Normally RTDs are smaller than thermocouples.

Output:
Millivolt output of thermocouple can be corrupted with
electrical noise. For RTDs, output can be controlled by
the adjusting the current and bridge design in the signal
conditioning module.
 Thermistor
• is an electrical device made of a solid
semiconductor with a high temperature coefficient
of resistivity which would exhibit a linear voltage-
current characteristic if its temperature were held
constant.
• The approximate relationship applying to most
thermistors are ⎛1 1 ⎞
B .⎜ − ⎟
Rt = R0 .e ⎝ T T0 ⎠

A number of metal oxides and their mixtures, including

the oxides of cobalt, copper, iron, magnesium,
manganese, nickel, tin, titanium, uranium, and zinc,
are among the most common semiconducting
materials used in the construction of thermistors.

Usually compressed into the desired shape

from the specially formulated powder, the oxides are
then recrystallized by heat treatment, resulting in a
dense ceramic body.

The leadwires are then attached while electric contact

is maintained, and the finished thermistor is then
encapsulated.

Various configuration of thermistors are bead, disc, washer

and rod type.
 Optical pyrometer
• One of the earliest non-contact accurate
temperature-measuring device

• makes a photometric match between the

brightness of an object and an internal
lamp.

• These pyrometers are sensitive only in a

very narrow wavelength range.

• The instrument is particularly adapted to

manual operation and portability.

• The temperature range is limited at the

lower end by the need for an
incandescent image of the filament to
about 8000C. The upper temperatures
are limited only by the needs of the
application.

• Accuracy is typically from ±5 to ±10 K

 9
4
5 6 7 8
1 2 3

10
11

• Object 1 emits electromagnetic radiation with intensity

proportional to its absolute temperature.
• This radiation passes through lens 2 and red optical filter 3.
Optical filter picks out only the desired wavelength - red.
• Then radiation focuses on the platinum/ tungsten filament of a
lamp 4, and passes through another filter 5, lens 6, viewing
system 7.
• The viewer 8 sees the platinum filament superimposed on an
image of the object 1.
• When the temperature of the filament is low comparing with
that of the object, the viewer sees the filament as a dark line
on the bright background image of the object.
• The lamp 4 is connected in series with an electrical battery 9,
a variable resistor 10 and an ampermeter 11.
• By reducing the resistance of the resistor an electrical current
passing through the filament increases. So does the
temperature of the filament and its brightness.
• For a certain value of an electrical current (corresponded to a
certain value of an object temperature), the brightness of the
platinum filament will match the brightness of the object 1. At
this setting the viewer cannot distinguish between the image of
the object and the filament. At this time the measurement of
temperature is performed.
 Radiation Pyrometer
3

1 2

• very simple and cheap

• use an exponential relationship between a total emitted
EMR energy and given temperature.
• Wavelength range: infrared (2.5 < λ < 20 μm) to visible
wavelengths (0.42 < λ < 0.7 μm)
• object 1 is focused by a spherical reflector 2 on a series
of micro-thermocouples attached to a blackened
platinum disc 3.
• The radiation is absorbed by the disc, which
temperature is increased
• thermal electromotive force U developed by the series
of thermocouples is proportional to the temperature of
hot junctions of thermocouples, and, finally, to the
temperature of the object 1.
• widely used for temperature measurements in metal
production facilities, glass industries, semiconductor
processes, etc
• lower limits for radiation pyrometers vary from 0 to 600
°C, the upper limits vary from 1000 to 1900 °C.
• The accuracy varies from ±0.5 to ±5 K, depending on
cost.
 Pressure Measurement
Can be classified in two broad categories
– Manometric or Gauge Pressure
– Vacuumetric or below atmospheric

Based on operational principles pressure

measurements may be categorized as
• Liquid filled pressure gauges
U-tube manometers, well manometers, bell-type
manometers etc.

• Elastic-element mechanical pressure

gauges
Bourdon tube, bellows-type, diaphragm-type
pressure gauges

• Dead-weight pressure gauges

• Electrical-type pressure gauges

Inductive, resistive, capacitive, Piezoelectric
pressure gauges
Manometers (used upto 2 kg/cm2)
Ring Balance Manometer

Moment due to ΔP about pivot = ΔP A d/2

Moment due to W = R sinφ W
Since net moment = 0, sinφ = ΔP A d/(2 R W)
Bell gauges

Used to measure DP between 0.06 – 4 Kpa

Governing equation p1- p2 = W d sinφ / ( l A)
A is c/s area of bell.
A Bourdon tube is C-shaped and has an oval cross-section
with one end of the tube connected to the process pressure.
The other end is sealed and connected to the pointer or
transmitter mechanism. To increase their sensitivity, Bourdon
tube elements can be extended into spirals or helical coils.
This increases their effective angular length and therefore
increases the movement at their tip, which in turn increases
the resolution of the transducer
 Bellows

Metallic bellows is a series of circular parts so joined or

formed that they can expand only axially by pressure
-Consists several convolutions or folds
Methods of manufacture
-By turning from a solid stock of metal
-By soldering or welding stamped annular rings
-Rolling a tubing
-Hydraulically forming a drawn tubing
Characteristic of bellows element are specified as
-maximum stroke length
-Maximum allowable pressure
Stroke length increases with more no of folds
Working stroke length should be within 10% of maximum
stroke length

Selection of material for bellows

-range of pressure
-Hysteresis
-Fatigue on dynamic operation
-Corrosion
-Fabrication ease

Carbon steel for good strength

Brass, phosphor bronze for low hysteresis
Elastic Types
Diaphragm elements ( low pressure measurement)
-- metallic with good spring characteristics
-- non-metallic with no elasticity (slack diaphragm)
-- max. deflection at the center
-- deflection should be restricted for repeatability

a) Diaphragm
b) Corrugated
c) Catenary
d) capsule
Dead Weight Tester

Used to calibrate the pressure gauges

 Flapper-Nozzle system

Position to Output
gage
Nozzle
Pneumatic signal pressure, P ; x clearance
out

Transducer Volume, V
Patm

Fout
Dor
Dn
gage For Fn
Ps = 140 kPa

1 2 3

π
For = Cd Dor2 2ρair (Psabs − Pout
abs
)
4 P gage
gage
Pout = s
Dn2 x2
1 + 16 4
Fn = CdπDn x 2ρ air ( Pout
abs
− Patm ) Dor

Steady-state Characteristic of Flappe-Nozzle Sensor

140

120 Series1
Output pressure, kPa

100

80

60

40

20

0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Displacement, mm
 Pneumatic Relay Amplifier

Psgage = 140 kPa Fs

F s,amp
3
6

P gageline

5
F line

F vent
y Fn
gage
4 P out F out
x

2 1
 pneumatic torque-balance transmitter

gage
Ps = 140 kPa

gage
P line

gage
Vent P out

gage
F P line

b a
x

F0
1 2 3 6 5

1– beam; 2- pivot; 3- negative feedback bellows; 4 -

nozzle; 5- flapper; 6-zero adjustment spring;7- pneumatic
relay
 pneumatic ΔP transmitter

3
g
gage
P out
4
F0
e
5
To pneumatic
7 f
amplifier
8
F2

F5

P2 P1
d F3 Pgageline
- +
6
2

F1

1 - diaphragm capsule;2 - force beam;3 - flapper;4 - nozzle;

5 - span nut; 6 -feedback bellows;7 - feedback beam;
8 - zero adjustment spring.
 LVDT is an electromechanical device that
produces an electrical output proportional to
the displacement of a movable core. One
primary and two secondary coils are arranged
symmetrically to form a hollow cylinder. A
magnetic nickel-iron core, supported by a
nonmagnetic push rod, moves axially within
the cylinder

With ac excitation of the primary coil, induced voltages will

appear in the secondary coils. Because of the symmetry
of magnetic coupling to the primary, these secondary
induced voltages are equal when the core is in the center
position. When the secondary coils are connected in
series opposition, the secondary voltage will cancel and,
ideally, there will be no net output voltage. If, however, the
core is displaced from the null position, one secondary
voltage will increase, while the other decreases. Since the
two voltages no longer cancel, a net output voltage will
now result.
Advantages of LVDT

• Essentially frictionless measurement because

there is no physical contact between the movable
core and the surrounding core structure. This
permits its use in critical measurements that can
tolerate the addition of the low-mass core, but
cannot tolerate friction loading.

• Extremely long mechanical life as particularly

required in high-reliability mechanisms and
systems found in aircraft, missiles, space
vehicles, as well as some industrial equipment.

• Essentially infinite resolution, allowing the LVDT

to respond to minute motion of the core.

• Null repeatability, permitting the device to be used

as a null-position indicator in high-gain closed-
loop control systems.

• Cross-axis rejection because the LVDT is

sensitive to axial core motion, but relatively
insensitive to radial core motion.

• Environmental compatibility because, with the

selection of proper construction materials, the
LVDT can operate at cryogenic temperatures
(immersed in liquid nitrogen or oxygen, for
example, as well as in nuclear reactors with high
radiation levels and in fluids at elevated
temperatures and pressures).
 • Strain gage is one of the most widely used strain
measurement sensors. It is a resistive elastic unit
whose change in resistance is a function of applied
strain ΔR/R = S. ΔL/L (S is gauge factor)
• Strain gages usually are mounted directly on the
pressure sensor for e.g. sensing diaphragms or bonded
to cantilever springs, which act as a restoring force.
• They are made using special metal alloy (Nichrome V,
constantan etc) conductors with high resistivities, high
gage factors, and low temperature coefficients.

The metal alloy of a bonded foil strain gage is formed into a

back-and-forth grid to decrease the overall length of the
strain gage system. The length of the grid versus the width
is designed to concentrate the strain-sensing grid over the
high-strain area.

Foil strain gages with gage resistance values of 120, 350,

and 1000 ohms are common, with special gages for use with
4- to 20-mA electronic transmitters having resistances as
high as 5000 ohms.
Capacitance type transmitter
Flow Measurement Techniques
FlowMeters
[Link] Type
• Orifice
-- more used than others
-- Cheap and easily reproducible
• Venturi
-- more accurate than orifice
-- more costly
• Flow Nozzle
-- cheaper than venturi
-- more accurate than orifice
2. Area Type
• Rotameter
-- used for normal fluids
• Piston type
-- used for viscous fluids
3. Mass Flowmeter
• Turbine Type
-- not usable at low flow rates and fluids having
suspensions
• Corriolis force type
-- usable with slurries and liquids with suspended
solids, limited range of opertion
• Calorimetric type
-- a low range instrument
4. Positive Displacement Type
• Nutating Disc
• Rotating Vane
• Lobed Impeller
• Reciprocating Piston

5. Electrical Type
• Electromagnetic
• Ultrasonic
• Hot Wire

6. Digital Type
• Vortex
• Flow Marker type

7. Open Channel Type

8. Solid Flow meter

 Head Flowmeters

Orifice meter
Square edge concentric
-- clean liquids, gases and steam
-- Re ≥ 2000, size ≥ ½”

Conical/Quadrant edge
-- Viscous liquids
-- Re ≥ 500, size ≥ 1 - 6”

Segmental/ Eccentric
-- liquids and gases containing secondary fluid phases
-- Re ≥ 10000, size ≥ 4 – 14”

Venturi meter
-- high flow rates
-- Clean & dirty fluids, gases, steams, slurries
-- Re ≥ 75000, size ≥ ½ - 72”

Flow Nozzle
-- Clean fluids, steam
-- Re ≥ 50000, size ≥ 2”
Installation
-- Density error may be corrected for compressible fluids
if ΔP/PUPSTREAM > 0.25
-- When in addition to measuring flow, process temp or
press to be measured then
-- pressure transmitter should be installed in the
appropriate lead line
-- thermowell for temperature measurement should be
installed 10D downstream of the flow element to
prevent velocity profile distortion
-- Flow straighteners can be used to reduce straight pipe
run
-- vent/drain hole should be provided in the orifice plate for
entrained gases/liquids

Orifice Tappings
Up Down
Flange tap 1” 1” for D> 2”
Radius tap D ½D for D < 2”
Vena contracta D 0.4-0.8 D for D > 6”
Pipe tap 2.5D 8D mainly for gas flows

Venturi Tappings
½ - ¼ D upstream from inlet one and in the middle of the
throat section
Flow Nozzle
1D upstream and ½ D downstream from the inlet face
Positive displacement flowmeters
-- also known as PD meters
-- measure volumes of fluid flowing through by counting
repeatedly the filling and discharging of known fixed
volumes.

-- comprises a chamber that obstructs the flow

-- rotating/reciprocating unit create fixed-volume
discrete parcels from the passing fluid.
-- flow measurement by counting
the number of passing parcels
or
the number rounds of the rotating/reciprocating
device

Common positive displacement flowmeters are:

-- Nutating disc
-- Rotating Valve
-- Oscillating Piston
-- Oval gear
-- Rotating lobe
-- Rotating impeller
Nutating Disc

Rotating Valve
Oval Gear

Rotating Lobe
Points to note for PD meters :
1. Higher maintenance cost than other non-
obstructive flowmeters
2. High pressure drop due to its total obstruction on
the flow path
3. Not suitable for low flow rate-
4. Very low tolerance to suspension in flow
(particles larger than 100 µm need to be filtered
before the liquid enters the flowmeter)
5. Gas (bubbles) in liquid could significantly
decrease the accuracy
Ultrasonic Flow meters
measure
traveling times (Transit time ) or
frequency shifts (Doppler)
of ultrasonic waves in a pre-configured acoustic field that
the flow is passing through to determine the flow
velocity.

Points to note:
• No obstruction in the flow path, no pressure drop
• No moving parts, low maintenance cost
• Higher accuracy for wider ranges of Reynolds number
• Can measure corrosive or slurry fluid flow
• Higher initial set up cost
Transit Time ultrasonic flowmeters
- pair of transducers placed on the upstream and
downstream of the pipe
-Transducer consists of a transmitter and a receiver
- difference in time taken by the acoustic wave to travel from
upstream to downstream (td) and downstream to upstream
(tu) is related to fluid velocity.
-Higher the flow, more is this difference in time (td – tu)

Working Relation
L ∇t 2
V=
2 X tu t d
Doppler ultrasonic flow meter
- based on Doppler Effect
smaller wavelength and higher frequency if the source
moving towards observer and vice versa
-Flow velocity is related to frequency shifts of ultrasonic
wave due to flow
-Requires suspended solids or bubbles for reflection
- Can not handle clear fluid
 Turbine Flowmeter

. comprising a single turbine rotor, concentrically

mounted within a cylindrical housing through
which the flow passes.
.Flow passes through an annular region occupied
by the rotor blades.
.Blades are inclined at an angle to the incident
flow velocity and hence experience a torque which
drives the rotor.
.The rate of rotation is detected by a magnetic
reluctance pickup
 Electromagnetic Flow meter

magnetic flowmeter places electric coils around the pipe

of the flow to be measured and sets up a pair of
electrodes across the pipe wall.
If the targeted fluid is a conductor, its passing through
the pipe is equivalent to a conductor cutting across the
magnetic field. This induces changes in voltage reading
between the electrodes. The higher the flow speed, the
higher the voltage
 Electromagnetic Flowmeter

• Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states

d(BA)
E = −N
dt
where E is the voltage of induced current, B is the
external magnetic field, A is the corss section area of
the coil, N is the number of turns of the coil.

In case of magnetic flowmeters, the number of turns

N and the strength of the magnetic field B are fixed.

The Faraday's law becomes

•
dA dl
E = NB = NBD = NBDV
dt dt
• where D is the distance between the two electrodes
(the length of conductor), and V is the flow velocity.

• It is clear that the voltage developed is proportional to

the flow velocity.
• A prerequisite of using magnetic flowmeters is that
the fluid must be conductive. The electrical
conductivity of the fluid must be higher than 3 µS/cm
in most cases. A lining of nonconductive material is
often used to prevent the voltage from dissipating into
the pipe section when it is constructed from
conductive material.
Coriolis flowmeter