Elements of Mechanical Engineering-18ME15/25

MODULE-3

Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)

An internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the chemical energy of fuels is
converted to thermal energy and in turn is converted into mechanical energy which is used for
various types of mechanical transmissions such as in transportation systems, industrial works and
small power generation systems.
In all I.C. engines the heat energy is developed by the combustion of fuels inside a closed
chamber called engine cylinder.

Classification of IC Engines:-
A broad classification of I.C. Engines is as follows.
1. According to the nature of fuel used in the engine
i) Petrol engines
ii) Diesel engines
iii)Gas engines
2. According to the method of ignition of the fuel in the engine cylinder
i) Spark ignition engines
ii) Compression ignition engines
3. According to the cycle of operation
i) Two stroke cycle engines
ii) Four stroke cycle engines
4. According to the arrangement of the engine cylinder
i) Horizontal engines
ii) Vertical engines
iii)Radial engines
iv)In line engines
v) ‘V’ – engines
vi)Opposed piston and opposed cylinder engines
5. According to the method of cooling system used for the engine cylinder
i) Air cooled engines
ii) Water cooled engines
6. According to the use of engines
i) Automotive engines
ii) Stationary engines
iii)Marine engines
iv)Locomotive engines
v) Aero engines
7. According to the speed of the engines
i) Low speed engines
ii) High speed engines
iii)Medium speed engines

Prof. Ramesh B R, Dept. of Mech Engg., JIT, Davangere

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Main Components of I.C. Engines:-

The main components of an I.C. Engines are shown in figure and discussed below.
1. Cylinder:-
It is one of the most important part of the engine, in which the piston moves to and fro in
order to develop power. Generally, the engine cylinder has to withstand a high pressure and high
temperature. Thus the materials for an engine cylinder should be such that it can retain sufficient
strength at high pressure and temperature. For heavy duty engines, the cylinder is made of steel
alloys or aluminium alloys.

Fig 3.1
2. Cylinder Head:-
It is fitted on one end of the cylinder, and acts as a cover to close the cylinder bore.
Generally, the cylinder head contains inlet and exit valves for admitting fresh charge and
exhausting the burnt gases. In petrol engines, the cylinder head contains a spark plug for igniting
the fuel–air mixture at the end of compression stroke. But in diesel engines, the cylinder head
contains nozzle for injecting the fuel into the cylinder. The cylinder head is usually cast as one
piece and bolted to one end of the cylinder.
3. Piston:-
It is considered as the heart of an I.C. engine, whose main function is to transmit the force
exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod. The pistons are generally made of
aluminium alloys which are light in weight. They have good heat conducting property and also
greater strength at higher temperatures.
4. Piston Rings:-
These are circular rings and made of special steel alloys which retain elastic properties
even at high temperatures. The piston rings are housed in the circumferential grooves provided
on the outer surface of the piston. They will act as a pressure tight seal between the moving
piston and the cylinder wall. The piston rings also help in conducting away the heat from the
piston to the cylinder wall and later to the cooling system.

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5. Connecting Rod:-
It is a link between the piston and crankshaft, whose main function is to transmit force
from the piston to the crankshaft. Moreover, it converts reciprocating motion of the piston into
circular motion of the crankshaft, in the working stroke. The upper (i.e., smaller) end of the
connecting rod is fitted to the piston and the lower (i.e., bigger) end to the crank. Special steel
alloys or aluminium alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rods.
6. Crankshaft:-
The function of the crank shaft is to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary
motion with the help of connecting rod. The crankshaft is connected to the connecting rod by
means of a crank. The crank shaft transfers its motion to the driving system and also to the cam
and cam follower. It is usually made of alloy steel or forged steel.
7. Crank Case:-
It is a cast iron case, which holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C. engine. It also
serves as a sump for the lubricating oil.
8. Flywheel:-
It is a big wheel, mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain the speed
constant.

IC Engine Cycles:-
Otto Cycle (Constant Volume Cycle)
p
d

c
e

a b

y
Fig 3.2
The Otto cycle is used for petrol or gas engines. It is also called constant volume cycle as
the combustion takes place at constant volume with increase of pressure. The cycle is completed
in four strokes of the piston namely.
i) Suction Stroke ii) Compression Stroke
iii)Working or Power Stroke iv) Exhaust stroke
The different operations of a four stroke Otto cycle may be denoted by “abcdeba” in the
P-V diagram.
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i) Suction Stroke:-
During this stroke the exhaust valve is closed and the inlet valve is opened. The piston
draws the charge through the inlet valve at atmospheric pressure. During this operation the
pressure remains constant with increase in volume. This is denoted by line “ab” in the P-V
diagram.
ii) Compression Stroke:-
During this operation both inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The charge is compressed
as the piston moves towards the cylinder head. The pressure increases and the volume decreases.
This is denoted by curve “bc”. At the end of compression, the charge is ignited by means of an
electric spark and the pressure increases at constant volume. This is denoted by the vertical line
“cd”.
iii)Working Stroke (Power Stroke):-
It is denoted by “de” and “eb” in the P-V diagram. Burning gases expand with increase in
volume and decrease in pressure. The piston moves away from the cylinder head due to the
pressure of the hot gases exerted over the piston. At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve
opens and the hot gases are discharged into the atmosphere at constant volume and decrease in
pressure. It is denoted by line “eb”.
iv) Exhaust Stroke:-
During this stroke the piston moves towards the cylinder head and hot gases are driven
out through the exhaust valve into the atmosphere. During this process the pressure remains
constant with decrease in volume.
At the end of this stroke the inlet valve opens and the cycle repeats.

Diesel Cycle: (Constant Pressure Cycle)

p

c d

a b

Fig 3.3
This cycle is used for diesel engines. The fuel in injected into the cylinder in the form of a
fine spray at the end of compression. The operations of the diesel four stroke cycle is shown by
“abcdeba” in the P-V diagram. The cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston, as explained
below.
i) Suction Stroke:-
Both the exhaust and fuel valves are closed and the inlet valve is opened. Only air from
the atmosphere is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. During this process volume
increases with constant pressure, denoted by line “ab”.

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ii) Compression Stroke:-

During this process all the three valves are kept closed. The air is compressed with
increase in pressure and temperature which is sufficient to ignite the fuel. At the end of this
stroke the fuel valve is opened and fuel is injected at constant pressure, denoted by “cd”.
iii)Working Stroke (Power Stroke):-
The fuel is ignited as it comes in contact with hot compressed air. The piston is pushed
away from the cylinder head and during this process all the valves are kept closed. The
pressure decreases and the volume increases, denoted by the curve “de”. At the end of this
stroke the exhaust valve opens and hot gases are driven out at constant volume, denoted by line
“eb”.
iv) Exhaust Stroke:-
During this process the exhaust valve is opened and hot gases are driven out with
decrease in volume and at constant pressure.

Working of a 4-Stroke Cycle Spark Ignition Engine:-

(Petrol Engine)
Spark plug
Inlet Exhaust
valve valve

(a) Suction or (b) Compression (c) Expansion or (d) Exhaust

charging stroke stroke working stroke stroke

Four-stroke cycle petrol engine

Fig 3.4
Four stoke cycle petrol engine works on Otto cycle. In four stroke cycle one cycle of
operation will be completed in four strokes of the piston or in two revolutions of the crank shaft
i) Suction Stroke:-
In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and charge is sucked into the cylinder as the piston
moves from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre (BDC). The fresh charge (mixture of
petrol and air) enters into the engine cylinder through the inlet valve. At the end of the suction
stroke, the piston reaches BDC and the inlet valve closes. Suction stroke is shown in fig 3.4 (a).
ii) Compression Stroke:-
In this stroke, both inlet and exhaust valves are closed and the charge is compressed as
the piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC. As a result of compression, the pressure and

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temperature of the charge increases considerably. Just before the completion of compression
stroke, an electric spark is supplied through a spark plug fitted in the cylinder head. This spark
ignites the charge and initiates the combustion. Compression stroke is shown in fig 3.4 (b).
iii)Expansion or Working Stroke or Power Stroke:-
The charge which is ignited at the end of the compression stroke releases hot gases which
expand inside the engine cylinder. As a result of expansion of products of combustion, huge
amount of force will be exerted on the piston and the piston starts moving towards bottom dead
centre. During the expansion stroke both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. Since the
power is obtained in this stroke only, this stroke is also called power stroke or working stroke.
Working stroke is shown in fig 3.4 (c).
iv) Exhaust Stroke:-
In this stroke, the exhaust valve is opened as piston moves from BDC to TDC. This
movement of the piston pushes out the products of combustion from the engine cylinder and is
exhausted through the exhaust valve into the atmosphere. Exhaust stroke is shown in fig 3.4 (d).
This completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to draw the charge again.

Working of a 4-Stroke Cycle Compression Ignition Engine:-

(Diesel Engine)
It is also known as compression ignition engine because the ignition takes place due to
the heat produced in the engine cylinder at the end of compression stroke. The four strokes of a
diesel engine are described below,
i) Suction or Charging Stroke:-
In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and pure air is sucked into the cylinder as the piston
moves downwards from the top dead centre (TDC). It continues till the piston reaches its bottom
dead centre (BDC) as shown in fig 3.5 (a).
Fuel injection valve
Inlet Exhaust
valve valve

(a) Suction or (b) Compression (c) Expansion or (d) Exhaust

charging stroke stroke working stroke stroke

Four-stroke cycle diesel engine

Fig 3.5
ii) Compression Stroke:-
In this stroke, both the valves are closed and the air is compressed as the piston moves
upwards from BDC to TDC. As a result of compression, pressure and temperature of the air
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increases considerably. This completes one revolution of the crank shaft. The compression
stroke is shown in fig 3.5 (b).
iii)Expansion or Working Stroke:-
Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC (during the compression stroke), fuel oil
(diesel) is injected in the form of a very fine spray into the engine cylinder through the nozzle,
known as fuel injection valves. At this moment, temperature of the compressed air is sufficiently
high to ignite the fuel. It suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products of
combustion. The fuel oil is continuously injected for a fraction of the revolution. The fuel oil is
assumed to be burnt at constant pressure due to increases pressure, the piston is pushed down
with a great force. The hot burnt gases expand due to thigh speed of the piston. During this
expansion stroke, both the valves are closed and the piston moves from TDC to BDC. Expansion
stroke is shown in fig 3.5 (c).
iv) Exhaust Stroke:-
In this stroke, the exhaust valve is opened as the piston moves from BDC to TDC. This
movement of the piston pushes out the products of combustion from the engine cylinder through
the exhaust valve into the atmosphere. The exhaust stroke is shown in fig 3.5 (d).
This completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to draw the fresh air again.

Two-stroke Cycle Petrol Engine:-

In this cycle, the suction, compression, expansion and exhaust takes place during two
strokes of the piston. It means the there is one working stroke for every revolution of the crank
shaft. A two stroke engine has ports instead of valves. All the four stages of a two stroke petrol
engine are described below,
i) Suction Stage:-
In this stage, the piston, while going down towards BDC uncovers both the transfer port
and the exhaust port. The fresh fuel-air mixture flows into the engine cylinder from the crank
case, as shown in fig 3.6 (a).
Spark plug

Exhaust
Transfer port
port

Inlet
port

(a) Suction (b) Compression (c) Expansion (d) Exhaust

Two-stroke cycle petrol engine

Fig 3.6

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ii) Compression Stage:-

In this stage, the piston, while moving up, first covers the transfer port and then exhaust
port. After that the fuel is compressed as the piston moves upwards as shown in fig 3.6 (b). In
this stage, the inlet port opens and fresh fuel-air mixture enters into the crank case.
iii)Expansion Stage:-
Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC (during compression stroke), the charge is
ignited with the help of a spark plug. It suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the
products of combustion, but the volume practically remains constant. Due to rise in the pressure,
the piston is pushed downwards with a great force as shown in fig 3.6 (c). The hot burnt gases
expand due to high speed of the piston. During this expansion, some of the heat energy produced
is transformed into mechanical work.
iv) Exhaust Stage:-
In this stage, the exhaust port is opened as the piston moves downwards. The products of
combustion from the engine cylinder are exhausted through the exhaust port into the atmosphere,
as shown in fig 3.6 (d). This completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is ready to suck the
charge again.

Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines (S.I. Engines and C.I. Engines):-
Petrol Engines Diesel Engines
A petrol engine draws a mixture of petrol and A diesel engine draws only air during suction
air during suction stroke stroke
The carburetor is employed to mix air and
The fuel injector is employed to inject the fuel
petrol in the required proportion and to supply
at the end of compression stroke
it to the engine during suction stroke
Pressure at the end of compression is about 10 Pressure at the end of compression is about 35
bar bar
The fuel is injected in the form of fine spray.
The charge (i.e., petrol and air mixture) is
The temperature of the compressed air is
ignited with the help of spark plug
about 600°C and is sufficient to ignite the fuel
The combustion of fuel takes place The combustion of fuel takes place
approximately at constant volume. In other approximately at constant pressure. In other
words, it works on Otto cycle words, it works on Diesel cycle
A petrol engine has compression ratio A diesel engine has compression ratio
approximately from 6 to 10 approximately from 15 to 25
The starting is easy due to low compression The starting is little difficult due to high
ratio compression ratio.
As the compression ratio is low, the petrol As the compression ratio is high, the diesel
engines are lighter and cheaper engines are heavier and costlier
The running cost of a petrol engine is high The running cost of diesel engine is low
because of the higher cost of petrol because of the lower cost of diesel
The maintenance cost is less The maintenance cost is more.
The thermal efficiency is up to about 26% The thermal efficiency is up to about 40%
These are high speed engines These are relatively low speed engines
The petrol engines are generally employed in The diesel engines are generally employed in
light duty vehicles such as scooters, heavy duty vehicles like buses, trucks, and
motorcycles, cars, etc. earth moving machines etc.
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Differences between 4-Stroke Cycle and 2-Stroke Cycle I.C. Engines:-

Two Stoke cycle Engine Four Stroke cycle Engine
One cycle of operation will be completed in One cycle of operation will be completed in
two strokes of piston or in one revolution of four strokes of piston or in two revolutions of
the crank shaft the crank shaft
The inlet and exhaust ports are provided for The inlet and exhaust valves, are provided for
the passage of charge or air and products of the passage of fresh charge or air and products
combustion of combustion
The fresh charge or air enters first into the
The fresh charge or air enters into the engine
crank case and then into the engine cylinder
cylinder directly
through the transfer port
The entry of charge or air and exhaust of the The entry of fresh charge or air and exhaust of
products of combustion are controlled by the products of combustion will be controlled by
piston itself during its movement the valves
There will be one power stroke for every There will be one power stroke for every two
revolution of crank shaft revolutions of the crank shaft
The products of combustion, after doing their
work on the piston will be driven out of the The products of combustion after doing their
engine cylinder by means of fresh air or work on the piston will be driven out by
charge which enters into engine cylinder piston itself
through transfer port
The efficiency of two stroke engines will be
The efficiency of engines will be higher
less
Turning effort obtained at the crank shaft is Turning effort obtained at the crank shaft is
more uniform non uniform
Lighter fly wheels are required Heavier fly wheels are required
Used where lightness, compactness are of
Used where the efficiency is of much
much important such as in scooters, motor
importance such as in cars, buses, trucks etc.
cycles and ships

Terminology of IC Engines:-

Fig 3.7
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1. Bore Diameter (Bore):-

The inner diameter of the engine cylinder is called bore diameter or bore of the engine
and is measured in mm.
2. Stroke Length (Stroke):-
The linear distance measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder between the two extreme
positions of the piston is called stroke length and is measured in mm.
3. Top Dead Center (TDC):-
It is that extreme position of the piston inside the engine cylinder at which the volume
above the piston in the cylinder is minimum.
4. Bottom Dead Center (BDC):-
It is that position of the piston inside the engine cylinder at which the volume above the
piston in the cylinder is maximum.
5. Clearance Volume:-
It is the volume above the piston inside the engine cylinder when the piston is at TDC.
6. Stroke Volume:-
It is the volume of the engine cylinder between the two extreme positions of the piston
i.e., volume between TDC & BDC. If D is the bore diameter and L is the stroke length, stroke
volume is given by πD2 L/4
7. Compression Ratio:-
The compression ratio of an I.C. Engine is defined as the ratio of full cylinder volume to
the clearance volume.
Full cylinder volume = Stroke volume + Clearance volume
8. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP):-
It is the average pressure exerted by the gas on the piston and expressed in bar.
9. Indicated Power (IP):-
Indicated power is the power actually developed by the engine cylinder.
p m×L× A×n
IP= kW
60000

The above expression is for single cylinder engine

Pm → Mean effective pressure in bar
L → Stroke length in m
A → Area of the piston in m2
n = Number of working strokes per minute
= N………for two stroke cycle engine
= N/2 …… for four stroke cycle engine.
10. Brake Power (BP):-
The brake power is the power available at the crank shaft.

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Torque in Nm×angle truned in radians through 1 revolution

kW
60×1000
BP =
T ×2 πN (W ×l)×2 πN
kW kW . .. .. . for Prony brake
=
60×1000 = 60000
BP
W → Brake load in Newtons
1 → length of the arm in m
(W −S )πDN
BP= kW .. . .. .. . .. for rope brake
60×1000
W → Dead load in Newtons
S → Spring load in Newtons
D → Diameter of brake drum in m
N → Engine speed in rpm
11. Mechanical Efficiency (ηmech):-
It is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power
BP BP
η mech= =
IP BP+ FP
FP → Frictional Power
12. Overall Efficiency (ηoverall):-
It is the ratio of work obtained at the crank shaft in a given time to the energy supplied by
the fuel during the same time.
BP×60×60
ηoverall =
mf C

BP is in kW or kJ/s
m f → Mass of fuel consumed in kg/hr
C → Calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg
13. Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηIthermal):-
BP×3600
η Ithermal=
mf C

14. Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηBthermal):-

BP×3600
η Bthermal=
mf C
It is also known as overall thermal efficiency of the engine
15. Volumetric Efficiency (ηvol):-
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It is the ratio of actual volume of charge admitted during the suction stroke at NTP to the
swept volume of the piston. Mathematically, volumetric efficiency
Volume of charge admitted at NTP Va
η vol= =
Swept volume of the piston Vs

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Refrigeration:-
Refrigeration is defined as the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of
space or substance below the temperature of its surrounding or atmosphere by continuously
removing heat of the space or substance by means of external work input.
The equipment used in the refrigeration is called refrigerator and the working substance
used in the refrigeration is called refrigerant.

Principle of Refrigeration:-

Atmosphere, T02 C

Refrigerator W - Work Input

Space to be Refrigerated,T10 C

Fig 3.8
The fig 3.8 shows the principle used in refrigeration. A refrigerator is defined as an
equipment used to reduce and maintain the temperature of a space or substance below the
temperature of its surroundings.
In the figure shown above, the quantity of heat Q is continuously removed from the space
at T1 C and rejected to the atmosphere at T 2°Cwith the help of work input W, so that the
°

temperature T1°C of the space is maintained consistently below temperature T 2°C of the
atmosphere.

Parts of Refrigerator:-
To accomplish the task of producing cooling effect, a refrigerating device may consist of
the following parts.
1. Evaporator 2. Compressor 3. Pump
4. Absorber 5. Condenser 6. Separator/Generator
7. Expansion device/Throttle valve
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Application or Uses of Refrigeration:-

1. Ice making
2. Preservation and transportation of food products, dairy products and medicines
3. Air conditioning
4. Cooling of concrete for dams
5. Treatment of air for blast furnace
6. Products of rocket fuels
7. Proper functioning of computers
8. Precision manufacturing industries
9. Process industries producing food products, beverages, textiles, printing, photographic
material, oil refining, tobacco etc.
10. Special industrial process namely chemical, medical, surgical aids, etc.
11. Biological fields such as cryosurgery, cryobiology, etc.

Refrigerant:-
A substance which absorbs heat and undergoes phase change is called refrigerant. It is
the working fluid used in the refrigerator.

Properties of a Good / Ideal Refrigerant:-

A good refrigerant should possess chemical, physical and thermodynamic properties
which permit its efficient application in the refrigeration system. An ideal refrigerant should
have the following properties.
1. Thermodynamic Properties
i) Low boiling point
ii) Low freezing point
iii) Positive pressure in condenser and evaporator
iv) High saturation temperature
v) High latent heat of vaporization
2. Chemical Properties
i) Non toxic
ii) Non flammable and non explosive
iii) Non corrosive
iv) Chemically stable
v) No effect on the quality of substances stored
vi) Non irritating and odourless
3. Physical Properties
i) Low specific volume of vapour
ii) Low specific heat
iii) High thermal conductivity
iv) Low viscosity
v) High electrical insulation
4. Other Properties

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i) Ease of leakage location

ii) Availability and low cost
iii) Ease of handling
iv) High COP
v) Low power consumption

Refrigerating Effect:-
It is the amount of heat removed per unit time from the space to be cooled by the
refrigeration process. It is also called capacity of the refrigerator. It is expressed interms of ton
of refrigeration.
Ton of Refrigeration [TR] is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed in order to form 1
ton of ice in 24 hours when the initial temperature of water is 0oC.
1 ton of refrigeration = 210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW

Coefficient of Performance (COP)

The performance of a refrigerating system is expressed by a factor known as coefficient
of performance (COP).
The COP is defined as the ratio of heat removed to the amount of work supplied to
remove that heat.
heat removed Q
COP= =
i.e., work supplied W
To serve the purpose COP must be greater than unity.

Relative COP:-
It is the ratio of actual COP to the theoretical COP.
COP A
COP R =
COP T

Ice Making Capacity:-

It is the ability of the refrigerating system to make ice, starting from water at room
temperature.

Refrigerants Commonly Used in Practice:-

Though there are many refrigerants which are commonly used, yet the following are
important from the subject point of view.
1. Ammonia (NH3):-
It is one of the oldest and the most commonly used of all the refrigerants. It is highly toxic
and flammable. It has boiling point of –33.3 °C and a liquid specific gravity of 0.684 at
atmospheric pressure. It is widely used in large industrial and commercial reciprocating
compression systems. It is also widely used as a refrigerant in absorption refrigeration systems.
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2):-

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It is a colourless, odourless gas and is heavier than atmospheric air. It has a boiling point
of –77.6°C and a liquid specific gravity of 1.56 at atmospheric pressure. It is nontoxic and non-
flammable, but requires extremely high operating pressure (70 bar). It is not widely used,
because of its high power requirements per ton of refrigeration and high operating pressure.

3. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2):-

It is a colourless gas or liquid. It is extremely toxic and has a pungent irritating odour. It is
non-explosive and non-flammable. It has a boiling point of –10.5 °C and a liquid specific gravity
of 1.36. It is used in small-tonnage commercial units.
4. Freon-12:-
The entire Freon group is white in colour and odourless. They are all non-flammable and
non-toxic. Freon-12 is most widely used out of the entire Freon group. It has a boiling point of –
30°C and operating pressure of 8 bars. It is widely used for domestic refrigerators.

Type of Refrigeration Systems:-

Refrigeration systems are broadly classified as follows,
1. Air refrigeration system
2. Vapour compression refrigeration system
3. Vapour absorption refrigeration system
4. Steam jet refrigeration system

Vapour Compression Refrigeration System:-

In vapour compression refrigeration system, generally FREON ‘12’ (CCl 2F2- dichloro
difluoro ethane) is used as the refrigerant.
The refrigerant alternately under goes a change of state from liquid to vapour and vapour
to liquid in order to remove the heat from the space to be refrigerated. During evaporation, the
refrigerant absorbs the latent heat from the evaporator and while condensing, the refrigerant gives
out its latent heat to the cooling medium in the condenser.
The following are the main components and their functions of vapour compression
refrigeration system.
1. Compressor:-
The function of compressor is to pressurize the refrigerant vapour. As a result, pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant vapour increases.
2. Condenser:-
It is a closed chamber inside which the refrigerant coils are surrounded by a cooling
medium such as water. As a result, phase change of refrigerant takes place from vapour to liquid.
3. Throttle Value (Expansion Valve):-
The function of the throttle valve is to expand high pressure liquid refrigerant coming out
from the condenser. As the result of expansion, a mixture of liquid and vapour refrigerant is

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formed. The refrigerant leaving the throttle valve is of low pressure and low temperature mixture
of liquid and vapour.
4. Evaporator:-
It is a closed chamber inside which the space to be cooled is surrounded by coils of
refrigerant. The function of the evaporator is to remove the heat of the space to be refrigerated.
The low temperature and low pressure mixture of liquid and vapour refrigerant leaving the
throttle valve, enters into the evaporator. In the evaporator, the low temperature refrigerant
absorbs the heat from the space to be refrigerated and gets vapourised completely. The vapour
refrigerant leaving the evaporator is made to enter the compressor and the cycle is repeated.
heat rejected Q
COP= =
work supplied W
Reciprocating compressor
1

Cooling water out

Condensor
Evaporator
(Refrigerator)

Cooling water in

4 3
Throttle valve
(Expansion device)
Simple vapour compression refrigeration system

Fig 3.9
1 – Low pressure refrigerant vapour
2 – High pressure refrigerant vapour
3 – High pressure liquid refrigerant
4 – Low pressure and low temperature liquid and vapour refrigerant
Working
The vapour at low temperature and pressure enters the compressor where it is compressed
and its temperature and pressure increase considerably. This vapour after leaving the compressor
enters the condenser where it is condensed into high pressure liquid and passes through the
expansion valve. Here it is throttled down to a lower pressure and temperature. From the
expansion valve it finally passes through the evaporator where it absorbs heat from the
surroundings and vapourises to low pressure vapour which now moves to the compressor and the
cycle repeats.

Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System:-

Prof. Ramesh B R, Dept. of Mech Engg., JIT, Davangere

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The idea of a vapour absorption refrigeration system is to avoid compression of the

refrigerant. In this type of refrigeration system, the vapour produced by the evaporation of the
refrigerant in the cold chamber, passes into a vessel containing a homogeneous mixture of
ammonia and water (known as aqua-ammonia). In this chamber, the vapour is absorbed, which
maintains constant low pressure, thus facilitating its further evaporation.
The fig 3.10 shows schematic arrangement of the essential elements of vapour absorption
refrigeration system.

1. Evaporator:-
The evaporator is the heart of refrigerating device where liquid refrigerant is evaporated by
absorption of heat from the refrigerating space in which the substances which have to be cooled
are kept. It receives liquid refrigerant from the condenser, through throttle valve. Since it
produces the cooling effect sometimes it is also called as “cooling unit or chilling unit or freezing
unit”.
2. Absorber:-
It is the unit contains water. It is used to receive the refrigerant from the evaporator and to
dissolve it with water to become a strong or concentrated solution with an increase in
temperature.
3. Separator/Generator:-
It is used to separate the vapour from the strong or concentrated solution using heat energy
and then send it to the condenser.
4. Condenser:-
It is used to condense the refrigerant at saturation temperature from vapour to liquid by
transferring its latent heat to the water.

Prof. Ramesh B R, Dept. of Mech Engg., JIT, Davangere

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Cooling
water Heat
High pressure ammonia vapour rejected
4
Condensor
5 Liquid
Generator ammonia

Steam or Receiver
Healing Coil Weak solution
3
Pressure reducing
valve
Heat
Pump absorbed Expansion
Low pressure
2 Absorber ammonia vapour Valve
Evaporator
Strong 1 6
Solution
Heat rejected
Simple vapour absorption system

Fig 3.10
1 – Low pressure ammonia vapour
2 – Low pressure strong ammonia solution
3 – High pressure strong ammonia solution
4 – High pressure and high temperature ammonia vapour
5 – High pressure liquid ammonia
6 – Low pressure and low temperature liquid ammonia
5. Expansion Device/Throttle Valve:-
It is used to control the rate of admission of refrigerant to the evaporator. As refrigerant
expands in the valve, it loses its pressure and temperature at its exit and gets cooled.
Working
The low pressure ammonia vapour, leaving the evaporator, enters the absorber where it is
absorbed in the weak ammonia solution. This process takes place at a temperature slightly above
than that of the surroundings. In this process, some heat is transferred to the surroundings. The
strong ammonia solution is then pumped to the generator, where a high pressure and temperature
is maintained. Under these conditions, the ammonia vapour is driven out of the solution. The
ammonia vapour enters into the condenser, where it gets condensed. The weak ammonia
solution returns back to the absorber. The condensed ammonia solution from the condenser
enters the evaporator, absorbing the heat and gets evaporated.
The coefficient of performance of this refrigerator is given by
Heat absorbed during evaporation
COP=
Work done by pump + Heat supplied in heat exchanger

Prof. Ramesh B R, Dept. of Mech Engg., JIT, Davangere

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Comparison between Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption

Refrigeration:-
Vapour Compression Refrigeration Vapour Absorption Refrigeration

Works using mechanical energy Works using heat energy

Refrigerant vapour is compressed Refrigerant vapour is absorbed and heated
COP is relatively lower, it will be more or less
COP is relatively higher, reduces at part loads
same at part and full loads
Refrigeration capacity is greater than 1000
Refrigeration capacity is less than 1000 tons
tons
Noisy due to compressor Silent in operation, as there is no compressor
Refilling of refrigerant is simple Refilling of refrigerant is difficult
Chances of leakage of refrigerant are more
No leakage
due to high pressure
Freon-12 is used as refrigerant Ammonia is used as refrigerant
Maintenance and operating cost is high Maintenance and operating cost is less
Smaller in size Larger in size
Wear and tear is more Wear and tear is less

Air Conditioning:-
The air conditioning is that branch of engineering which deals with the study of
conditioning of air for human comfort. This subject, in its broad sense, also deals with the
conditioning of air for industrial purposes, food processing, storage of food and other materials.

Principle of Air Conditioning:-

An air-conditioner draws used air from the indoor space to be cooled and cools it by the
refrigeration principle and discharges back into the same indoor space that needs to be
conditioned. This continuous cyclic process keeps the indoor space conditioned for the desired
purpose.

Window and Split Air Conditioner:-

Prof. Ramesh B R, Dept. of Mech Engg., JIT, Davangere

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Cooling air Hot air

Condenser

Motar Fan Capillary tube

Compressor

Blower

Wall
Evaporator

Filter
Conditioned air
Window air conditioner

Fig 3.11
The window air conditioner shown in fig 3.11 is having a compressor, a condenser, a
filter, a drier, a capillary tube and an evaporator. An electric motor drives the fan to circulate air
through condenser coil and also runs a blower to deliver conditioned air to the room and sucks air
from the room before forcing through the evaporator coil which cools and dehumidifies the air. A
thermostat is provided to maintain the desired temperature by means of an on/off control of the
compressor. The filter is fitted near the evaporator coil. The evaporator side is insulated from
condenser side. Dampers are also used for the appropriate distribution of conditioned air.
Window air conditioners are available in sizes upto 2 ton capacity.

Applications of Air Conditioners:-

1. Comfort air conditioning:
Domestic, offices, shops cinema halls , hospitals, computer centers, libraries,
restaurants, hotels, night clubs, transportation, telephone exchanges, beauty saloons,
radio and TV stations, auditoriums, malls, museums, ships
2. Industrial air conditioning:
 Laboratories: to make precise measurements
 To study the effect of temperature and moisture on living beings
 Control of humidity in multi-color printing i.e. if the humidity is not constant paper
shrinks and causes poor registration of colors.
 Textile manufacture greatly depends on moisture control
 Dry air is required in steel manufacture as it improves the quality of steel and reduces
the coal requirements per ton of steel produced
 Pharmaceutical industry needs refrigeration to reduce air borne bacteria and dirt to
preserve products i.e. Gelatin capsules requires very dry air, and pills and tablets
require air-conditioning to maintain their quality.
Prof. Ramesh B R, Dept. of Mech Engg., JIT, Davangere
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 Photographic products deteriorate rapidly at high temperatures and high humidity.

Therefore their control is essential.
 Farm animals: air conditioning of farm houses improves the quality and quantity of
milk

______END______

Prof. Ramesh B R, Dept. of Mech Engg., JIT, Davangere

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