21EEE51
Power Electronics
Credits: 3:0:0
Module : 5 Industrial Applications
Course Instructor
Dr. Vinoth Kumar. K [Link]., Ph.D., SMIEEE
Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
1
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)
UPS stands for Uninterruptible Power Supply.
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is an electrical device used to provide
emergency electrical power to different electrical loads in the case of a main power
supply failure.
A UPS or uninterruptible power supply uses batteries and
supercapacitors to store electrical energy and delivers this stored
electrical energy when the main input power supply fails. However,
a typical UPS battery can supply electrical power for a short
duration. Hence, UPSs are mostly used as short run time backup
power sources for small loads. 2
Primary Function of a UPS
When there is any failure in the main power supply from the utility, the UPS
supplies emergency power to the load for a short duration of time. This is the
primary function of a UPS. Modern UPSs can also provide protection against
electrical faults such as short-circuit, voltage fluctuations, low voltage,
instability of mains frequency, etc.
Types of UPS
Rotary UPS Static UPS
3
Major Parts of an UPS
Battery − The battery works as the energy storage unit in the UPS system. It
provides the stored electrical energy for a sufficient amount of time during main
power failure.
Rectifier or Charger Circuit − It converts the supply voltage of 240 VAC into
12 V (or any other battery voltage) DC. It supplies this rectified DC power to the
battery for storage.
Inverter − It converts the DC output power of the battery into ac power to
supply the load during mains power failure.
Static Switch − It is a semiconductor device such as a thyristor which transfers
the load from the utility to the inverter (and the inverter to the utility) without any
interruption in the power supply to the load.
4
Background:
5
Rotary UPS System
The electricity generation by the turning
of the flywheel supplies the power to load
for its rated backup time. Thus, the stored
mechanical energy in the flywheel allows
the M-G set to deliver its full-rated output
for a minimum of 200 milliseconds. 6
Merits of Rotary UPS Systems
✓ They are more energy-efficient.
✓ Efficiency in the range of 95-97%. although more expensive.
✓ Rotary UPS systems are less likely to fail.
✓ They are available in higher capacities and the possibility of generating higher voltages
(with power ranges from 200kW to 3000kW).
✓ By installing equipment in parallel, the Rotary systems can reach up to 40MW.
✓ In rotary UPS, we can replace the batteries by a kinetic storage system, and they have an
electric motor/generator that transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice
versa.
✓ During their operation, the stored energy of rotary UPSs supply power to load in the event
of a failure or outage, although to protect ourselves against power outages we must have
a coupled diesel or gas engine.
Demerits of Rotary UPS Systems
✓ They suppose a higher cost, use of space (for low autonomies)
✓ Static UPS systems generate noise.
✓ They are more expensive.
✓ They need auxiliary elements such as climate motors, pumps, ventilation grilles, etc.
7
Static UPS System
Static UPS does not have any rotary parts (except cooling
fans). The static UPS system has batteries and an inverter.
When power fails, the static switch transfers the load on the inverter
and now the inverter supplies power to the load. The inverter takes
the DC power from the batteries and converts it to AC voltage.
The inverter transfers the load to a static switch after the restoration
of the primary power source. And, thus the batteries start charging
again through the primary power source. 8
Merits of Static UPS Systems
✓ Static UPSs have their widespread application.
✓ There is a possibility of expansion according to our needs
✓ Static UPS systems require a lower initial investment.
✓ Can expand the UPS system in a modular way, even working in parallel.
✓ Operating cost studies show that rotating UPS systems are cheaper to
maintain.
Drawbacks of Static UPS
✓ The static UPSs have a large number of elements. therefore its failure
chances are more.
✓ In turn, they also need auxiliary elements: Climate, cleaning, batteries.
✓ They cope less with short-circuit intensity than the dynamic ones.
✓ They need to have air conditioning systems since their ideal working
temperature ranges between 20° C -25 ° C.
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Types of Static UPS:
The static UPS are of two types:
1. Short-break UPS
In short-break UPS, the load gets disconnected from the power source for a short duration of
the order of 4 to 5 ms. For this period, no supply is available to the load.
2. No-break UPS
In no-break UPS, load gets continuous uninterrupted power supply from the power source.
There is no any interruption in power supply in no-break UPS. Such UPS are mostly used for
large computer installation. In computer installation, a break of power supply of the order of 4
to 5ms is not tolerable at all and hence no-break UPS is the right choice for such
applications.
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1 Short-Break UPS and its Working
Under normal operating condition, normally ON contacts are closed and normally OFF contacts are open. Therefore,
the power supply to load is extended via main AC supply under normal condition.
However, in case of power outage, normally OFF contacts become closed & normally ON contacts become open. This
changeover takes time of 4-5 ms. Hence, during this period, load is neither connected to the main AC source (main AC
is not available due to power outage) nor the inverter output. Once normally OFF contact becomes closed, load
received power from the inverter and filter. 11
2 No-break UPS and its Working:
In no-break UPS, load gets continuous uninterrupted power supply from the power source.
There is no any interruption in power supply in this uninterruptible power supply system.
In this system, main AC supply is rectified and the rectifier delivers power to maintain the required charge on the batteries. Rectifier also supplies
power to the inverter continuously which in turn extend power to the load through filter and normally ON switch. Thus, the load is connected to the
inverter all the time. This simply means that, power supply to the load is extended from battery power. Though battery receives power from main AC
supply but in the event of power outage, the battery will deliver power to the load without interruption as per its rated capacity.
Rated capacity of batter is given in terms of AH (Ampere Hour). If this is 20AH, this means battery can deliver 2 A of current for 10 hours or 4 A of
12
current for 5 hours or 10 A of current for 2 hours.
India ‘s Top UPS Industries
2. Genus
1. Su Kam 3. Microtek 4. Delta Power
Power
Power system International solution India
infrastructure
Ltd Pvt Ltd Ltd
Ltd
6. Hitachi Hi-
5. Amara Raja 7.V-Guard 8. Consul
Rel Power
electronics Industries Consolidated
electronics
Ltd Ltd Ltd
Pvt Ltd
10. Uniline
9. Reilo PCI energy [Link]
11. Aplab Ltd
India Pvt Ltd system Pvt India Pvt Ltd
Ltd
1/31/2024 13
STABILIZER
A Stabilizer is a device used to maintain something or a quantity steady or stable.
There are different types of stabilizers based on the quantity they are used for maintaining stability.
For example, a stabilizer used for maintaining the voltage quantity stable in a power system is called as voltage stabilizer.
A voltage stabilizer is
an electrical appliance used to feed
constant voltage current
to electrical gadgets like ACs and
computers, and protects them from
damage due to voltage fluctuations.
1/31/2024 KVK/EEE/SES/KU/CBE 14
Stabilizer Applications
Air
Television Conditioner
Washing
Refrigerator Machine,
Microwave
Oven
Water
Computer Pump
1/31/2024 15
16
HVDC - Introduction
• A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also called a
power superhighway or an electrical superhighway) uses direct current (DC) for the
transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more common alternating current (AC)
systems.
(or)
• High voltage direct current (HVDC) power systems use D.C. for transmission of bulk
power over long distances. For long-distance power transmission, HVDC lines are less
expensive, and losses are less as compared to AC transmission. It interconnects the
networks that have different frequencies and characteristics.
• In AC transmission, alternating waves of voltage and current travels in the line which change
its direction every millisecond; due to which losses occur in the form of heat. Unlike AC lines,
the voltage and current waves don’t change their direction in DC. HVDC lines increase the
efficiency of transmission lines due to which power is rapidly transferred.
• In a combined AC and DC system, generated AC voltage is converted into DC at the sending
end. Then, the DC voltage is inverted to AC at the receiving end, for distribution purposes.
Thus, the conversion and inversion equipment are also needed at the two ends of the line.
HVDC transmission is economical only for long distance transmission lines having a length
more than 600kms and for underground cables of length more than 50kms. 17
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How does HVDC transmission system work?
• In generating substation, AC power is generated which can be converted into DC by using a rectifier. In HVDC
substation or converter substation rectifiers and inverters are placed at both the ends of a line. The rectifier
terminal changes the AC to DC, while the inverter terminal converts DC to AC.
• The DC is flowing with the overhead lines and at the user end again DC is converted into AC by using inverters,
which are placed in converter substation. The power remains the same at the sending and receiving ends of the
line. DC is transmitted over long distances because it decreases the losses and improves the efficiency.
A system having more than two converter stations and one transmission line is called a ‘two terminal DC
system’ or a ‘point-to-point system’. Similarly, if substation has more than two converter stations and
interconnecting DC terminal lines, it is called multiterminal DC substation. 20
Advantages of HVDC transmissions
1. A lesser number of conductors and insulators are required thereby reducing the cost of the overall system.
2. It requires less phase to phase and ground to ground clearance.
3. Their towers are less costly and cheaper.
4. Lesser corona loss is less as compared to HVAC transmission lines of similar power.
5. Power loss is reduced with DC because fewer numbers of lines are required for power transmission.
6. The HVDC system uses earth return. If any fault occurs in one pole, the other pole with ‘earth returns’ behaves like an independent
circuit. This results in a more flexible system.
7. The HVDC has the asynchronous connection between two AC stations connected through an HVDC link; i.e., the transmission of
power is independent of sending frequencies to receiving end frequencies. Hence, it interconnects two substations with different
frequencies.
8. Due to the absence of frequency in the HVDC line, losses like skin effect and proximity effect does not occur in the system.
9. It does not generate or absorb any reactive power. So, there is no need for reactive power compensation.
10. The very accurate and lossless power flows through DC link.
Disadvantages of HVDC transmission
1. Converter substations are placed at both the sending and the receiving end of the transmission lines, which result in increasing the
cost.
2. Inverter and rectifier terminals generate harmonics which can be reduced by using active filters which are also very expensive.
3. If a fault occurs in the AC substation, it may result in a power failure for the HVDC substation placed near to it
4. Inverter used in Converter substations have limited overload capacity.
5. Circuit breakers are used in HVDC for circuit breaking, which is also very expensive.
6. It does not have transformers for changing the voltage levels.
7. Heat loss occurs in converter substation, which has to be reduced by using the active cooling system.
8. HVDC link itself is also very complicated.
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Basic Layout for HVDC transmission
22
Types of HVDC Link
1. Monopolar Link
2. Bipolar Link
23
Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
• A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that
converts power using switching devices that are turned on and off at high
frequencies, and storage components such as inductors or capacitors to
supply power when the switching device is in its non-conduction state.
• Switching power supplies have high efficiency and are widely used in a
variety of electronic equipment, including computers and other sensitive
equipment requiring stable and efficient power supply.
• A switched-mode power supply is also known as a switch-mode power
supply or switching-mode power supply.
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Switched-mode power supplies are classified according to the type of input and output voltages. The
four major categories are:
• AC to DC
• DC to DC
• DC to AC
• AC to AC
A basic isolated AC to DC switched-mode power supply consists of:
1. Input rectifier and filter
2. Inverter consisting of switching devices such as MOSFETs
3. Transformer
4. Output rectifier and filter
5. Feedback and control circuit
The input DC supply from a rectifier or battery is fed to the inverter where it is turned on and off at high
frequencies of between 20 KHz and 200 KHz by the switching MOSFET or power transistors. The high-frequency
voltage pulses from the inverter are fed to the transformer primary winding, and the secondary AC output is
rectified and smoothed to produce the required DC voltages. A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and
instructs the control circuit to adjust the duty cycle to maintain the output at the desired level.
There are different circuit configurations known as topologies, each having unique characteristics, advantages and
modes of operation, which determines how the input power is transferred to the output.
Most of the commonly used topologies such as flyback, push-pull, half bridge and full bridge, consist of a
transformer to provide isolation, voltage scaling, and multiple output voltages. The non-isolated configurations do
not have a transformer and the power conversion is provided by the inductive energy transfer.
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Advantages of switched-mode power supplies:
1. Higher efficiency of 68% to 90%
2. Regulated and reliable outputs regardless of variations in input supply voltage
3. Small size and lighter
4. Flexible technology
5. High power density
Disadvantages of switched-mode power supplies:
1. Generates electromagnetic interference
2. Complex circuit design
3. Expensive compared to linear supplies
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Fly back converter
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Push-Pull converter
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Half Bridge converter
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Full Bridge converter
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Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)
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Static VAR Compensators
Introduction
➢ A static VAR compensator (SVC) is a set of electrical devices
for providing fast-acting reactive power on high-voltage
electricity transmission networks. SVCs are part of the
flexible AC transmission system device family, regulating
voltage, power factor, harmonics and stabilizing the system.
➢ A static VAR compensator is a parallel combination
of controlled reactor and fixed shunt capacitor
shown in the figure.
➢ The thyristor switch assembly in the SVC controls
the reactor.
➢ The firing angle of the thyristor controls the voltage
across the inductor and thus the current flowing
through the inductor. In this way, the reactive power
draw by the inductor can be controlled.
37
SVCs are used • Connected to the power system, to regulate
the transmission voltage ("transmission SVC")
in two main • Connected near large industrial loads, to
situations: improve power quality ("industrial SVC")
38
One-line diagram of a typical SVC configuration
39
The SVC is capable of step less adjustment of reactive power over an
unlimited range without any time delay. It improves the system stability
and system power factor. Most commonly used SVC scheme are as
follows.
1. Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)
2. Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC)
3. Self Reactor (SR)
4. Thyristor controlled reactor – Fixed capacitor (TCR-FC)
5. Thyristor-switched capacitor – Thyristor controlled reactor (TSC-
TCR)
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Construction of SVC
✓ Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR): The TCR is a reactor
that is connected in parallel with the power transmission line. It
is controlled by a thyristor device, which regulates the inductive
reactive power.
✓ Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC): The TSC is a capacitor
that is also connected in parallel with the power transmission
line. It is controlled by thyristor devices, which regulate the
capacitive reactive power.
✓ Filters and Reactors: used to eliminate the harmonic in the
power system.
✓ Control System: The control system of the SVC is responsible
for monitoring the voltage and current in the power transmission
line and controlling the TCR and TSC to maintain the desired
voltage level and power factor. The control system typically
includes a microprocessor-based controller, which receives
signals from sensors and sends signals to the thyristor devices
to adjust the reactive power injection or absorption.
✓ Auxiliary Components: The SVC may also include other
auxiliary components, such as filters, transformers, and
protective devices, to ensure proper operation and protection of
the system. 41
Design
42
In the one-line configuration of the SVC, through the PAM type of modulation by the thyristors,
the reactor might be shifter internal to the circuit and this shows a constantly variable type of
VAR to the electrical system. In this mode, extended levels of voltages are regulated by the
capacitors and this is mostly known for providing efficient control. So, the TCR mode provides
good control and enhanced reliability. And the thyristors can be regulated in an electronic way.
In the same way as semiconductors, thyristors also deliver heat and for cooling purposes,
deionized water is used. Here, when the slicing of reactive load into the circuit takes place,
brings in unwanted kind of harmonics, and in order to restrict this, a high range of filters are
generally used to smooth out the wave. As there is capacitive functionality in the filters, they also
will spread out MVAR to the power circuit. The block diagram is shown as below:
43
Advantages of static VAR compensator
1. The power transmission ability for the transmission lines can be enhanced through these SVC
devices
2. The system’s transient strength can also be increased through the implementation of SVC’s
3. In the case of a high range of voltages and for controlling steady states, SVC is generally used
which is one of the foremost advantages
4. SVC increases the load power rating and so the line losses will be decreased and system efficiency
enhances.
Disadvantages of static VAR compensator
1. As the device has no revolutionary parts, for the implementation of surge impedance
compensation, additional equipment is needed
2. The size of the device is heavy
3. Deliberate dynamic response
4. The device is not suitable to employ for the regulation of voltage up and downs because
of furnace loads
44
Applications of SVRs
1. SVCs are commonly used in high-voltage transmission systems
and large industrial plants, where fluctuations in load demand can
cause voltage instability and other power quality issues. They can
help to improve power system stability, increase power transfer
capability, and reduce losses in the electrical grid.
2. SVR is used for surge impedance compensation and to
compensate for long transmission lines by sectionalizing them.
3. Improve the overall power factor for smooth and stable power
system.
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Interconnection of Renewable Energy Sources and Energy Storage
Systems to the Utility Grid, Active Filters
Introduction
A grid-connected system allows you to power your home or small business with
renewable energy during those periods (daily as well as seasonally) when the sun is
shining, the water is running, or the wind is blowing. Any excess electricity you
produce is fed back into the grid. When renewable resources are unavailable,
electricity from the grid supplies your needs, eliminating the expense of electricity
storage devices like batteries.
In addition, power providers (i.e., electric utilities) in most states allow net metering,
an arrangement where the excess electricity generated by grid-connected renewable
energy systems "turns back" your electricity meter as it is fed back into the grid. If you
use more electricity than your system feeds into the grid during a given month, you
pay your power provider only for the difference between what you used and what you
produced.
46
Some of the things you need to know when thinking about connecting your home energy
system to the electric grid include:
1. Equipment required to connect your system to the grid
2. Grid-connection requirements from your power provider
3. State and community codes and requirements
47
Equipment Required for Grid-Connected
Systems
Aside from the major small renewable energy system components, you will need to purchase some
additional equipment (called "balance-of-system") in order to safely transmit electricity to your loads
and comply with your power provider's grid-connection requirements. You may need the following
items:
1. Power conditioning equipment
2. Safety equipment
3. Meters and instrumentation.
Because grid-connection requirements vary, you or your system supplier/installer should contact your
power provider to learn about its specific grid-connection requirements before purchasing any part of
your renewable energy system. See our page on balance-of-system equipment requirements for small
renewable energy systems.
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Grid-Connection Requirements from Your Power Provider
Currently, requirements for connecting distributed generation systems—like home
renewable energy or wind systems—to the electricity grid vary widely. But all power
providers face a common set of issues in connecting small renewable energy systems to
the grid, so regulations usually have to do with safety and power quality, contracts (which
may require liability insurance), and metering and rates.
You will need to contact your power provider directly to learn about its specific
requirements. If your power provider does not have an individual assigned to deal with
grid-connection requests, try contacting your state utilities commission, state utility
consumer advocate group (represents the interests of consumers before state and federal
regulators and in the courts), state consumer representation office, or state energy office.
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Addressing Safety and Power Quality for Grid Connection
• Power providers want to be sure that your system includes safety and power quality components.
These components include switches to disconnect your system from the grid in the event of a
power surge or power failure (so repairmen are not electrocuted) and power conditioning
equipment to ensure that your power exactly matches the voltage and frequency of the electricity
flowing through the grid.
• In an attempt to address safety and power quality issues, several organizations are developing
national guidelines for equipment manufacture, operation, and installation (your
supplier/installer, a local renewable energy organization, or your power provider will know which
of the standards apply to your situation, and how to implement them):
1. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has written a standard that
addresses all grid-connected distributed generation including renewable energy systems. IEEE
1547-2003 provides technical requirements and tests for grid-connected operation. See the IEEE
Standards Coordinating Committee on Fuel Cells, Photovoltaics, Dispersed Generation, and
Energy Storage for more information.
2. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) has developed UL 1741 to certify inverters, converters, charge
controllers, and output controllers for power-producing stand-alone and grid-connected
renewable energy systems. UL 1741 verifies that inverters comply with IEEE 1547 for grid-
connected applications.
3. The National Electrical Code (NEC), a product of the National Fire Protection Association, deals
with electrical equipment and wiring safety. 51
Metering and Rate Arrangements for Grid-Connected Systems
Here are the metering arrangements you are likely to encounter:
1. Net purchase and sale -- Under this arrangement, two uni-directional meters are installed:
one records electricity drawn from the grid, and the other records excess electricity generated
and fed back into the grid. You pay retail rate for the electricity you use, and the power
provider purchases your excess generation at its avoided cost (wholesale rate). There may be
a significant difference between the retail rate you pay and the power provider's avoided cost.
2. Net metering -- Net metering provides the greatest benefit to you as a consumer. Under this
arrangement, a single, bi-directional meter is used to record both electricity you draw from
the grid and the excess electricity your system feeds back into the grid. The meter spins
forward as you draw electricity, and it spins backward as the excess is fed into the grid. If, at
the end of the month, you've used more electricity than your system has produced, you pay
retail price for that extra electricity. If you've produced more than you've used, the power
provider generally pays you for the extra electricity at its avoided cost. The real benefit of net
metering is that the power provider essentially pays you retail price for the electricity you feed
back into the grid.
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Active Filters
1. Active power filters are power electronic devices dedicated to improving the quality
of the electrical energy and the efficiency of its use
2. Active filters are a type of electronic filter that uses active components, including
op-amps and transistors. They actually work with passive components as well, like
resistors and capacitors, but not inductors. Compared to passive filters, their design
is complex and they tend to be more expensive.
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Filters are electronic circuits that allow certain frequency components and / or reject
some other. You might have come across filters in network theory tutorial. They are
passive and are the electric circuits or networks that consist of passive elements like
resistor, capacitor, and (or) an inductor.
Types of Active Filters
Active filters are the electronic circuits, which consist of active element like op-
amp(s) along with passive elements like resistor(s) and capacitor(s).
Active filters are mainly classified into the following four types based on the band of
frequencies that they are allowing and / or rejecting −
1. Active Low Pass Filter
2. Active High Pass Filter
3. Active Band Pass Filter
4. Active Band Stop Filter 54
Active Low Pass Filter
If an active filter allows (passes) only low frequency components and rejects
(blocks) all other high frequency components, then it is called as an active low
pass filter.
55
Active High Pass Filter
If an active filter allows (passes) only high frequency components and
rejects (blocks) all other low frequency components, then it is called
an active high pass filter.
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Active Band Pass Filter
If an active filter allows (passes) only one band of frequencies, then it is called
as an active band pass filter. In general, this frequency band lies between low
frequency range and high frequency range. So, active band pass filter rejects
(blocks) both low and high frequency components.
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Active Band Stop Filter
If an active filter rejects (blocks) a particular band of frequencies, then it is
called as an active band stop filter. In general, this frequency band lies
between low frequency range and high frequency range. So, active band
stop filter allows (passes) both low and high frequency components.
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Advantages of Active Filters
1. No resonance issues.
2. No loading problems.
3. Can eliminate any harmonics.
4. More responsible than passive filters
5. Zero insertion loss.
Disadvantages of Active Filters
1. They can be expensive.
2. They have a complex control system.
3. Limited frequency range.
4. Requires DC power supply.
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