Unit 8

Manufacturing Processes
Contents
Laser cutting and Engraving ................................................................................................................. 1
Line Bending ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Flame polishing....................................................................................................................................... 3
Vacuum forming ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Profile Cutter ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Plug and Yoke......................................................................................................................................... 6
Traditional Wood Joints ......................................................................................................................... 7
Using a Spray Gun ............................................................................................................................... 12
Casting Processes ............................................................................................................................... 16
Silicone Casting ................................................................................................................................ 16
Split pattern sand casting ................................................................................................................ 17
Lost pattern casting .......................................................................................................................... 18
Industrial Die Casting....................................................................................................................... 18
Replicating Die Casting (Pewter Casting) .................................................................................... 19
References: ........................................................................................................................................... 22

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Laser cutting and Engraving
Laser cutting is the process of using a powerful laser to cut and/or engrave items from flat sheets
of material like plastic, wood, and many other materials. Using the laser cutting process you can
make things like rubber stamps, signage, jewellery, prototype pieces as well as mass production
jobs.

The Laser cutter works by directing a high-powered laser beam very precisely at the chosen
material to either etc, mark or cut right through. When cutting, the laser beam burns away at the
material leaving you with the cut-out shape that you have specified in your vector file. The cutting
beam is very thin (typically around 0.1mm) and precise resulting in incredibly detailed and
accurate cuts. By reducing the beam power, you can mark the surface of the material, this is
known as etching or engraving and can give some stunning effects on wood and plastic.

What is a vector file?

A vector file is a graphics file that contains a vector image, rather than a raster, or bitmapped,
image. Shapes and lines make up vector graphics, which are fully
scalable images, (you can make them HUGE without losing any quality)
while raster images are made of pixels and cannot be scaled up without
going blurry.

Vector files can be created in programs such a Adobe Illustrator, Corel

Draw, Inkscape (free), Autocad or Draftsight (free). There are lots of
tutorials on the internet to show you how to use these programs.

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How can i tell if my file is vector?

Usually the easiest way to tell if a file is vector or not is to zoom in

on your file as far as you can, does it go all blurry? If so it’s not
vector. If it stays a nice clean line then it’s vector. Vector files need
to be DRAWN in the vector program rather than just imported or
pasted in there. Vector File formats – AI, EPS, SVG, DXF, DWG
or (sometimes) PDF(should be ok to use). Non Vector File formats
– jpg, psd, bmp (will need to be converted or redrawn in a vector
program).

Watch these videos:

• Getting Started Guide for Laser Cutting -

[Link]
• SA Argus - Co2 cutting and engraving laser machines -
[Link]

Line Bending
Line bending / Strip heater is a thermoforming process,
i.e. it is a method of forming a thermoplastic after it has
been heated until it has become soft and pliable. Line
bending involves heating a thermoplastic sheet material
over a strip heater until it becomes soft and pliable, then
bending it, usually over a former. Thermoplastics may be
bent to any angle by using a jig or a former, or if the angle
is not critical, simply by bending the thermoplastic sheet
by hand and then holding it until it cools.

Watch these videos:

How to use the strip heater -

[Link]

The 600S hot wire strip heater by C R Clarke -

[Link]

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Flame polishing
Flame polishing acrylic edges should be done
with an oxygen-hydrogen welding torch. The
flame should be bluish, nearly invisible,
approximately 3” (75 mm) long and narrow. Hold
the torch at the angle shown and draw the flame
along the edge of the sheet. Practice will help
you to estimate the speed and distance. If the
first pass does not produce a completely
polished edge, allow the piece to cool, and then try a second pass. The sudden heating of the
sheet when flame polishing induces a high degree of stress into it.

Do not try to glue a polished edge the plastic will craze, and the aesthetic of the acrylic will be
irreparably damaged. If the edges are already polished and you want to glue them, try scuffing it
with sandpaper as this may prevent it.

The following must be done prior to flame polishing:

• Keep the protective film on the acrylic if

you can
• Only use saws with closely spread teeth
• Use a guide if sawing by hand
• Always wet-sand the edges using wet
and dry sanding paper
• Do not wet-sand edges with electric
sanders as the frictional heat can cause
gumming from over-heating of the
acrylic.
• Use waterproof sandpaper
• Start off coarse, and work your way finer (from 180 to 320/360 and finally 600 grit
sandpaper)
• Take care when choosing cleaning & polishing solutions

Watch this video:

How to Flame Polish Acrylic (Plexiglass) [Link]

Vacuum forming
Vacuum forming (Thermoforming) is a sheet forming process and relies on the fact that some
thermoplastics go through a ‘rubbery’ phase when heated. The most commonly vac formed
plastics are ABS, polystyrene, acrylic, polypropylene, and PET. The process can also be used to
vac form superplastic aluminum or titanium sheet. Nylon cannot be vac formed since it has an
abrupt melting point. Thermosets cannot be vacuum formed. Used for flimsy food trays (to hold
chocolates and pies), bathtubs, shower trays, large display signs, and uPVC door facings.
Bathtubs are commonly a thin (3mm) vac formed acrylic shell for surface gloss, backed by
sprayed-on glass-reinforced polyester resin for tiffness. Vac form molds can be male or female,

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made from wood, plaster, or aluminum. Where the mold is male, the process is known as drape
forming (see figure 1 below).

Fig.1 Drape forming

Characteristics of vacuum forming

• The process is not suitable for high precision parts. A positional tolerance of +/-1.0mm is
typical.
• Vacuum formed parts will attempt to return to their original (flat) shape if heated to
softening point. This is the ‘plastic memory’ effect.
• Suitable for volumes of 10 to 10,000. Mold tools cost between R5000 (simple wood) and
R50000 (detailed aluminum). Cycle time is about 5 minutes.
• Sheet starting thicknesses in the range 0.25mm to 5.0mm are suitable.
• Minimum draft angle 2˚per face. Vertical walls should be avoided since the vacuum
formed component will grip the mold as it cools and shrinks. Undercuts cannot be
formed.
• Side walls will thin out in proportion to their depth, which must be allowed for in the
choice of starting thickness. For very deep walls, blow a ‘bubble’ first.
• Sharp corners (inside or out) cannot be formed. The minimum internal corner radius
(therefore mold external radius) is usually around Rmin = t, where t is the material
thickness. There may be material thinning on corners.
• Vents (even specks of dust) on the mold will leave marks on the component.
• Choose either a male or female mold to ensure that mold contact marks are on the non-
visible side of the component.
• Excess plastic around the periphery must be trimmed after forming.
• Holes, bosses, strengthening strips and fasteners can be added later.
Common problems encountered with vacuum forming

• Moisture absorption: absorbed moisture can expand forming bubbles within the plastic's
inner layers. This may be solved by drying the plastic for an extended period at high but
sub-melting temperature.
• Webs may form around the mould, which is due to overheating the plastic and so must be
carefully monitored. Webbing can also occur when a mould is too large, or parts of the
mould are too close together. Visit the following website on webbing and solutions to
webbing - [Link]
[Link]

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 Fig.2 Vacuum formed produced products

Watch these videos:

• Vacuum Forming Demonstration

[Link]
• The Prototype Vacuum Forming Process
[Link]
• CR Clarke Vacuum Forming Machine 1820
[Link]

Profile Cutter
Trimming vacuum-formed shells is a key process which
can be difficult to do accurately using conventional saws
or snips. This Profile Router makes the job safe, and
virtually fool proof, by using a small carbide router cutter
to cut excess material at a precise and consistent
distance from the raised moulding. The distance can be
adjusted to trim flush, or to leave a flange up to 6mm
wide. This is achieved by using an ingenious guard that
completely covers the rotating cutter but acts also as a
guide to offset the cut, and as a clamp to hold down the
moulding. Spindle control is by footswitch thus leaving both hands free to control the work piece.
The main cabinet has a port for connecting to LEV. LEV is not essential since the plastic waste
will not become airborne but is useful to maintain a tidy workspace.

Watch these videos:

• CR Clarke Profile Router 145 [Link]

• Vacuum Former 1210 [Link]

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Plug and Yoke
Sometimes it is necessary to make complex curves and shapes in plastic. To create these shapes,
you may consider using the plug and yoke press forming techniques. Trays, dishes, magazine
racks, and vases are just some of the products that may be made using the plug and yoke
technique. Thin sheet acrylic is shaped using a two-part former. One of these is the male part of
the former and the other the female part of the former. The thickness of the material must be
carefully considered. The gap between the male and female part of the former must be about one
and a half times the thickness of the plastic sheet. The male part of the former called the plug
needs to have a slight taper with rounded corners and edges. This allows the plug to be easily
removed. The acrylic or Perspex is heated in the oven until it is soft and malleable.

The female part of the former, which is called the yoke, is pushed onto the male plug. It is essential
that the two parts of the former align properly. To ensure the alignment is perfect two dowel rods
are used called locating pins. These are fixed into holes that are drilled into the corners of the
plug. The pins also fit into holes drilled into the yoke. The draw is the amount of plastic that is
pulled down to form the sides of the plastic tray or plate. The size of the plastic sheet used needs
to allow for the depth of the draw.

The stages of press forming and using a Plug and Yoke.

1. When the plastic sheet has been heated so that it is pliable it is placed or draped over the
plug.
2. The yoke is then pressed down over the plug and is held in position by attaching g-cramps
until the plastic sheet cools and 'freezes' in the newly formed shape.
3. The plastic can then be removed, and the edges can be trimmed and edge treated.
4. The image in this unit shows the finished plastic tray.

The plug and yoke cramped in position The finished press-formed product

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Traditional Wood Joints
Frame joints are suitable for timbers having roughly similar width and thickness, and include the
basic corner, tee, and cross joints such as those used in the construction of chairs, stools, tables,
windows, and door frames. Simple glued butt joints and 45°miter joints are weak and normally
require supplementary support (see below), which can be unattractive. The use of such joints is
normally avoided in domestic or office furniture and consumer product design.

Traditional cabinet-making joints have evolved over hundreds of years. They are strong and
sympathetic to movement in the wood but are relatively process intensive. With automated
processing however, complex joint geometries can be produced in moderately high volumes, so
that traditional frame joints continue to be a valid choice for mid to high grade furniture and
domestic products. These include the halving (end lap), the bridle, dovetail and wedged mortise
& tenon joints. The dowelled joint is frequently seen in conventional furniture and in flat-pack self-
assembly furniture. The configurations below can be adapted for corner (C), tee (T), or cross (X)
joints, as indicated.

The haunched mortise & tenon joint (below) is designed to allow the full depth of the cross rail
to engage with the upright (a door upright or chair leg for example) without having the mortise

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hole breaking through the top of the leg. If the top of the leg is permanently visible, a secret
(sloping) haunch can be used, to hide the haunch from view.

Mortise & Tenon

• The thickness of the tenon (t) should be roughly 1/3 x the timber thickness, and should be
matched to the nearest mortise chisel size, the common sizes being 6, 8, 10 and 12 mm.
• The length of the haunch (l) = the thickness of the tenon (t).
• The height of the tenon (h) = 2/3 x the timber rail width (W).

The mortise & tenon joint can be further modified to accommodate corner rails, paneling or
glazing, as shown below.

Consider the direction and order of assembly of parts when selecting joints for timber
components. It is all too easy to select an array of joints that prove impossible to assemble in any
order.

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Carcass (box) joints are suitable for timbers having significantly greater width than thickness,
and include the familiar lap, finger and dovetail joints seen in panel furniture, cabinets and
drawers. Some of the joints work equally well with plywood.

The corner rebate or lap joint (below) offers a slight improvement in strength over the simple butt
joint since the glue line is correspondingly longer. Mitered or butted corners may be strengthened
by dowelling, or by gluing or screwing wooden blocks to the inside faces. A more significant
increase in joint strength can be achieved by creating interlocking fingers, examples being the
comb joint and the dovetail joint. Where a dovetail joint must be hidden, for example in drawer
fronts, the lap dovetail joint (half-blind dovetail) is the traditional solution but is one of the more
complicated joints to produce.

Dovetail
• The dovetail pins (the narrow fingers) have a root width of d (normally between 6mm and
10mm, depending upon the timber thickness). Leave extra material (at least ½ x d) at the
edges to ensure the outermost pins are strong.
• S is the spacing between centres of adjacent dovetail pins. Space pins equally across the
face or create a grouped arrangement.

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• The dovetail angle at each side of a dovetail is 1:6 for softwood (9.5°), and 1:8 for hardwood
(7°).

Partitions or shelves can be joined to a carcass using housing joints, the simplest being the
through housing and the stopped housing. The dovetail housing provides greater pull-out
resistance, as does the mortise & tenon, especially if wedged, although the tenon ends will be
visible on the carcass exterior. For edge-to-edge joining, tongue & groove joints and biscuit joints
are the norm. Biscuit joints are suitable for edge-to-edge (table top) boards, frame mitres, corner
butts, drawer corners, and shelf
edges.

Biscuits.

• The 3.76 mm thick oval-shaped

biscuits come in a range of sizes,
the most popular being #0 (15 x
45mm), #10 (19 x 52mm), and #20
(24 x 58mm).
• All crescent shaped slots can be cut to the appropriate depth using the same (100mm dia.)
cutter, since all biscuit sizes have the same radius of curvature.
• The biscuits are made from beech shavings, compressed to shape.

Other carcase joints provide a good trade-off between the simplicity (but weakness) of butt and
mitre joints, and the complexity (but strength) of more traditional interlocking joints.

A button mortise (below) is used to attach a table top to its frame while allowing the top to expand
and contract with changes in humidity. Alternatively, slotted metal brackets may be used. Note
that composite wood table tops are dimensionally stable by comparison, rigid fixings being
perfectly adequate.

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• For table tops made from tangentially cut boards, mount edge butted timbers with heartwood
uppermost on alternate pieces to minimize the effect of warp (see below). This arrangement
is unnecessary in radially cut boards.
• If the boards show a climbing grain, orient them so as to allow them all to be surface planed
in the same direction after assembly.
• Note the direction of greatest expansion / contraction and align slots in any slotted fixtures
parallel to this direction to allow for movement (see below).

Artisans in the far East developed joint design to a fine art,

many wooden buildings having complex interlocking joints
designed for strength and visual appeal. The same skills have
long been used to create wooden puzzles such as the barrel
puzzle shown below, whose components can only be
assembled in one specific order. The puzzle dates from the
1950s. All components were shaped by hand and assembled
before lathe turning to create the final barrel form.

There are numerous ways to secure panels in frames.

Several traditional treatments are shown below…

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Watch this video:

Kreg K4 Jig Product Tour - [Link]

Using a Spray Gun

Painting with a sprayer takes a little practice. Try perfecting your technique on cardboard. After
you are sure you can provide nice even coverage, you can move on to painting your projects.

Temperature

Do not spray-paint when the air temperature is below 7⁰ degrees or above 24⁰ degrees. Do not
spray-paint in direct sunlight, either. Too much heat dries the paint too fast, and it will not bond
well. If it is too cold, the paint dries too slowly, attracting bugs and dirt, and the gun is more likely
to clog.

Stir Paint

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Always stir paint well and then strain it to prevent clogs in the tip or
at any internal filters. Clogging is the number-one complaint about
spray-painting.

Technique

Start moving the gun before you start spraying and keep the gun moving in long, straight strokes.
Sprayers apply paint quickly, so you must use this technique to get an even coat that does not
run. Move as fast as you would brush out a stroke, or 600mm to 900 mm per second.

When spraying a panel use alternate right and

left strokes, triggering the gun at the beginning
and end of each stroke. The spray pattern
should overlap at least one-half of the previous
stroke for even coverage without bands.

Hold the paint gun nozzle perpendicular to and

250 – 300mm away from the surface. Even a
slight change in this distance significantly
affects the amount of paint being applied: If you
hold the nozzle twice as close to the surface,
you apply four times as much paint. Avoid tilting
the sprayer downward or upward, which causes
spitting and results in an uneven application.

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Keep the nozzle perpendicular to the surface as you move it back and forth. The natural tendency
is to swing the gun in an arc, which results in an uneven "bowtie" application.

Overlap each pass half the width of the spray coverage area to avoid leaving light areas or
creating stripes.

Long Work is sprayed in sections of convenient length, each section overlapping the previous
section by approximately 100mm.

Outside Edges and Corners

Edges and Corners should be done first, spraying directly at the corner
to catch both surfaces with one stroke of the gun. The centre is sprayed
like a plain panel.

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Inside Corners

Spraying directly into the corner gives an uneven coating but is satisfactory for most work.

Round Work

Round work should be treated to curve the strokes to conform with the surface.

Avoid excessive overspray - adjust the spray pattern to fit the job. The centre illustration shows
the best method for most work.

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Watch these videos:

• How to Spray: Helpful Tips Before Using Your Paint Sprayer

[Link]
• How to setup your spray gun
[Link]

Casting Processes
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material
is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity
of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or
broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting
materials are usually metals or various time setting materials
that cure after mixing two or more components together;
examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster, and clay. Casting is
most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to
make by other methods. Heavy equipment like machine tool beds, ships' propellers, etc. can be
cast easily in the required size, rather than fabricating by joining several small pieces.

Silicone Casting
Silicone is perfectly suited as a
material for casting moulds, as it acts
as a natural release agent. Because
of this and because silicone is very
flexible, the resin can be easily
removed from the mould after curing.

To make a silicone mould yourself,

you need silicone rubber. This soft
compound, which hardens relatively
quickly, is available in specialist
shops. After curing, the silicone is
elastic. Its brittleness depends on
the chosen degree of hardness. If it
is overstretched, cracks or fractures
will occur in the material.

Silicone rubber is available in several degrees of hardness. These are specified in Shore,
whereby a low value stands for high elasticity and a high value for low elasticity:

• A Shore of 0 – 20 stands for a high flexibility and therefore soft, but quite unstable
material.
• The value 20 – 40 denotes a medium elasticity. The material is not only flexible, but also
relatively dimensionally stable.

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 • A Shore value of 40 – 80 stands for a material that is hardly elastic and therefore rather
hard. It is more resistant to stress but is also quite brittle.

The degree of hardness depends on the project which is to some extent a matter of trial and
error. The softer the material, the easier it is to release the workpiece from the mould. However,
due to the high elasticity and low brittleness the mould is very unstable. The opposite is the
case with a solid mould: workpieces are not so easy to release, and you must be careful that the
brittle silicone does not break. However, casting moulds with a high Shore value are of course
easier to handle because they are less mobile and do not deform as easily.

The heat resistance as well as the food safety are important if you want to bake or make chocolate
with your own mould. Make sure that it is heat resistant up to 200° C. Other criteria should be
checked, depending on the type of your project: The resistance of the material to chemicals. It
should also be resistant if you work with epoxy resin, concrete, or other casting materials. You
can find out whether the silicone meets your requirements by asking your specialist dealer or
consulting the technical data sheet.

Visit the website [Link] to learn more about the

Basics of Mold Making How‑To's.

Watch these videos:

• How to Make a 2 Piece Silicone Rubber Mold

[Link]
• How to Cast Resin Using Smooth-Cast
[Link]

Split pattern sand casting

Used to form metals such as cast iron,
aluminium and brass. A pattern is made from
timber such as MDF or Jelutong. The pattern is
made in two halves and attached to a board.
The pattern is sandwiched between open boxes
called a cope and drag. A special oil-bound
sand is used to fill each box. One of the boxes
also contains two tapered wooden pegs which
will form the pouring spouts. The pattern is
removed, and the space is filled with molten
metal.

Watch this video:

Sand Casting Lesson for beginners

[Link]

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Lost pattern casting
Used to form metals such as aluminium into
complete forms which would not be possible with
split pattern casting. A pattern is made from
polystyrene foam. The foam is buried into the sand
and pouring spouts and risers are added. The
molten metal is poured into the mould and instantly
burns away the polystyrene foam, filling the space
with molten metal. Toxic fumes which are produced
by this method must be extracted. A more
sophisticated version of this process is used by
jewellers to produce rings and brooches – lost wax
casting or manufacturing from rapid prototypes.

Watch this video:

Lost Foam Casting: EASY reliable technique - [Link]

Industrial Die Casting

Die casting is used to manufacture large
quantities of metal products. Alloys which have a
lower melting point such as pewter, aluminium
alloys and zinc alloys can be used. The mould is
created by spark eroding the form required into
two blocks of steel. The mould is water cooled to
control the temperature. The metal is heated in a
crucible until molten. A hydraulic ram pushes a
quantity of the molten metal into the mould.
Pressure is maintained until the metal has cooled
enough before the mould is opened.

Watch these videos:

• Electric Discharge Machining Process (Spark Erosion) –

[Link]
• What is the Die Casting Process?
[Link]

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Replicating Die Casting (Pewter Casting)

Die casting can be replicated using pewter melted with an electric paint stripper gun or a
blowlamp. The mould can be machined out of MDF or blocks of polyurethane foam using a CNC
milling machine or laser cutter.

What is Pewter?

Pewter is an ALLOY which means it is composed of more than one metal. Most modern pewter
is composed of 96% tin and 4% copper although there are many variations. It is a soft metal and
can be shaped easily by hand tools and machine tools. Due to its low melting point (approximately
230° C) it is suitable for casting. It is a bright material, which makes it popular for the manufacture
of ‘silverware’ such as tankards, candlesticks and even jewellery.

Pewter can be purchased as ingots and a typical ingot is shown below. Because pewter is
malleable (soft) it can be cut with a hacksaw easily. When preparing to cast pewter small pieces
of approximately 60mm in length are cut. This size will fit comfortably in the ‘bowl’ of a casting
ladle, ready for casting.

Ingot

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Before casting can take place, a mould must
be made. Moulds can be made from a range
of materials including MDF, steel, silica sand
or even oil-based casting sands such as
‘petrabond’. In colleges, MDF is an ideal
material and moulds made from this material
can be reused a small number of times. An
example of a mould is seen below. It has two
parts, and they are held together with wire
or small cramps.

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Pewter does not have a high, glossy finish, but rather, it has a satin finish

Pewter Silver

Watch this video:

Pewter Casting a Letter using 2D Design A - [Link]

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References:
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link], F2: Design in Plastics

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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