SOLDERING AND WELDING

PRESENTED BY:

DR. UPASANA PAUL

GUIDED BY:

DR. AJAY KUBAVAT

DR. SANJEEV JAKATI

DR. KHYATI PATEL

DR. SUSMITA CHOUDHARY

DR. ALPESH VAGHELA

INTRODUCTION TO METAL JOINING

Dental appliances in general, and orthodontic appliances in specific needs to be constructed in two
or more parts which are later joined.

Joining of metals and alloys is crucial in determining the efficacy of the appliance and of orthodontic
treatment as a whole.

The main techniques of metal joining are:

RIVETING

SOLDERING (BRAZING)

WELDING

CAST METAL JOINING

Riveting is not used in dentistry. Soldering finds considerable use in the form of brazing, and welding
is generally confined to the technique of spot welding.

TERMINOLOGIES

RIVETING:

Riveting is a semi-permanent and non-thermal joining method that involves using a mechanical
fastener/rivet (a metallic part with a dome-shaped head) to join sheet metal parts. Riveting
involves drilling a hole in the two sheet metal parts you want to join together and installing a rivet.

SOLDERING:

Joining of metals by fusion of filler metal, at a temperature below the solidus temp of the metals
being joined and below 450°C.

BRAZING:

Soldering operations at or above 450°C. Most dental soldering procedures are actually brazing.

Practically, the difference is that soldering is carried out where significant mechanical strength is not
required in the joint.
WELDING:

Process of fusing two or more metal parts through the application of heat, pressure or both, with or
without a filler metal , to produce a localized union across the interface between the parts.

CAST JOINING:

Process of combining two components of a FPD by means of casting molten metal into interlocking
region.

LIQUIDUS TEMPERATURE:

The solidus is the highest temperature at which an alloy is solid – where melting begins.

SOLDERING

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY OF SOLDERING

COMPONENTS OF SOLDERED JOINTS

FACTORS AFFECRING SOLDERING

TECHNIQUES OF SOLDERING

TYPES OF SOLDER JOINTS

STEPS IN SOLDERING

APPLICATION IN ORTHODONTICS

CONSIDERATION IN ORTHODONTICS

SOLDERING FAILURE

RECENT ADVANCES

A process that join metals by heating them to a suitable temperature below solidus of the substrate
metals and applying a filler metal having a liquidus not exceeding 450ºC that melts and flows by
capillary action between the parts without appreciably affecting the dimensions of the joined
structure.

• Technically correct term of brazing is used if liquidus temperature of filler metal is above
450ºC(850º F).

• In Dentistry, many metals are joined by brazing although the term soldering is commonly
used.

• Soldering is done using a Pb - Sn solder and Brazing uses a Ag-Cu solder to obtain
considerable strength.

HISTORY OF SOLDERING

The soldering technique is known to man for hundreds of years. However, during the industrial
revolution, the need for higher temperatures and user-friendly tools arose. The old methods of
heating metals with coal fires etc. were no longer practical.
Soldering and brazing were used more than 5,000 years ago to make jewelry.

The use of gold bridge work was in use as early as 500 to 700 B.C. by the Romans.

Other cultures like the Egyptians used gold wires to hold the frameworks.

The word solder is derived from the French word ‘soudre’ meaning to consolidate.

It was discovered that when the vapor from heated alcohol was ignited, it burnt with a concentrated
flame of high temperature suitable for different heating purposes.

These heating tools were generally called blow pipes. The first known patent is from France and is
dated January 7, 1791.

• During the early 1900`s, a great variety of blow lamps specially designed for different
purpose and applications came on the market.

• After the 1945 Second World War, the propane gas emerged as a cleaner and safer fuel for
different heating purposes.

The first appliances used had a metal frame work. The attachment of auxiliaries to bring about the
different type of tooth movements required soldering of these parts.

COMPONENTS OF SOLDERED JOINT

PARENT METAL

Also known as substrate metal, some times also called as base metal is the original pure metal or
alloy that is prepared for joining to other substrate metal or alloy.

Soldering operations are similar for any substrate metal.

The melting range and soldering operations should take place below solidus temperatures of
substrate metal.

COMPOSITION OF ALLOY DETERMINES:

1. Oxide formation – Composition of the alloy determines the oxides that form on it’s surface.
The flux used should be able to reduce, remove & inhibit further oxidation.

2. Wettability of the substrate - The solder chosen must wet the metal at as low a contact
angle as possible.

3. Melting range

A low temp soldering is preferred for Stainless steel to prevent carbide precipitation (sensitization)
and to prevent an excessive softening (annealing) of the wire.

So silver solders are generally preferred.

FLUX

In Latin flux means “to flow”.

Purpose of flux is to remove any oxide coating on the substrate metal surface when the filler metal is
fluid and ready to flow into place.
Protection of the alloy surface from oxidation during soldering and dissolve metallic oxides as they
are formed.

IDEAL REQUIREMENTS OF FLUX:

Fusion point of flux should be lower than that of the solder.

While being fused it should not effloresce or move from the surface of the work.

After fusing it should spread evenly and remain on the work.

It must be capable of dissolving metallic oxides.

It should be readily removable after soldering.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUX:

1. According to their primary purpose/activity:

Surface protection: Flux covers metal surface and prevents access to oxygen so that no oxide can
form.

Reducing agent: Flux reduces any oxide present and exposes clean metal.

Solvent: Flux dissolves any oxides present and carries them away.

2. According to their composition:

Borax fluxes

Fluoride fluxes

3. According to the pH of the flux:

Acidic fluxes – SiO2

Basic fluxes – CaCO3 limestone

Neutral – Fluorspar (Ca.F2)

Borax (Na2B4O2)

Composition of most of commercial fluxes is formulated to accomplish two or more of the purposes.

Fluxes for use with noble metals are usually based on boric or borate compounds such as boric acid,
boric anhydride and borax they all are type I (protective fluxes).

There are also reducing fluxes for flow stability oxides such as copper oxide (Type II).

Oxides formed on base metal alloy are more stable. Fluorides are used to dissolve chromium, nickel,
and cobalt oxides. They usually contain borax as glass formers (protective) and fluorides dissolves
any metal oxide with which it comes in contact, acting as a solvent.
BORAX FLUX:

They are based on boric or borate compounds such as boric acid/boric anhydrate and borax.

Synonyms: sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, disodium tetraborate.

They act as protective fluxes and reducing fluxes for low stability oxides such as copper oxide.

Are used for noble metal alloys.

BORAX FLUX AVAILABLE IN:

• Liquid form:

Solution of borax/boric acid in water.

Indicated for soldering of orthodontic

appliances and bridges in which

minimum amount of flux is required.

Paste form:

Formed by mixing borax with

petroleum jelly. Required when

fluxes are needed in large quantity.

Powder form:

Contains a mixture of borax, basic

acid, silica flour and finely divided

charcoal. Charcoal is the reducing

agent and silica holds molten flux

in surface of hot metal. This is

usually used for casting operation.

Fluoride flux:

These are used on base metal alloy and are usually combined with borates.

The oxides formed on base metal alloys are more stable and fluorides are used to dissolve chromium
and nickel oxides. So it acts as solvent.

Some fluoride containing flux include toxic fluorides when heated, so inhalation of fumes should be
avoided.

Fluoride flux composition:

Potassium fluoride – 50-60%

Boric acid – 25-35%

Borax glass - 6-8%

Potassium carbonate – 8-10%

Super flux:

A combination of high melting salts is used as fluxes to create superior flux. A formula for efficient
flux is:

Borax glass – 55 parts

Boric acid – 35 parts

Silica - 10 parts

Borax:

Borax glass produces efflorescence when heated on the work as its water of crystallization is driven
off and as a result a part of surface may be exposed and pit may result.

Boric acid:

Reduces fusion point of the flux so that flows smoothly over flux at a lower temperature.

Silica:

Contributes to viscosity or toughness to film after fusion so that it stays on the work.

Application of flux:

Painted on to the substrate metal at the junction of pieces to be joined.

Too little flux tends to burn off and will be ineffective.

Excess flux remains trapped within filler metal and cause a weakened joint.

Flux combined with metal oxides forms a glass during soldering process that is difficult to remove
completely.

Removing residual flux:

FLUXES FOR DENTAL ALLOYS:

ANTIFLUX

An antiflux is a material that will confine solder to a specified area and prevent its flowing where it is
not required.

Examples:

 Graphite (soft lead pencil)

 Whiting (calcium carbonate)

 Rouge (iron oxide)

Simplest method is to draw a line with ordinary lead pencil about 2mm away from the joint and
cover metal beyond this line with a thin graphite film by scrubbing with a pencil.
Graphite burns off on prolonged heating at high temperature, in such cases rouge or whiting (CaCO3
in alcohol) is used.

SOLDER/FILLER METAL

A metal which used to join two pieces of metal is known as filler metal.

Metal alloy is used in the molten state as a metallic binder.

Qualities of an ideal solder:

Should melt at low temperature.

Sufficient fluidity to flow when melted.

Good wettability.

High strength.

Tarnish & corrosion resistant.

Acceptable color.

Resistance to pitting during heating.

[Link] temperature:

The temperature at which the filler metal wets and flow on the substrate metal and produces a
bond. It is usually higher than the liquidus temperature.

ISO 9333 requires that the flow temperature of the filler metal should be lower than the solidus
temperature of substrate metal.

A rule of thumb is that flow temperature of filler metal should be 56ºc (100ºf) lower than the solidus
temperature of the substrate metal.

If the flow point of filler metal is close to or above the solidus of either substrate alloying can take
place. An alloy formed through diffusion can have properties different from filler metal and
substrate metal.

2. Fusion temperature:

Gold solders: 690-870ºC

Silver solders: 620-700ºc

3. Color:

Color of gold varies from deep yellow to light yellow to white. In practice most dental solder are
able to produce an inconspicuous joint.

4. Tarnish & corrosion:

Resistance increase as the gold content increases.

[Link] properties:

Gold solders have adequate strength and hardness.

Silver solders also have adequate strength.

Classification of solders:

SOFT SOLDERS:

They have low melting point of about 260°C.

Lack corrosion resistance. Therefore, impractical

for dental use.

The liquidus temperature is below 450°C.

They are called as plumbers solder (lead-tin alloys).

HARD SOLDERS:

Higher meting temperature & greater hardness and strength.

The liquidus temperature of the solders is between 450°C and 900°C.

Heating is done with gas torch or electric furnace.

Two types of hard solders are used in dentistry:

1. Gold solders

2. Silver solders

1. GOLD SOLDERS:

High resistance to tarnish and corrosion.

Have good mechanical properties.

Extensively used for crown and bridge applications.

Fusion temperature: 690-870ºC.

Easy flowing.

Composition:

Gold: 45-85% -> Increases corrosion resistance and strength.

Silver: 8-30% -> Increases strength and decreases melting temperature.

Copper: 8-20% -> Increases strength and decreases melting temperature.

Tin: 2-4% -> Increases strength and decreases melting temperature.

Zinc: 2-4% -> Increases brittleness and decreases melting temperature. Scavenger.
Cadmium: 3-5% -> Replace zinc for clean surface.

2 types of gold solders:

Yellow solder- Depending upon gold content, color varies. It is used for soldering gold alloy.

White solder- For soldering chromium cobalt alloy, a color matching white 19 karat gold solder,
contains greater amount of palladium and lesser percentage of gold.

2. SILVER SOLDERS:

Composition:

Silver - 10-80 %

Copper - 15-30%

Zinc - 4-35%

cadmium, tin and phosphorus (trace)

Properties:

Decreased tarnish and corrosion resistance.

Adequate strength.

Fusion temperature: 600º-750ºC.

Used when low fusion temperature is required e.g. stainless steel, base metal alloys.

High silver content solders can be used for joining stainless steel but their fusion temperature is
high.

Elongation of silver solders is 10-15% so that appliance can be adjusted near soldered joint without
fear of being fractured.

TURBINE SOLDER:

A solder containing less silver and which fuses at a lower temperature is called, TURBINE SOLDER.

Composition:

Ag: 45%

Cu: 25%

Zn: 15%

Cd: 15%

Meting Range: 580-660ºC.

SOLDERS IN DENTISTRY:

HEAT SOURCE

Three heat sources may be used:

1. Flame brazing
 2. Oven brazing

3. Infrared soldering

The most common instrument used as heat source is:

Gas- air or Gas- oxygen torch.

The type of torch depends on the type of fuel.

TYPES OF FUEL:

Hydrogen gas – Has low heat content(1000ºc), so

heating is slow. Not indicated for soldering of large

bridge.

Natural gas - Heat content is four times that of

hydrogen(2680ºc). But gas is non-uniform and contains

water vapor in it.

Acetylene gas – Has highest flame temperature(3140ºC),

but variation in temp from one part of the flame to the

other part is more than 100°C.

So positioning of the torch is critical. It is chemically

unstable gas, decomposes to carbon and hydrogen.

Propane – It is the best choice. Have highest heat content(2385ºc) & good flame
temperature(2850ºc).

Butane - has similar flame temperature and heat content. Uniform in quality, virtually water free and
burns clean.

FLAME BRAZING:

The flame can be divided in to four zones:

Cold mixing zone (unburned gas)

Partial combustion zone (oxidizing)

Reducing zone

Oxidizing zone (burned gas)

Zone A: Consists of air coming up from the compressed air supply through the jet in the centre of the
blowpipe. It contains unburned gas
Zone B: Combustion area in which mixture of gas and air is ignited, its temperature is greatest at the
tip.

Zone C: It is the part of flame with maximum reducing atmosphere and should be used for all
soldering operations.

Zone D: It is oxidizing atmosphere and alloys being soldered must not be brought into this area of
the flame.

The flame that is used to heat the soldering assembly should be the neutral or slightly reducing part,
because this produces the most efficient burning process and most heat.

Improperly positioned flame can lead to oxidation of the substrate or filler metal and a poorly
soldered joint.

If unburned portion of flame is used carbon may be introduced in to the substrate or filler metal.

To prevent oxide formation the flame should not be removed once it has been applied until
soldering process is complete.

INFRARED SOLDERING:

The unit uses light from a 1000 watt tungsten filament, quartz- iodine bulb which is mounted at the
primary focal point of a gold plated elliptical reflector.

The material to be soldered is placed at the reflector’s secondary focal point at which the reflected
infrared energy of tungsten light source is focused.

This is used for high temperature soldering.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLDERING

• Temperature: prior to placement of the solder, the parent metal is heated till it is hot
enough to melt the filler metal as soon as it touches.

• Time: The flame should be kept in place until the filler metal has flowed completely into the
connection and a moment longer to allow the flux or oxide to separate from the fluid solder.

TECHNIQUES OF SOLDERING

There are 5 techniques of soldering:

Investment soldering

Free hand soldering

Soldering the parts assembled an a plaster cast

Autogenous soldering

Jig soldering
Investment soldering

It is carried out whenever the area of contact between the metallic parts being joined is large and
whenever precision is needed in joining the metals.

The procedure involves the embedding of metallic parts in an investment.

The parts are placed on the master cast with a gap of at least 1mm. The parts are fastened with
sticky wax before placing soldering investment.

Anti flux is applied to confine the flow of solder.

The investment is preheated to eliminate moisture.

Soldering is carried out with reducing flame at 750- 870°C. the investment is cooled 5 min before
quenching.

Flux will cool to a glass which is removed by pickling.

Free hand soldering

Free hand soldering is used for soldering orthodontic appliances.

The process involves soldering two metallic parts together after adequate stabilization, without the
use of investment, to precisely hold the parts together.

Torches placed on a bench & hands are used to hold the parts in position.

Used when high precision is not required.

Jig soldering

Used in place of free hand soldering

when precision is needed.

Still less precise than investment

soldering.

A small jig used to hold the

components in more accurate

registration before heating.

Soldering on plaster cast

Parts to be soldered, are already bent into shape, cleaned and assembled in position on the model.

Autogenous soldering

Requires considerable experience and skill.

Two pieces are heated, until they just begin to melt, at which stage they are approximated and the
heat is removed.

TYPES OF SOLDER JOINTS

POINT CONTACT
Wrapping the wire

Increased area

Wires with different thickness

STEPS IN SOLDERING

Cleaning the surfaces to be joined

Assembling the parts to be joined

Selection of flux and solder

Selection of proper joint and maintaining proper position of the parts

Application of flux

Heating and introduction of solder

Quenching the soldered joint

Cleaning of soldered joint

Finishing and polishing

APPLICATION IN ORTHODONTICS

Wire to wire: one wire is turned around the other to form a reliable joint because of the extra bulk
allowed by turning.

Tubes can be soldered to the bridge of the Adams clasp.

Soldering lingual arch or palatal arch: a blob of wet pumice is placed over the middle portion of the
model to hold the arch during soldering. (F.G. Thompson, JCO 1969 April).

Attachment of springs to arch wire. A gold solder is used with a MP < 800°C.

CONSIDERATIONS IN
ORTHODONTICS

Low temperature solder is used to prevent carbide precipitation and to prevent excessive softening
of the wire.

Low fusing silver solders with a soldering temp range of 620-655°C are used.

Fluoride fluxes are used for stainless steel and other base metal alloys.

Free hand soldering technique with a needle like gas air flame is used.

The work should be held at the tip of the blue cone in the reducing zone.

Soldering should be observed against a black background, so that the temp can be judged by the
color of the work.

The color should never exceed a dull red.

Flux must cover all the areas to be joined before heat is applied.

As soon as the flux fuses solder is added and heating continued until metal flows.
The work is then removed from the heat and quenched in water.

Hydrogen-Oxygen torch, electric resistance heating & indirect heating with brass wire intermediary
are also used as heat source.

SOLDERING FAILURES

CAUSES:

Failure to clean the parts to be joined.

Improper fluxing

Poor flow of solder

Over heating of the solder can lead to pitted joint of low strength

Porosities and brittleness from oxides, gases, or foreign matter and flux inclusion are a cause.

Creep, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking can be common.

Gas entrapment can also be generated by gases formed from electrochemical processes.

CORROSION OF SOLDERED JOINT:

Corrosion-prone phases composed mainly of Cu & Zn occur within the solder.

Corrosion occurs when electrolyte comes in contact with a soldered joint.

Silver solders are prone for corrosion.

They show change such as darkening, to resemble a tarnished, corroded surface.

A study by Mueller demonstrated

the capability of mouth rinses, as

corrosive agents for the deterioration

silver-solder joints.

The mouth rinses Cepacol, Lavoris,

and Green Mint, Close-up toothpaste

were selected. An additional prepared

solution of a saliva substitute

was also used.

Solders without Cd & Zn, but with

higher fusion temp & decreased

flow, are recommended.

RECENT ADVANCES

Newer silver solders with improved corrosion resistance is available. Eg: B-Ag 18 & B-Ag 21.
They have slightly higher Cu contents, with 10% tin for wetting SS and about 3% nickel for immunity
to crevice corrosion and cadmium and zinc free.

Newer self pickling fluxes are also introduced.

Some companies also manufacture a prefluxed solder, eliminating the need for a separate step.

REFERENCE:

Kenneth J. Anusavice and Paul Cascone, chapter 19 dental casting and soldering alloys, phillips’
science of dental materials 11th Ed.

Stephen T. Rasmussen, O’Brein and Ryge, An outline of dental materials and their selection, Chapter
26.

S.I. Bhalajhi, Orthodontics art and science, chapter 39 Lab Procedures.

Sridhar Premkumar, Orthodontics exam preparatory Manual for Undergraduates, Chapter 17

Materials used in orthodontics

C.P. Adams and W. John, S. Kerr, The design construction and use of removable orthodontic
appliances.

Phillip’s, Skinners science of dental materials Chapter 33 Gold alloy solders, Soldering procedures.

WELDING

Introduction

History of welding

Difference between soldering and welding

Principle of welding

Types of welding joints

Methods of welding

Points to remember while welding

Variables and their misapplication

Improper welding

Microstructure of a weld joint

Clinical application

Weldability of orthodontic archwires alloy

Welding of TMA

Recent advances

Biocompatibility

Conclusion

INTRODUCTION
HISTORY OF WELDING

Welding in orthodontics became popular after the arrival of spot welders. It became popular
because of the short time required, the ease of welding and the absence of elaborate equipments.

DIFFERENCE B/W SOLDERING AND WELDING

Welding is preferred over soldering if the heating cycle must be very short, in order to prevent any
changes in physical property of components to be joined.

Principle of welding

The basic principles of welding are

Proper wire positioning,

Correct voltages,

Small contact areas, and

Use of a single short pulse.

When the current is applied through the two wires, a melting process occurs.

This is not just a surface weld, but an actual merging in which one wire has "set down" about 80%
into the second wire.

A 25-60% "set down" is recommended for most applications.

Types of Welding Joints

Butt weld

(parallel)

Edge weld

(edge angle)

BUTT WELD JOINT:

These are joints between parts that are generally in line.

If two plates are placed in contact (a close square butt joint) they can be welded with full
penetration by one run of weld metal deposited by a manual welding process from each side
provided that the plate thickness does not exceed approximately 6 mm.

However, plate above 6 mm thickness is generally beveled and the Vee edge preparation formed is
filled by depositing a number of runs of weld metal.

All 108º butt joint specimens were fabricated by gas metal arc welding process with a combination
of 80% argon (Ar) and 20% carbon dioxide (CO2).

TEE WELD AND CORNER WELD JOINT:

The parts may be joined by fillet welds or butt welds made by an arc welding process.

Fillet welding refers to the process of joining two pieces of metal together when they are
perpendicular or at an angle. These welds are commonly referred to as tee joints, which are two
pieces of metal perpendicular to each other, or lap joints, which are two pieces of metal that overlap
and are welded at the edges.

LAP WELD JOINT:

These are commonly used for sheet metal up to about 3 mm thick in which one sheet is overlapped
by another.

This type of joint is used for soldering, brazing, resistance spot or seam welding, and for arc spot
welding, plug welding, as well as for adhesive bonding.

For material of 3 mm or thicker (even up to 10 mm) lap joints are occasionally used and fillet welds
are deposited at the plate edges by arc welding.

Methods of welding

1. Pressure welding (Cold welding): done by hammering or pressure. E.g.: gold foil filling.

2. Fusion welding (Hot welding): uses heat to melt the metals being joined. The heat source is
oxyacetylene flame or high amperage electricity.

Pressure welding

Gold foil, mat gold, or powdered gold restorations are pressure welded by hand or mechanical foil
condenser.

Types of fusion welding

• Gas welding

• Arc welding

• Resistance/ spot welding

• Laser welding

• Plasma (arc + gas) welding

Gas welding

Gas – Slower and easier to control than electric arc.

Gas flame is applied over metals until molten puddle is formed.

Most popular fuels used with oxy-acetylene, Mapp (methylacetylene propadiene) gas, and
hydrogen.

Oxy-acetylene flame burns at 6000°F.

This is the only gas flame that is hot enough to melt all commercial metals.

Oxy-acetylene welding is simple in concept where two pieces of metals are brought together and the
touching edges are melted by the flame with or without addition of filler rod.

» Advantages of oxy-acetylene welding:

• Easy to learn

• Cheap equipments comparatively

 • Relatively more portable

• The equipments can be used to flame-cut large pieces of material.

» Disadvantages of oxy-acetylene welding:

The weld lines are relatively much rough in appearance

Consumes more time for the finishing process

Have large heat affected zone.

What is an ARC?

An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit.

It is sustained by the presence of a thermally ionized column of gas (called a plasma) through which
current flows.

In general, atmospheric air is a poor conductor of electric current.

The distance between the electrodes, however, is small, and the applied voltage is high, so that a gas
discharge, i.e., the formation of an arc, may occur.

Arc welding

It is the fusing of two or

more pieces of metal together by

using the heat produced from

an electric arc welding machine.

The arc is like a flame of intense

heat that is generated as the

electrical current passes through

a highly resistant air gap.

Sometimes a gaseous arc is also

used.

Plasma welding

Plasma is an ionized gas at a very high temperature. Plasma is generated by sending a jet of gas
through an electric arc.

Plasma welding is only done on automatic machines.

Suitable method for non-continuous welding.

Plasma welding is used where deep narrow welds are needed and where attention is focused on
thermal distortion and welding speed.

Because of the very focused heat source a combination of thin and thick plates can be welded.
Laser welding

Types of lasers used are

a) Co2 laser

b) Diode laser

c) Excimer laser

d) Nd : YAG laser.

A laser generates a coherent, high intensity impulse of light that can be focused.

By selecting the duration and intensity of impulse, metals can be melted in small regions without
extensive microstructural damage to the metal.

Owing to the expansion from the local high temperature and the change of state, the two liquid
surfaces contact and form a weld on solidification.

The principal risks involved in laser welding are:

a) Optical hazard (the beam can burn the skin or damage the retina if focused by the eye),

b) Electrical hazards, and

c) Fume generation.

Resistance welding (SPOT WELDERS)

The heat is generated within the material being joined by the resistance to the passage of current
through the metal parts, which are held under a pre-set pressure.

Typical value for pulse are 2-6 volts for 1/25th to 1/50th of a second at 250 to 750 amperes.

Orthodontic spot welders employ the electrode technique.

Copper electrode - Low resistance.

SS - 50 times higher resistance than Cu.

Electrode–SS interface: 2 times of SS alone.

SS – SS interface: 4 times of SS alone.

Thus, in orthodontic welding, the resistance at the junction between the two pieces of SS much
greater than that of either the electrode or the SS masses.

Because of this differential resistance, essentially all of the heat generated by the current flow is
contained within the weld area.

As sufficient heat is generated at the interface, the stainless steel components soften, flow and fuse
together under the influence of mechanical pressure, forming a weld nugget.

In spot welding the following three properties of

the metal are favorable:

A comparatively low melting point (approximately 1370° C.),

high electric resistance,

And low conductivity of heat.

COMMERCIAL SPOT WELDERS

 Brusse and Carman L introduced spot-welding to the profession at the 1933 AAO meeting in
Oklahoma City.

-(Welding of Attachments in Orthodontics:

Technique Recommendations based on a Literature Search|

January 2014|The Journal of Indian Orthodontic Society|DOI:10.5005/jp-journals-10021-1216|Vinod

Pattabiraman et al)

 506-A DIAL- A-WELD rocky mountain/denver, Colorado 80217

 Multi Purpose Orthodontic Welder unitek, Monrovia, California 80217

Application of spot welding in orthodontics:

Making bands

Securing attachments to the bands

Attaching springs to a rigid bow wire or bands

Used more for fixed appliances than removable appliance.

POINTS TO REMEMBER WHILE WELDING

In welding two wires, they should be constantly held in contact throughout.

Broad, flat electrodes, rather than the thin, pointed electrodes are used.

This assures that the parts are properly held together before the welding process and during
heating.

If a very low voltage is used, the welded parts will not stick together.

If the voltage is gradually increased, a weld will eventually occur.

Greater voltages leading to increased heat may lead to increased wire brittleness; however,
springback properties would not be affected.

The welded joint should then be tested by twisting one wire torsionally with a plier.

The greater the contact area, the higher the voltage required.

Smaller contact areas between parts are desirable because higher localized heats are produced,
giving an excellent weld without influencing the remainder of the wire.

Round wires are very simple to weld and require slightly lower voltages than other wires.

A "T" joint is preferable for most orthodontic applications because it has the smallest contact areas.
It is important that the basic weld be accomplished with only one pulse, and that the pulse is of very
short duration.

If a weld is not strong enough because of low voltage, a second or third pulse is rarely successful in
producing the desired weld.

The welding is done by gripping the seam between two snub-nosed electrodes made of hardened
copper, and passing low voltage high amperage current.

A flat-to-flat electrode configuration produced joints with considerably less distortion than a point-
to-point configuration.

Weld joints produced by flat-tip electrodes were more stable.

Smooth, parallel electrode surfaces provide the best welds.

Variables and their misapplication

A satisfactorily welded joint is one which is strong, has not undergone oxidation (blackening), and
has not been over compressed during fusion.

Satisfactory welding of orthodontic attachments depends on the proper use of each of the following
three variables:

¤ The current flowing through the circuit.

¤ The time during which the current is allowed to flow.

¤ The mechanical pressure applied at the welding head.

Improper welding

Too low a current, or too short a time results in a weak joint.

Overheating – 100% settling in to the main arch wire. The wire will begin to melt and flow.

A weakening can occur because of the reduction in the cross-section of the wire.

An under welded assembly is due to:

- Insufficient current.

- Insufficient amount of time.

- Inadequate Pressure.

Over welding:

-Yields weak joint as under welding.

-Progressive corrosion. Occurs when Cr is precipitated at grain boundaries. This process is

known as weld decay.

Overheating SS wire will reduce the spring back and weaken the wire.

Spring back is not reduced in TMA wires.

This reduces chromium content in that area and makes that part of steel more liable to corrosion.

This condition when brought about by overheating during welding is called weld decay.

Welding is affected by many factors including electrode pressure, voltage setting, and duration of
impulse, contact resistance, wire cross-section, joint design, and orientation of the wires.

However, the surface condition of the electrodes is another important variable.

Good welds are characterized by slight discoloration, a small amount of weld flash, and no distortion
of the wires.

MICROSTRUCTURE OF A WELD JOINT

During welding, the temperature exceeds various critical temperatures at which phase
transformations occur in the metals involved.

The parent metal melts and then resolidifies into a cast structure. The microstructure of a weld joint
reveals three distinct zones:

1. Weld metal zone.

2. Heat affected zone.

3. Unaffected parent metal

CLINICAL APPLICATION

The weldmates should be clean of all extraneous materials and oxides.

The surface of each electrode must be smooth, flat, and perpendicular to its long axis.

When the electrodes are together, they should be in total contact. Sparking and localized over
welding will result if interface contact is not uniform.

A broad electrode for thin material & narrow one for thick material is used. This allows sufficient
heat to reach the weld area, but not over weld or oxidize the weldmates.

If too narrow electrode is used in welding a bracket (thick) to a band (thin), localized over welding
will occur in the band and under welding in the bracket.

Insert the weldmates between the electrodes, close them together, and depress the weld button.

If sparking is observed, localized over welding has occurred. The electrodes should be checked for
size and/or contact.

If black areas are seen at the points where the electrodes contacted the weldmates, over welding
has occurred.

To make a molar band, it is necessary to have them overlap less than 1mm and then weld.

The overall depth of fusion should not be less than 50% of the combined thickness of the two
sheets, or more than 80%.
If the weld fails by rotational shear at an angle less than 70° the fusion has been too shallow.

WELDABILITY OF ORTHODONTIC
ARCHWIRE ALLOY

The alloys used in orthodontics are many and varied. Among the archwires stainless steel, beta
titanium, nickel titanium and cobalt chromium are the predominant ones.

Krishnan and Kumar conducted a study aimed at evaluating the two most commonly used
orthodontic archwire alloys, stainless steel and beta titanium, and the newly introduced, Timolium,
for their weld characteristics in terms of tensile strength, surface characteristics and microstructural
changes.

Beta titanium was the only one to show clinically useful weld joint strength values.

The weld surface of beta titanium exhibited smooth flow of the melted alloy with an almost intact
weld interface.

The study concluded that, beta titanium with superior strength, better surface characteristics, and
metallographic features was ranked superior to the other two archwire alloys.

Welding of TMA

Beta titanium wires, Titanium Molybdenum Alloy (TMA) in particular, has been proven to be the only
truly weldable archwire alloy available to the orthodontist.

TMA was introduced to the orthodontic profession by Burstone and Goldberg.

It allows direct welding of auxiliaries to an archwire without reinforcement by soldering.

Welded joints of TMA wires have been shown to be able to sustain high torsional loads yet not fail in
the mouth under clinical loading conditions.

Beta titanium (TMA) wire can be directly welded without solder, producing joints that have high
springback and strength.

Only wire to have this true weldability.

TMA offers the potential for many applications, particularly where welding is required for active
tooth movement.

The recent and promising use of titanium (Ti) alloys in dentistry has been driven mainly by the desire
to produce structures of low weight and high resistance to chewing efforts, since titanium presents
favorable biological and mechanical properties, including: low density, excellent biocompatibility,
good resistance/weight ratio, and low modulus of elasticity.

However, its high melting temperature, which is close to 1,700°C, and high reactivity with the
nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen from air, when subjected to high temperatures, end up making it
more fragile. Titanium, therefore, requires argon gas for inert gas protection during its
manufacturing process.

Laser welding in argon gas atmosphere is preferred because of lower thermal influence on parts
being joined.
An advantage is that the welded joint will comprise of the same pure titanium as the substrate
components there by preserving the excellent bio-compatibility potential and avoiding galvanic
corrosion effects.

Recent advances

TMS electrodes (Titanium, Molybdenum, and Steel wires) are made of space-age materials.

Coated with a chemical agent that both, protects the electrodes and assures smooth, parallel
surfaces.

Coating lasts for as many as 1000 welds.

The electrodes are compatible in any common welder, whether in capacitor or transformer mode.

Can be used with any orthodontic wires, including SS, titanium, molybdenum, and multistranded
wires.

It works in a wide range of pressure and voltage.

Biocompatibility

S Sestini et al evaluated the in vitro toxicity of silver

soldering, electrical resistance and laser welding of

orthodontic wires.

They found that:

Electrical resistance welding is well tolerated.

Traditional silver soldering is toxic for osteoblast

differentiation, fibroblast viability, and keratinocyte

growth.

Laser welding was well tolerated by all cells tested, thus showing its high biocompatibility.

Conclusion

The choice of solder material has extreme importance in determining the properties of the soldered
joints.

In orthodontics, silver solders are popular because of their lower fusion temperatures and easy-
handling characteristics.

The breakage of soldered components is one of the pitfalls associated with this joining procedure.
Even after following the guidelines solder failures are not rare.

Although welding is one of the technical procedures most commonly used by orthodontists, the
process is poorly understood and not employed efficiently.

In the final analysis, however, the combination of techniques which offer optimum mechanical,
physical, and chemical properties must be selected.
One kind of electrode is ample for spot welding in the construction of orthodontic appliances.

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Kenneth J. Anusavice and Paul Cascone, chapter 19 dental casting and soldering alloys, phillips’
science of dental materials 11th Ed.

Stephen T. Rasmussen, O’Brein and Ryge, An outline of dental materials and their selection, Chapter
26.

S.I. Bhalajhi, Orthodontics art and science, chapter 39 Lab Procedures.

Sridhar Premkumar, Orthodontics exam preparatory Manual for Undergraduates, Chapter 17

Materials used in orthodontics

C.P. Adams and W. John, S. Kerr, The design construction and use of removable orthodontic
appliances.

Phillip’s, Skinners science of dental materials Chapter 33 Gold alloy solders, Soldering procedures.

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